Lecture 1

Definition: Surroundings including air, water, land, and their relationships.

Roles: Sustains life, provides resources, maintains balance.

Impact of Human Activities: Pollution, deforestation, climate change.

Environmental Science
Definition: Studies human population growth, resource use, pollution, biodiversity, and the
biosphere.

Goals: Discover principles to understand and predict natural changes.

Conservation Efforts: Protect and restore the environment.

Scientific Method
Definition: Systematic observation, measurement, experiment, and hypothesis testing.

Biosphere
Definition: Earth's zone supporting life, including atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere.
Interaction between living organisms and atmosphere like respiration and photosynthesis.

Components:

 Atmosphere: Provides oxygen, regulates temperature.

 Hydrosphere: Includes all forms of water, supports life. Essential for supporting various life
forms, providing habitat and influencing climate patterns.
 Biosphere: region above or below support
 Lithosphere: Earth's crust and upper mantle, supports ecosystems. Rigid outer layer.

Good interaction between lithosphere and biosphere, for formation of different ecosystems.

Properties and Origin of Life

Properties: Organization, metabolism, growth, adaptation, response to stimuli, reproduction,
homeostasis.

Origin Hypotheses: Abiogenesis (life from non-living matter), Panspermia (life from
elsewhere in the universe, not from the earth).

Evolution of Life
Definition: Gradual change in organisms through mutation, natural selection, genetic drift,
gene flow.

Evidence: Fossil record, comparative anatomy, molecular biology.

Taxonomy
Definition: Classifying organisms based on characteristics and relationships.

System: Domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species.

Lecture 2
Lithosphere
Definition: Solid material making up the Earth's crust and upper mantle rocks, minerals etc.
Components:
 Matter: Rocks, minerals, and elements.
 Minerals: Inorganic substances with specific chemical compositions and crystal structures,
essential for geological features and processes like weathering and erosion.
 Rocks: Composed of minerals, forming the lithosphere's rigid outer layer.
Types of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks: Formed from cooling magma or lava (e.g., granite, basalt).
2. Sedimentary Rocks: Formed from accumulated and cementation of sediments (e.g.,
limestone, sandstone).
3. Metamorphic Rocks: Altered by heat, pressure, or fluids (e.g., marble, schist).
Rock Cycle
 Describes transformations between rock types influenced by erosion, heat, and pressure.
Earth's Layers
1. Core: Hot, molten metals, mainly iron and nickel. 3500km diameter.
2. Mantle: Semi-liquid magma containing light elements like silicon, oxygen, and magnesium.
3. Lithosphere: Rigid, outermost layer, about 80 km thick, includes granitic and sedimentary
rocks.
4. Crust: Earth's surface layer.
Geological Dynamics
 Tectonic Forces: Affect mineral composition and surface features, causing earthquakes,
volcanoes, and mountain formation. Structural deformation of rocks and minerals.
 Plate Tectonics: Plates interact at boundaries (divergent, convergent, transform) driven by
convection currents in the mantle. Caused because of the heat generated in the earth’s interior.
Divergent : plates moves apart from each other and leads to the formation of magma,
Convergent: plates moves towards each other and leads to the formation of deep oceans
tranches and volcanic arcs.
Transformation boundaries: plates slide past each other horizontally and leads to earth
quake.
Plates moves due to conviction currents in the semi fluid asthenosphere beneath the rigid
lithosphere. As the hot material rises and cooler material sinks in the mantle its sets the plate
in motion
Soil Ecosystem
 Definition: Dynamic environment supporting life through nutrient cycling, water purification,
and habitat provision. Organisms interact with each other and their surroundings forming a
vital component of earth’s biosphere.
 Components: Organic matter, microorganisms, minerals, plants, fauna (intersects, worms
organisms contribute to the nutrient cycling and physical structure of the soil.
 Soil Pollution: Caused by industrial activities, agricultural practices (pesticides) , waste
disposal, mining, and natural sources (lead , mercury).
Glaciation
 Definition: Extensive ice sheet advance due to global cooling, causing erosion and sediment
transport. Formed when a steep, persistent snow pack when compressed into ice.
 Processes: Weathering (breaking down rocks) and erosion (removal and transport of debris).
 Impact: Erosion shapes landscapes, forming peneplains and depositing materials in oceans
through sedimentation.
Even geological features as immense as mountains are slowly eroded away, with their
enormous mass gradually descending to be deposited in lower regions.

Lecture 3
The Hydrosphere
Definition: Portion of Earth containing water (H2O) including oceans, atmosphere, land
surface, and underground.
Hydrologic Cycle: Movement of water among reservoirs (oceans, land, atmosphere,
underground) on local and global scales. Generally, global scale is in equilibrium, while local
scale can experience variations like floods and droughts.
Artesian Aquifer: Water naturally rises to the surface without human intervention , confined
between layers of impermeable rocks and permeable rock.
Water Compartments and Proportions
1. Oceans: 97.4% of Earth's water.
2. Land Surface Water: 2.3%, mostly in glaciers (Antarctica, Greenland), lakes, rivers,
streams.
3. Groundwater: 0.32%, found in shallow regions, accessed by plant roots or drainage into
lakes/streams.
4. Atmospheric Water: 0.001%, mostly as gas, vapor, or solid crystals (clouds, dew, frost).
Processes
 Evaporation: 86% from oceans, rest from land (surface water, moist soil, rocks, vegetation).
Transpiration is evaporation from plants.
 Precipitation: deposition of Water from the atmosphere falls as rain, snow, or hail.
Condensation forms dew, frost.
 Orographic Precipitation: Higher in mountainous regions near oceans.
 Surface Runoff: Water returns to oceans via gravitational flow.
 Groundwater Drainage: Water infiltrates, moves laterally to surface waters or accumulates
as deep groundwater. It can be later used by the plant roots transpired into the atmosphere.
Eutrophication water (high nutrient), oligotrophic (low nutrient), matrotrophic (medium
nutrient). Sewage treatment: adopted to reduce the input of pathogenic microorganisms to
receive water or to part of water. Human sewage 10*10^9 t/y. water must treated before
discharged into the aquatic ecosystem.
Usage and Issues
 Essential for: Metabolic needs, agriculture, industry, recreation.
 Pollution: Overuse and pollution degrade water quality and biological resources.
Sewage Treatment
 Primary Treatment: Screens and settles raw sewage, removes 40-60% solids, 25-40% BOD
(Biological Oxygen Demand).
 Secondary Treatment: Uses biotechnology to reduce BOD by stimulating microbial
decomposition.
 Tertiary Treatment: Removes dissolved nutrients, especially phosphorus, through chemical
processes.
 Challenges: Treating livestock manure and municipal sewage, especially in coastal and
inland areas.
Changes in Fisheries
 Lake Erie Example: Stable total catch despite changes in species, technology, and
environmental quality.
 Improvement: Sewage treatment reduced phosphorus loading, enhancing fish populations
and ecosystem health.
 Zebra Mussel Invasion: Increased water clarity but displaced native species and clogged
intake pipes.
 Stressors: Eutrophication, habitat damage, overfishing, pollution, alien species introduction.
Dams and Impoundments
Definition: Structures that contain flowing water, forming lakes.

Lecture 4
The Atmosphere and Climate
The Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is a layer of gases surrounding Earth, held by gravity.
 It has four layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere.
 Troposphere (8-20 km above the surface) is thicker at the equator, thinner at poles, and has
convective currents causing weather.
 Stratosphere (up to 50 km) has stable temperatures due to lack of convective currents.

Composition and Dynamics

 The atmosphere is mainly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), with argon (0.9%) and carbon
dioxide (0.04%).
 It is dynamic, varying over time and space, influencing weather and climate.

Climate and Weather

 Climate refers to long-term atmospheric conditions like temperature, precipitation, and wind
patterns over decades.
 Weather is short-term, day-to-day atmospheric conditions.
 Climate impacts ecological development, with macroclimate affecting large areas and
microclimate influenced by local features.
 Temperature is relatively warm in tropical latitudes and at lower altitude in mountainous
terrain, while it is cooler at high latitude and high altitude.

Climate Data
 Climate data includes monthly averages of temperature and precipitation.

Climate Change
 The Greenhouse Effect maintains Earth's temperature, but increased CO2 is intensifying this
effect, potentially causing significant climatic and ecological changes. 15 to 33 Celsius.
 Global temperatures have risen by over 0.8°C in the past 150 years, with recent decades being
the warmest since 1850.
 Future simulations suggest doubling CO2 of about 400ppm. could raise temperatures by 1-
4°C, especially in high-latitude regions.

Ecological and Societal Impacts

 Changes in precipitation (any kind of weather condition where something falling from the
sky, like rain, snow) and temperature can alter soil moisture, affecting vegetation and
 ecosystems (heat waves, drought, flood, cyclones) ,by melting of snow changes the
hydrological systems
 Extreme weather events like droughts and floods can impact ecosystems and human societies,
especially the poor.
 Adaptation to climate change is increasing, integrating into planning and policies.(disaster
risk management and water management).
 Air temperature is extremely variable over time and space and the unfavorable signal. But the
climate change due to increase in temperature will not affect the plant that cause heat related
stress.

Conclusion
 Climate change poses significant risks, with adaptation and mitigation strategies being crucial
to manage its impacts. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reviews and
guides policies to address these challenges

Lecture 5
Environmental Systems: An Overview
Earth: An Energy Flow-Through System
 Solar Energy: Heats the planet, circulates the atmosphere and oceans, evaporates water, and
sustains ecological productivity.
 Energy Balance: Earth re-radiates absorbed solar energy back to space as longer wavelength
electromagnetic radiation, maintaining a balance with no long-term net storage.
The Carbon Cycle
 Photosynthesis: Plants and algae use CO2 from the atmosphere to synthesize organic
compounds, supporting growth and respiration.
 Food Webs: Autotroph biomass is consumed by heterotrophs, passing through food webs,
and all organisms release CO2 during respiration.
 Decomposition: Releases CO2 and CH4, especially under anaerobic conditions.
 Fossil Fuels: Form from accumulated organic matter under specific geological conditions.
 Oceanic CO2: Dissolves in water, forming bicarbonate ions used by marine organisms to
build calcium carbonate shells, eventually forming limestone.
 Anthropogenic Impact: Human activities have increased CO2 and CH4 emissions,
disrupting the natural balance and contributing to global warming.
The Nitrogen Cycle
 Nitrogen Fixation: Specialized microorganisms convert atmospheric N2 into ammonia
(NH3), which becomes available to other organisms.
 Ammonification: Dead biomass is converted to ammonium (NH4+), a nutrient for plants in
acidic soils.
 Nitrification: Ammonium is converted to nitrate (NO3-) by bacteria, providing a nitrogen
source for most plants.
 Denitrification: Nitrate is converted to nitrogen gases (N2O and N2) under anaerobic
conditions, balancing global nitrogen fixation and denitrification.
The Phosphorous Cycle
 Role in Organisms: Phosphorous is vital for biochemical compounds like DNA, RNA, and
ATP but is required in smaller quantities than nitrogen or carbon.
 Limiting Nutrient: Often in short supply, it limits productivity in freshwater ecosystems.
 Human Impact: Phosphorous mining and fertilizer application significantly affect the global
phosphorous cycle, leading to environmental issues like eutrophication in water bodies.
Key Environmental Challenges
 Global Warming: Increased atmospheric CO2 from human activities contributes to global
warming.
  Eutrophication: Excessive nutrient input, particularly phosphate, leads to degraded water
bodies, impacting their ecological and recreational value.
This summary encapsulates the key elements of environmental systems, focusing on the
energy flow, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorous cycles, and the impact of human activities on
these cycles.

Lecture 6
Introduction
Population Growth Over Time
 The population has dramatically increased over the past few centuries.
 Ten thousand years ago, the population was only a few million.
 In the past decade, the population increased at a rate of 1.2% per year, adding approximately
86.6 million people annually.
Environmental Impact
 The number of people and per capita income significantly impact the environment.
 Per capita impact is influenced by lifestyles and the level of technological development.
 Increased use of natural resources, waste production, and ecosystem degradation are
consequences of population growth and technological advancements.
Cultural Evolution and Carrying Capacity
 Human achievements have been driven by cultural evolution, which includes the development
of tools, social systems, and knowledge transmission.
 Early human societies experienced significant population growth due to improved resource
exploitation and social organization.
 Key innovations, such as tool improvement, language development, and social organization,
have increased the effective carrying capacity of ecosystems, leading to population and
economic growth.
Historical Population Trends
 Between 8000 BCE and 1650 CE, the human population grew from about 5 million to 500
million.
 The late 1960s saw a historical maximum growth rate of about 2.1% per year.
Demographic Transition
 The demographic transition describes the shift from high birth and death rates to low birth and
death rates.
 Developed countries have mostly achieved zero population growth (ZPG), where birth rates
balance death rates.
 Less-developed countries face rapid population growth due to reduced mortality rates without
a corresponding decrease in birth rates.
Future Population Trends
 Global population is expected to continue growing, but at decreasing rates.
 Predictions suggest the population will not be evenly distributed between less-developed and
more-developed regions.
Age-Class Structure
 Population structures vary between growing and stable populations.
 Rapidly growing populations have a high percentage of young people, while stable
populations have a more balanced age distribution.
 For example, Afghanistan has 46% of its population under 15, while Japan has only 13%.
Data Highlights
Population Data (World Resource Institute)
 World: From 2.52 billion in 1950 to 7.24 billion in 2014, projected to 9.68 billion by 2060.
  Africa + Middle East: Rapid growth from 293 million in 1950 to 1.39 billion in 2014,
projected to 2.82 billion by 2060.
 Asia: Steady growth from 1.33 billion in 1950 to 4.10 billion in 2014, projected to 4.87
billion by 2060.
 North America: Slow growth from 172 million in 1950 to 353 million in 2014, projected to
444 million by 2060.
 Europe: Modest growth from 547 million in 1950 to 741 million in 2014, projected to
decline slightly to 726 million by 2060.
 More Developed Regions: Slow growth from 861 million in 1950 to 1.25 billion in 2014,
projected to 1.31 billion by 2060.
 Less Developed Regions: Rapid growth from 1.67 billion in 1950 to 5.99 billion in 2014,
projected to 8.38 billion by 2060.
Conclusion
 The unprecedented growth of the human population over the past millennia has profoundly
impacted the environment.
 Achieving sustainable development requires addressing the explosive population growth and
its environmental consequences.
 The demographic transition and cultural evolution will continue to shape future population
dynamics and environmental impacts.

Lecture 7
Biodiversity
 Genetic Variations: Differences within populations and species at the genetic level.
 Species Richness: Number of species in an ecological community.
 Ecological Communities: Diversity and dynamics of communities across landscapes
and seascapes.
Genetic Biodiversity
 Genetic Variability: Most species exhibit genetic variation; exceptions include
asexual propagating plants like trembling aspen and duckweed clones.
 Importance: Higher genetic diversity enhances resilience and adaptability of
populations.
Species Richness
 Tropical vs. Temperate Zones: Tropical regions generally have higher species
richness, particularly in rainforests.
 Threats: Tropical rainforests face rapid destruction due to agriculture and other
disturbances.
Community Richness
 Landscape Diversity: Importance of diverse community landscapes over uniform
ones for biodiversity conservation.
 Threats: Loss of natural ecoscapes like tropical forests and coral reefs globally.
Value of Biodiversity
 Utilitarian Value: Humans depend on biodiversity for food, materials, and energy,
including pharmaceuticals.
 Intrinsic Value: Biodiversity has inherent value beyond human utility, raising ethical
considerations.
The Organization of Life
 Monera: Includes bacteria and blue-green bacteria, fundamental in ecological and
metabolic processes.
  Protista: Simple eukaryotic organisms including algae, vital as primary producers in
ecosystems.
 Fungi: Heterotrophic organisms crucial as decomposers, mutualistic partners (e.g.,
lichens, mycorrhizae).
 Plantae: Photosynthetic organisms with multicellular structure, essential for
terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
 Animalia: Multicellular, heterotrophic organisms with specialized tissues and organs,
key to ecological balance.

Lecture 8
Autecology
Autecology focuses on individuals, populations, and species, examining their interactions
with the environment.
Study Focus
 Individuals: Study of genetic variations and phenotypic plasticity.
 Populations: Dynamics influenced by birth, death, immigration, and emigration rates.
 Species: Unique traits and adaptations to environmental conditions.
Life-History Characteristics
 Traits: Anatomical, biochemical, and ecological attributes.
 Adaptations: Strategies like competitors, ruderals, and stress tolerators based on responses to
disturbance and stress.

Community Ecology
Community ecology explores interactions among species within ecosystems.
Community Dynamics
 Definition: Aggregation of plants, animals, and microorganisms interacting physically,
chemically, or behaviorally.
 Ecological Niches: Roles of species in communities determined by their ecological niches.
Succession
 Process: Ecological recovery following disturbance (e.g., wildfires).
 Impact: Shapes community structure and composition over time.

Biomes
Biomes are large-scale ecosystems characterized by dominant organisms and environmental
conditions.
Types of Biomes
 Terrestrial: Tundra, forests (e.g., boreal, tropical), grasslands.
 Aquatic: Freshwater (lakes, rivers), marine (open ocean, coral reefs).
Human Impact
 Influence: Human activities alter biome composition and functioning.
 Examples: Urbanization, agriculture, pollution.

This structured summary provides an overview of autecology, community ecology, and

biomes, highlighting key concepts and their relationships within ecological studies.
Autecology: Autecology focuses on individuals, populations, and species within ecology. It
studies genetic variations, phenotypic plasticity, and adaptations of organisms to various
environmental conditions. It categorizes species based on life-history characteristics and
adaptations, including competitors, ruderals, and stress tolerators. Examples of evolutionary
convergence among unrelated species highlight how similar traits can evolve in response to
environmental pressures.
Community Ecology: Community ecology explores interactions among species within
ecosystems. Ecological niches define the roles of species within communities, influenced by
factors like competition, predation, and disease. Succession, the process of ecological
recovery following disturbance, shapes community structure over time. Communities vary in
stability and dynamics, influenced by disturbance events ranging from local
microdisturbances to catastrophic wildfires.
Biomes: Biomes are large-scale ecosystems characterized by dominant organisms and
environmental conditions. They include terrestrial biomes like tundra, forests, and grasslands,
as well as aquatic biomes such as freshwater lakes and marine ecosystems. Human activities
profoundly impact biomes through urbanization, agriculture, and pollution, altering their
composition and functioning.
This summary captures the essence of autecology, community ecology, and biomes as
described in the provided text.

Lecture 9
Importance of Forest Resources
Forests cover about 40 million km² of the Earth's surface and play a crucial role in storing
biomass and fixing carbon.
Global Forest Cover
Temperate and boreal regions cover 56%, while tropical regions cover 44% of the global
forest area.
Historical Deforestation
Human activities, primarily for agriculture, have reduced global forest cover by half since
prehistoric times.
Biomass and Productivity
Temperate forests produce half the biomass of tropical forests and store 60% less biomass.
Types of Forests
Apart from forests, there are 3 billion hectares of open woodlands and savannahs globally.
Forest Cover by Region
North and South America, Europe, and Russia have over 30% forest cover.
Causes of Deforestation
Approximately 2 million hectares of forest are cleared or harvested annually for fuel,
industrial purposes, and agriculture.
Human Impact on Forests
28% of global forest biomass is used annually by humans, mainly for shifting cultivation and
permanent conversion to agriculture.
Deforestation Trends
Deforestation rates have increased globally, particularly in tropical countries due to
population growth and agricultural demands.
Developed vs. Developing Countries
Developed countries show stable or increasing forest cover due to industrial forestry practices
and reforestation efforts.
Sustainable Forestry Practices
Industrial forestry in developed countries promotes forest regeneration and sustainable
management practices.
Environmental Impacts
Forestry activities can lead to soil nutrient depletion, erosion, and habitat loss, affecting
biodiversity and water quality.
Nutrient Loss and Management
Harvesting methods impact nutrient removal, with clear-cutting and whole-tree harvests
leading to significant nutrient loss.
Erosion and Soil Degradation
Improper logging practices and road construction can cause erosion, soil loss, and damage to
aquatic habitats.
This summary provides a comprehensive overview of global forest resources, their
utilization, and the environmental impacts of forestry practices.

Lecture 10
Agriculture: Production and Management
Agriculture plays a crucial role in global food production, sustaining the majority of the
population through sustainable farming practices. It involves cultivating the soil, producing
crops, and raising livestock.
Factors Affecting Productivity
Productivity in agriculture, measured in tons per hectare per year, depends on site capability
and management systems. Challenges like weather, pests, weeds, and diseases are managed
through intensive management practices.
Global Agricultural Trends
Since 1961, global agricultural production has increased steadily, though per-capita
production growth has been modest due to population growth, especially in less developed
countries.
Intensive Agricultural Systems
Wealthier countries employ highly mechanized systems with inputs like fertilizers, pesticides,
and irrigation, while less wealthy countries rely more on human and animal labor with fewer
material inputs.
Environmental Impact
Intensive agriculture relies heavily on non-renewable resources like natural gas for fertilizers
and petrochemicals for pesticides. Mechanization also consumes significant energy and
materials.
Crop Plants and Domestication
Crop plants are selectively bred over thousands of years for higher yield, improved response
to management practices, and enhanced taste. They include cereals, legumes, fruits,
vegetables, and bioenergy crops like maize and sugarcane.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM combines various tactics like biological control, crop resistance, habitat management,
and minimal pesticide use to control pests effectively while minimizing environmental and
health risks.
Environmental Concerns
Pesticide use in agriculture and forestry poses environmental risks, prompting calls for
reduced reliance and adoption of safer pest control methods like IPM. Legislation in Europe
and initiatives like Halifax's pesticide bylaws reflect growing concerns.
Technological and Ecological Effects
Herbicide use in forestry, such as glyphosate, manages vegetation but affects habitat and food
availability for wildlife. Safety concerns include occupational risks and potential impacts on
nearby populations.

Lecture 11
The Nature of Energy
Energy is defined as the capacity to do work, which can occur through physical or chemical
transformations. It exists in various forms such as mechanical, thermal, and chemical energy.
Units of Energy
Energy is measured in joules (J) in the SI system, and commonly in kilojoules (kJ) for food
energy. Other units include calories (cal) and kilocalories (kcal), where 1 kcal = 4184 J.
Renewable Resources
Renewable resources can regenerate over time if managed sustainably. Examples include
water, agricultural land, forests, and wildlife such as fish.
Fresh Water
Most fresh water is limited to surface waters and groundwater, vital for ecosystems and
human activities.
Agricultural Resources
Limited land suitable for cultivation impacts agricultural productivity, influenced by factors
like land quality and management practices.
Forest Resources
Forests provide timber, biodiversity, and other ecosystem services. Sustainable management
balances conservation and economic needs.
Fish Resources
Harvested fish populations must be managed sustainably to avoid depletion and maintain
productivity.
Non-Renewable Resources
Non-renewable resources, such as metals and fossil fuels, are finite and do not regenerate
over human timescales.
Fossil Fuels
Derived from ancient biomass, fossil fuels like coal, petroleum, and natural gas are critical
energy sources but are non-renewable due to their slow formation compared to extraction
rates.
Energy Use
Fossil fuels are crucial for industrial, transportation, and household energy needs,
contributing significantly to global energy consumption.
Conclusion
Balancing the use of renewable and non-renewable resources is crucial for sustainable
development, considering environmental impacts and future resource availability.
 Lecture 12

Here's a summary of the text with headings:

Mineral Resources
 Nutrient Types: Nutrients are essential chemicals for organisms. They are
categorized into inorganic (required for photosynthesis and metabolism) and organic
compounds (ingested as food).
 Plant Absorption: Plants absorb inorganic nutrients like carbon dioxide (CO2),
nitrates (NO3-), ammonium (NH4+), phosphate (PO43-), calcium (Ca2+), and
magnesium (Mg2+) from soil water.
 Macronutrients and Micronutrients: Plants require macronutrients (e.g., carbon,
oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus) in larger quantities and micronutrients (e.g., boron,
iron, zinc) in smaller amounts.
Nutrient Flows and Cycles
 Nutrient Cycling: Nutrients cycle through ecosystems via transfers, chemical
transformations, and recycling processes.
 Nutrient Budget: Quantitative estimates of nutrient input, output, and transfer within
an ecosystem are termed nutrient budgets.
Managing the Mining Environment
 Large Volume Waste: Mining operations generate significant waste volumes,
impacting land productivity and ecosystem stability.
 Waste Categories: Mine wastes include overburden (soil and rock removed to access
minerals), waste rock (non-economic rock), tailings (residual ore slurry), and heap
leach spent ore.
 Environmental Impact: Improperly managed mine waste can lead to erosion,
pollution of water systems, and long-term environmental and socio-economic
consequences.
Associated Environmental Issues
 Energy Use in Mining: Mining operations consume substantial energy, influencing
global energy use patterns and contributing to climate change.
 Climate Change: Mining activities contribute to greenhouse gas emissions,
impacting ecosystems and human societies globally.
 Metal Management: Metals and metalloids pose environmental risks due to their
toxicity, affecting human health and ecosystems.
Managing Metals in the Environment
 Toxic Metals: Metals like cadmium, lead, arsenic, and mercury are of environmental
concern due to their toxicity and potential health impacts.
 Incidents and Concerns: Historical incidents, such as cadmium contamination from
mining affecting rice crops and health, highlight the risks associated with metal
pollution.
 Regulatory and Management Efforts: Efforts are made to regulate and manage
metal pollution to mitigate environmental and health risks.
This summary captures the key points under each section, outlining the importance of
nutrient management, environmental challenges in mining, energy use implications, and
concerns related to toxic metals in the environment.
 Lecture 13
Water in the Environment
 Ecosystems: Essential habitat for aquatic plants and animals in oceans, rivers, lakes,
and wetlands.
 Nutrient Cycling: Medium for transporting nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus
crucial for plant growth.
 Climate Regulation: Oceans play a critical role in climate patterns and temperature
moderation.
 Freshwater Provision: Critical for consumption, agriculture, and industrial use.
Chemical Properties of Water
 Polarity: Polar molecule due to electronegativity, excellent solvent for minerals and
pollutants.
 Hydrogen Bonding: High surface tension and cohesion important for capillary action
and soil water movement.
 Heat Capacity: High specific heat moderates temperature changes in aquatic
environments.
 Latent Heat of Vaporization: Vital for cooling processes like transpiration and
evaporation.
 Density Anomaly: Density decreases upon freezing, insulating aquatic life and
affecting climate.
Freshwater Resources
 Surface Water: Lakes, rivers crucial for drinking, irrigation, hydroelectricity, and
recreation.
 Groundwater: Stored in aquifers, accessed through drilling; vulnerable to depletion
and pollution.
Challenges and Issues
 Competition for Water: Conflict in arid regions like the Middle East, Africa, and
Southwestern North America.
 Pollution: Surface water degraded by pollutants like nutrients, hydrocarbons, and
pathogens.
 Eutrophication: Excess nutrients lead to algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and
ecological degradation.
Management and Conservation
 Sustainable Use: Manage aquifer recharge and extraction rates to avoid depletion.
 Pollution Control: Prevent contamination from urban runoff, agriculture, and
industrial activities.
 International Cooperation: Address transboundary water issues to ensure equitable
distribution and sustainable management.

Detailed summary:
Water in the Environment
Water plays a fundamental role in ecosystems, serving as a habitat for aquatic plants and
animals in diverse environments such as oceans, rivers, lakes, and wetlands. It facilitates
nutrient cycling by transporting essential elements like nitrogen and phosphorus, which are
crucial for plant growth and ecosystem stability. Additionally, oceans contribute significantly
to climate regulation through heat absorption and distribution, influencing weather patterns
and global temperatures. Freshwater resources are vital for human activities, including
drinking, agriculture, industry, and recreation.
Chemical Properties of Water
Water exhibits unique chemical properties essential to life. Its polarity allows it to dissolve
and transport minerals, nutrients, and pollutants, making it an excellent solvent in natural
environments. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules creates high surface tension and
cohesion, facilitating processes like capillary action in plants and water movement in soils.
Water's high specific heat capacity moderates temperature changes in aquatic habitats,
stabilizing conditions for marine life. Its high latent heat of vaporization is crucial for cooling
processes such as plant transpiration and water evaporation, impacting climate regulation.
The density anomaly of water, where it expands upon freezing, insulates aquatic organisms
and affects the circulation of ocean currents.
Freshwater Resources
Freshwater is primarily found in surface waters like lakes, rivers, and streams, as well as in
groundwater stored in aquifers. Surface water is essential for various human needs, including
drinking water supply, irrigation for agriculture, generation of hydroelectric power, industrial
cooling, and recreational activities. Groundwater, accessed through drilling, is critical in
regions lacking abundant surface water sources. However, both surface water and
groundwater face challenges such as depletion due to overuse and contamination from
pollutants like agricultural runoff and industrial waste.
Challenges and Issues
Competition for freshwater resources is intense, particularly in arid regions like the Middle
East, Africa, and Southwestern North America, where water scarcity fuels conflicts between
communities and nations. Pollution poses significant threats to water quality, with surface
waters often contaminated by nutrients, hydrocarbons, pesticides, and biological pathogens.
Eutrophication, driven by excessive nutrient inputs, leads to algal blooms, oxygen depletion,
and degradation of aquatic ecosystems, impacting biodiversity and water usability.
Management and Conservation
Effective management strategies are crucial to ensure sustainable use of freshwater resources.
This includes implementing measures to enhance aquifer recharge rates, regulate
groundwater extraction, and control pollution inputs from urban, agricultural, and industrial
sources. International cooperation is essential for managing transboundary water issues,
ensuring equitable distribution, and promoting sustainable water management practices
globally. Conservation efforts aim to preserve water quality and quantity, mitigate the
impacts of climate change on water resources, and protect freshwater ecosystems for future
generations.

Lecture 14
Urban Ecosystem Overview
Urban areas can be considered ecosystems due to their complex structures and functions,
heavily influenced by human activities.
Energy and Material Inputs
Urban ecosystems require significant inputs of energy and materials to sustain human
populations and economic activities.
Economic Activities and Growth
Urban areas not only support human populations but also host diverse economic activities
and strive for continual growth.
Material Transfer, Processing, and Storage
They feature complex structures for transferring, processing, and storing materials necessary
for urban functioning.
Management of Energy and Information
Urban ecosystems manage energy and information flow among various organizations and
economic sectors.
Waste and Pollution
Urban areas generate substantial outputs of heat and waste materials, often polluting
surrounding ecosystems.
Human Influence and Biodiversity
Cities and towns house diverse species, including non-native ones, influenced heavily by
human activities.
Ecological Functions
Urban ecosystems perform essential ecological functions such as biological productivity,
water cycling, and nutrient cycling, albeit influenced by human impacts.
Dependency on Surrounding Ecosystems
Urban areas rely on surrounding ecosystems for resources and must manage waste disposal to
sustain ecological balance.
Ecological Footprint
The ecological footprint of urban populations measures the area of landscape and seascape
needed to sustain urban lifestyles, indicating global overshoot of bio-capacity.
Urban Planning
Effective urban planning is crucial for organizing urban structures and functions, including
residential, commercial, industrial, and green spaces.
Challenges in Urban Planning
Urban planning faces challenges in developing countries due to rapid population growth and
urbanization.
Segregation of Land Uses
Historical urban planning segregates land uses, contributing to urban problems like
congestion and environmental degradation.
Urban Pollution Overview
Urban environments exhibit higher concentrations of chemicals and noise pollution,
impacting human health and environmental quality.
Types of Urban Pollution
Includes chemical pollution, urban climate effects, noise pollution, and aesthetic pollution,
affecting urban livability.
Sewage and Solid Waste Management
Cities manage sewage and solid waste through systems like sanitary landfills and sewage
treatment plants to mitigate environmental impacts.
Environmental Impacts of Poor Waste Management
Poor waste management practices in urban areas can lead to groundwater pollution, air
pollution from open burns, and aesthetic degradation.
Summary
Urban ecosystems are complex and dynamic environments shaped by human activities,
posing challenges like pollution and resource management. Effective urban planning and
sustainable practices are essential for mitigating these impacts and improving urban quality of
life.
 Lecture 15
It seems like you've provided an extensive overview on environmental hazards, focusing
particularly on various gases like sulphur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen sulphide (H2S), nitrogen
gases (NOx), organic gases and vapors, and ozone (O3). Here’s a summarized breakdown of
the main points covered:
Environmental Hazards
Types of Hazards:
 Sulphur Gases (SO2 and H2S):
o Properties, detection thresholds, and environmental impact.
o Effects on vegetation and guidelines for occupational exposure.
 Nitrogen Gases (NOx):
o Types (NO, NO2), toxicity, and environmental impacts.
o Role in photochemical reactions and acidification of ecosystems.
 Organic Gases and Vapors:
o Sources, transformations, and role in petrochemical reactions.
o Impact on ozone production and global warming.
Ozone (O3):
 Stratospheric Ozone:
o Protective role against UV radiation in the atmosphere.
 Ground-Level Ozone:
o Environmental damage to vegetation, materials, and human health.
o Effects on crops and economic implications.
Air Pollution and Health:
 General Impact:
o Historical context and industrial revolution's contribution to air pollution.
 Smog:
o Components, formation, and impact on urban and rural areas.
o Key pollutants including O3, SO2, NOx, organic vapors, and particulates.
This overview provides a comprehensive look at the various environmental hazards, their
impacts, and the broader implications for ecosystems and human health.

Detailed summary
Environmental Hazards
Environmental hazards encompass risks associated with various activities and exposures,
including driving, flying, sports, hiking, exposure to toxic chemicals, and even everyday
activities like getting out of bed. These hazards interact with biological factors, potentially
leading to health issues such as cancer or injuries. Public perception of these risks influences
policymaking regarding environmental and health regulations.
Sulphur Gases
Sulphur Dioxide (SO2):
 Colorless, pungent gas detectable at concentrations as low as 0.3-1 ppm.
 Often emitted from industrial sources, oxidizes to form sulphate (SO42-).
 High concentrations near industrial areas can damage both wild and cultivated plants.
 Guidelines recommend occupational exposure limits to be no higher than 2 ppm long-term
and 5 ppm for shorter exposures.
Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S):
 Foul odor like rotten eggs, detectable at concentrations lower than 1 ppm.
  Quickly oxidizes to SO2 in the atmosphere with a residence time of less than a day.
 Natural emissions from volcanoes contribute to environmental exposure.
Nitrogen Gases
Nitric Oxide (NO) and Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2):
 Together known as NOx, primarily from combustion processes.
 Involved in photochemical reactions leading to ozone formation and acidification of
ecosystems.
 Generally, concentrations are not high enough to directly harm vegetation.
Nitrous Oxide (N2O):
 Significant as a greenhouse gas but less harmful in terms of direct environmental damage.
Ammonia (NH3):
 Contributes to nitrogen deposition but typically not in concentrations high enough to directly
affect vegetation.
Organic Gases and Vapors
 Include a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) like alcohols, aldehydes, and
phenols.
 While toxic at higher concentrations, atmospheric levels usually do not damage vegetation
directly but contribute to ozone formation and global warming.
Ozone (O3)
Stratospheric Ozone:
 Beneficial in the stratosphere where it shields the Earth from harmful UV radiation.
Ground-Level Ozone:
 Formed by photochemical reactions involving NOx and VOCs in the troposphere.
 Damages vegetation, materials, and human health, particularly affecting respiratory systems.
 Guidelines and studies show significant agricultural and economic impacts in regions with
high ambient ozone levels.
Air Pollution and Health
 Urban and industrial emissions of pollutants like SO2, NOx, VOCs, and particulates
contribute to smog formation.
 Smog contains O3, SO2, NOx, organic vapors, and fine particulates, posing significant health
risks, especially to vulnerable populations with respiratory or cardiovascular conditions.
Conclusion
Understanding these environmental hazards and their impacts on biological systems is crucial
for effective risk assessment, regulation, and mitigation strategies. Public awareness and
scientific research continue to play vital roles in managing these complex issues for
environmental and human health protection

Lecture 16
TOXIC ELEMENTS
1. Ubiquity and Contamination
o Naturally occurring metals and elements are found everywhere in trace
concentrations in:
 Soil
 Water
 Air
 Organisms
o Universal contamination is due to the low detection limits of available
analytical chemistry.
 2. Essential Micronutrients
o Organisms require trace elements as essential micronutrients, including:
 Copper
 Iron
 Molybdenum
 Zinc
 Aluminum, Nickel, Selenium (in some cases)
3. Ecological Damage
o Elements beneficial in low quantities can be damaging in high concentrations,
causing ecological damage.
4. Environmental Toxicity
o Heavy metals often associated with environmental toxicity include:
 Cadmium
 Chromium
 Cobalt
 Copper
 Iron
 Lead
 Mercury
 Nickel
 Silver
 Tin
 Zinc
o Lighter elements causing environmental toxicity may include Aluminum,
Arsenic, Selenium.
5. Historical Example
o In 1960, thousands suffered mercury poisoning from consuming grain treated
with mercuric fungicide, intended for planting.

Concentration and Availability

1. Background Concentration
o Refers to presence not significantly influenced by:
 Anthropogenic emissions
 Unusual exposures
o Soil and rocks have higher background concentrations compared to water and
organism tissues.
2. Bioavailability
o Elements in water (as ions) are easily absorbed by organisms, potentially toxic
even in trace concentrations.
o Soil and rock concentrations are mostly insoluble and less bioavailable,
determining potential toxicity.
3. Measurement Methods
o Total concentrations determined by digesting samples in strong acid.
o Available concentrations measured from aqueous extracts, typically <1% of
total, more relevant to toxicity.

Toxicity
1. Factors
o Toxicity depends on exposure (dose) and organism vulnerability.
 oLong-term exposure to minute concentrations can lead to toxicity, exacerbated
by bioaccumulation and biomagnification in food webs.
2. Variability
o Organisms vary in tolerance to toxic elements, influenced by genetic variation
and evolutionary adaptations.
3. Mechanisms of Poisoning
o Enzyme system damage: Metal ions bind to enzymes, altering their shape and
function.
o Binding to DNA or RNA disrupts transcription, translation, and cell division
processes.
4. Symptoms
o Acute poisoning symptoms in plants: Abnormal growth, decreased
productivity, disease, death.
o Chronic toxicity symptoms are subtler, like decreased productivity without
acute signs.

Natural Pollution
1. Sources
o Localized pollution from metal-rich minerals affecting:
 Soil
 Surface water
 Vegetation
o Identified by distinct vegetation forms or indicator species.
2. Biogeochemical Prospecting
o Combines biological indicators and chemical analysis to locate metal-rich
deposits.
3. Examples
o High metal concentrations observed in plants like Alyssum in Russia and
Sebertia acuminate in New Caledonia.

Anthropogenic Sources
1. Industrial Processes
o Mining, processing, and using metals can pollute air, water, and land.
2. Mining Residues
o Areas near mines damaged by dumping metal-rich excavation waste, often
toxic to vegetation.
3. Long-term Effects
o Severe soil toxicity from historic mine wastes, hindering plant establishment
for centuries.
4. Ecological Adaptations
o Metal-tolerant plant ecotypes evolve in polluted habitats, outcompeting non-
tolerant species.
5. Evolutionary Insights
o Rapid increase in tolerant genotypes post-pollution indicates microevolution in
response to environmental pressures.

This structured summary covers the key aspects of toxic elements, their distribution, toxicity
mechanisms, and environmental impacts, both natural and anthropogenic
 Lecture 17
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Definition and Purpose: EIA is a planning process to prevent environmental problems by

identifying and evaluating potential consequences of proposed developments on ecological,
physical-chemical, and socio-economic aspects.

Environmental Legislation

Pakistan Environmental Protection Act: Enacted in 1997 to protect, conserve, rehabilitate,

and improve the environment.

Environmental Monitoring and Research

Purpose and Scope: Programs to monitor environmental quality changes over large regions
or countries, conducted by government agencies and NGOs.

Environmental Indicators

Definition and Use: Simple measurements representing complex aspects of environmental

quality, such as chemical residues in species or population statuses of indicator species.

Composite Indicators

Usage and Limitations: Composite indexes used to monitor trends in environmental quality,
integrating data on various pollutants to simplify reporting to the public.

Challenges and Successes

Program Effectiveness: Issues with existing programs in detecting and predicting

environmental changes effectively, impacting the understanding and mitigation of
environmental problems.

This summary covers the key aspects of Environmental Impact Assessment, Legislation,
Monitoring and Research, Indicators, Composite Indicators, and the Challenges and
Successes in environmental management

Detailed summary
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Purpose and Process:
 Purpose: EIA is a planning process aimed at preventing environmental problems by
identifying and evaluating potential consequences of proposed developments.
 Process: It involves multidisciplinary evaluation of ecological, physical-chemical, and socio-
economic effects before project approval.
Environmental Legislation
Regulatory Framework:
  Pakistan Environmental Protection Act: Enacted to protect, conserve, rehabilitate, and
improve the environment.
 National Legislation: Includes acts like the National Forest Act and Water Services Act,
regulating activities to maintain environmental quality.
Environmental Monitoring and Research
Monitoring Programs:
 Objective: To monitor and predict changes in environmental quality over large regions or
entire countries.
 Implementation: Conducted by government agencies and NGOs to guide policy-making and
environmental research.
Environmental Indicators
Role and Types:
 Definition: Indicators like chemical residues in species or population statuses of key species
used to assess environmental health.
 Types: Include species indicators (e.g., grizzly bears, salmon), and composite indicators for
simplified reporting.
Challenges and Successes
Program Effectiveness:
 Challenges: Existing programs often fail to fully understand and mitigate environmental
impacts, leading to ongoing degradation.
 Successes: Effective programs should address key stressors, predict impacts on ecosystems
and economies, and inform sustainable practices.
Ecological Integrity and Sustainability
Concepts and Applications:
 Definition: Refers to the health and resilience of ecosystems against human-induced
stressors.
 Application: Monitoring and research crucial for maintaining ecological integrity and
achieving sustainable development goals.
This summary highlights the importance of EIA, environmental legislation, monitoring and
research efforts, the role of environmental indicators, and ongoing challenges in ensuring
ecological integrity and sustainability