DIGITAL FINDAMENTAL & COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE NOTES

UNIT V - MICROPROCESSOR
Aims and Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 80286 Microprocessor
5.3 80386 Microprocessor
5.4 Introduction to Microcontrollers

5.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

 Describe a Microprocessor
 Identify the instruction set and the addressing modes of 8085
 Identify the peripherals and interfaces.

5.2 INTRODUCTION

A microprocessor is a multipurpose, programmable logic device that reads binary

instructions from a storage device called memory accepts binary data as input and processes
data according to those instructions and provides results as output.

A typical programmable machine can be represented with three components:

microprocessor, memory and I/O as shown in figure3.1

Memory

Microprocessor
I/O
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FIGURE 5.1 A Programmable devices

Microprocessor, memory and I/O Components are work together or interact with each other
to perform a given task; thus they compromise a system. The physical components of this
system are called hardware.

A set of instructions written for the microprocessor to perform a task is called a program.
A group pf programs is called software. The machine (system) represented in figure can be
programmed to turn traffic lights on and off, compute mathematical functions or keep track of a
guidance system.

The microprocessor applications are classified primarily in two categories:

1. Reprogrammable systems
2. Embedded systems

The microprocessor can be divided into three segments for the sake clarity, as shown in
fig 3.2.

 Arithmetic/logic unit (ALU)

 Register array
 Control unit.

Arithmetic/Logic Unit

This is the area of the microprocessor where various computing functions are performed
on data. The ALU unit performs arithmetic operations as addition and subtraction, and such
logic operations as AND, OR and exclusive OR. Results are stored either in register or in
memory.

Register Array

This area of the microprocessor consists of various registers. These registers are
primarily used to store data temporarily during his execution of a program. Some of the registers
are accessible to the user through instructions.

Control Unit

The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to all the operations in
the microcomputers. It controls the flow of data between the microprocessor and memory and
Peripherals.
-
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The ROM is used to store programs that do not need alterations. The monitor program of
a single board microcomputer is generally stored in the ROM. This program interprets the
information entered through a keyboard and provides equivalent binary digits of the
microprocessor. Programs stored in the ROM can only be read; they cannot be altered.

80286 MICROPROCESSOR

Basically this microprocessor is an advanced version of 8086.

So before starting with 80286 we must know something about8086. Intel 8086 is a 16 bit
microprocessor intended to beused as a CPU in a microcomputer.

The term 16 bit means that its arithmetic logic unit, its internal registers, its instructions are
designed to work with 16 bit binary words.

It has a 20 bit address bus and 16 bit data bus.

So this means that it can address any one of the 1048576memory locations and it can read data
from or write data to the memory and ports either 16 bit or 8 bit at a time. Here the word is stored
in two consecutive memory locations.

The Intel 80286 was the first 8086 family processor designed to make implementation of these
features relatively easy. The 80286 was used as the CPU in the IBM PC/AT and its clones, in the
IBM PS/2 Model 50, and in the IBM PS/1.

1. The bus unit (BU) in the device performs all memory and I/O reads and writes, prefetches
instruction bytes, and controls transfer of data to and from processor extension devices such as
the 80287 math coprocessor.
2. The instruction unit (IU) fully decodes up to three prefetched instructions and holds them in a
queue, where the execution unit can access them.

3. The execution unit (EU) uses its 16-bit ALU to execute instructions it receives from the
instruction unit. When operating in its real address mode, the 80286 register set is the same as
that of an 8086 except for the addition of a 16-bit machine status word (MSW) register.

4. The address unit (AU) computes the physical addresses that will be sent out to memory or I/O
by the BU.

5. The 80286 can operate in one of two memory address modes, real address mode or
protected virtual address mode.

6. If the 80286 is operating in the real address mode, the address unit computes addresses using a
segment base and an offset just as the 8086 does. The familiar CS, DS, SS, and ES registers are
used to hold the base addressed for the segments currently in use. The maximum physical
address space in this mode is 1 Mbyte, just as it is for the 8086.

7. If an 80286 is operating in its protected virtual address mode, the address unit functions as a
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complete MMU. In this address mode the 80286 uses all 24 address lines to access up to 16
Mbytes or physical memory. In protected mode it also provides up to a gigabyte of virtual;
memory

Fig: 80286 Architecture

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Fig: 80286 Bus Structure

Fig: 80286 Register Stack

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PIN-OUT OF 80286

Fig: 80286 Pin-Out Diagram

The 80286 has a 16-bit data bus and a 24-bit nonmultiplexed address bus. The 24-bit address bus
allows the processor to access 16 Mbytes of physical memory when operating in protected mode.
Memory hardware for the 80286 is set up as an odd bank and an even bank, just as it is for the
8086. The even bank will be enabled when BHE is low. To access an aligned word, both A0
and BHE will be low. External buffers are used on both the address and the data bus.

From a control standpoint, the 80286 functions similarly to an 8086 operating in maximum mode.
Status signals S0#, S1#, and M/IO# are decoded by an external 8288 bus controller to produce
the control bus, read, write, and interrupt-acknowledge signals.

The HOLD, HLDA, INTR, INTA#, (NMI), READY#, and LOCK# and RESET pins function
basically the same as they do on an 8086. An external 82284-clock generator is used to produce
a clock signal for the 80286 and to synchronize RESET and READY# signals.

Te final four signal pins we need to discuss here are used to interface with processor extensions
such as the 80287-math coprocessor. The processor extension request (PEREQ) input pin will be
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asserted by a coprocessor to tell the 80286 to perform a data transfer to or from memory for it.
When the 80286 get around to do the transfer, it asserts the processor extension
acknowledgement (PEACK#) signal to the coprocessor to let it know the data transfer has started.
The BUSY signal input on the 80286 functions the same way as the TEST1# input does on the
8086. When the 80286 execute a WAIT instruction, it will remain in a WAIT loop until it finds
the BUSY# signal from the coprocessor high. If a coprocessor finds some error during
processing, it will assert the ERROR# input of the 80286.

The machine cycle waveforms for the 80286 are very similar to those of the 8086. The 80286
supports eight addressing modes to access the operands stored in memory. They are Register
Operand Mode, Immediate Operand Mode, Direct Mode, Register Mode, Based Mode, Indexed
Mode, Based Indexed Mode, and Based Indexed Mode with Displacement.

The 80286 supports the following seven data types.

i. Integer : 8-bit or 16-bit signed binary operands using 2’s complement

representation.
ii. Ordinal : 8-bit or 16-bit unsigned numeric value in binary.
iii. Pointer : 32-bit pointers consisting of two 16-bit parts for segment selector and
offset.
iv. String: A data string of maximum 64K bytes or 32K words.
v. ASCII : Different characters in ASCII standard.
vi. BCD : BCD representations and operations on decimal digits 0-9.
vii. Packed BCD: Two digit decimal number represented by using BCD symbols
The instruction set of the 80286 and later processors are “supersets” of the 8086 instructions.
Here’s a brief description of the new and enhanced instructions available on the 80286.

The 80386 Microprocessors

1. The 80386 microprocessor is a full 32-bit version of the earlier 8086 80286 l6-bit
microprocessors, and represents a major advancement in the architecture switch from l6-bit
architecture to 32-bit architecture. Along with this larger word size are many improvements and
additional features.
2. The 80386 microprocessor features multitasking, memory management, virtual memory
(with or without paging), software protection, and a large memory system.
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3. All software written for the early 8086 8088 and the 80286 are upward-compatible to the
80386 microprocessor. The amount of memory addressable by the 80386 is increased from the
1M byte found in the 8086 8088 and the 16M bytes found in the 80286, to 4G bytes in the
80386.

4. The 80386 can switch between protected mode and real mode without resetting the
microprocessor. Switching from protected mode to real mode was a problem on the 80286
microprocessor because it required a hardware reset

80386DX is packaged in a 132-pin PGA (pin grid array).two versions of the 80386 are commonly
available, the 386DX which is illustrated and the other is the 80386SX which is a reduced bus version
of the 80386. A new version of the 80386-the 80386EX incorporates the AT bus system, dynamic
RAM controller. programmable chip selection logic, 2 address pins, 16 data pins, and 24 IO pins.

PIN-OUT OF 80386
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Data bus(D0-D31) Data bus connections transfer data between the microprocessor and its
memory and I/O system.

Bank enable(be0,be1,be2,be3) signals select the access of a byte, word, or double word of data.
These signals are generated internally by the microprocessor from address bits A1 and A0,

Memory\IO (M/IO’) selects a memory device when a logic I or an I/O device when a logic O.
During the I/O operation, the address bus contains a 16-bit I/O address on address connections
AI5-A2'

Write/Read(W/R’) indicates that the current bus cycle is a write when a logic I or a read when a
logic 0.

The address data strobe (ADS’) becomes active whenever the 80386 has issued a valid memory
or I/O address. This signal is combined with the W/R signal to generate the separate read and
write signals present in the earlier 8086-80286 microprocessor-based systems.

Reset initializes the 80386, causing it to begin executing software at memory location
0xFFFFFFF0 The 80386 is reset to the real mode, and the leftmost 12 address connections
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remain logic Is (FFFH) until a far jump or far call is executed. This allows compatibility with
earlier microprocessors.

Clock times 2(CLK2) is driven by a clock signal that is twice the operating frequency of the
80386. For example, to operate the 80386 at 16 MHz, apply a 32 MHz clock to this pin.

Ready controls (READY’) the number of wait states inserted into the timing to lengthen memory
accesses.

Lock (LOCK’) becomes logic 0 whenever an instruction is prefixed with the LOCK: prefix. This
is used most often during DMA accesses.

Data/control (D/C’) indicates that the data bus contains data for or from memory or I/O when a
logic I. If D/C is a logic 0, the microprocessor is halted or execute an interrupt acknowledge.

Bus size 16 (BS16’) selects either a 32-bit data bus (BS16 = 1) or a 16-bit data bus (BS16 = 0).
In most cases, if an 80386DX is operated on a 16-bit data bus, we use the 80386SX that has a 16-
bit data bus. On the 80386EX, the BS8 pin selects an 8-bit data bus.

Next address (NA’) causes the 80386 to output the address of the next instruction data in the
current bus cycle. This pin is often used for pipelining the address.

Hold requests (HOLD) a DMA action.

Hold acknowledge (DLDA) indicates that the 80386 is currently in a hold condition.

Busy is an input used by the WAIT or FWAIT instruction that waits for the coprocessor to
become available. This is also a direct connection to the 80387 from the 80386.

Error (ERROR’) indicates to the microprocessor that an error is detected by the coprocessor.

An interrupt request (INTR) is used by external circuitry to request an interrupt.

Nun-maskable interrupt (NMI)A non-maskable interrupt requests a non-maskable interrupt as it

did on the earlier versions of the microprocessor.

MICROCONTROLLER
All computers have a CPU (central processing unit) that executes programs. If you are sitting at a
desktop computer right now reading this article, the CPU in that machine is executing a program
that implements the Web browser that is displaying this page.

The CPU loads the program from somewhere. On your desktop machine, the browser program is
loaded from the hard disk.
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The computer has some RAM (random-access memory) where it can store "variables."

And the computer has some input and output devices so it can talk to people. On your desktop
machine, the keyboard and mouse are input devices and the monitor and printer are output
devices. A hard disk is an I/O device -- it handles both input and output.

The desktop computer you are using is a "general purpose computer" that can run any of
thousands of programs. Microcontrollers are "special purpose computers." Microcontrollers do
one thing well. There are a number of other common characteristics that define microcontrollers.
If a computer matches a majority of these characteristics, then you can call it a "microcontroller":

Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so that
they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a microcontroller,
therefore, is "embedded controller."

Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is stored
in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change.

Microcontrollers are often low-power devices. A desktop computer is almost always plugged into
a wall socket and might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller
might consume 50 milliwatts.

A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small LED or
LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it is controlling and
controls the device by sending signals to different components in the device. For example, the
microcontroller inside a TV takes input from the remote control and displays output on the TV
screen. The controller controls the channel selector, the speaker system and certain adjustments
on the picture tube electronics such as tint and brightness. The engine controller in a car takes
input from sensors such as the oxygen and knock sensors and controls things like fuel mix and
spark plug timing. A microwave oven controller takes input from a keypad, displays output on an
LCD display and controls a relay that turns the microwave generator on and off.

A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to minimize size and
to be as inexpensive as possible.

A microcontroller is often, but not always, ruggedized in some way. The microcontroller
controlling a car's engine, for example, has to work in temperature extremes that a normal
computer generally cannot handle. A car's microcontroller in Alaska has to work fine in -30
degree F (-34 C) weather, while the same microcontroller in Nevada might be operating at 120
degrees F (49 C). When you add the heat naturally generated by the engine, the temperature can
go as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80 C) in the engine compartment. On the other hand, a
microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been ruggedized at all.

The actual processor used to implement a microcontroller can vary widely. For example, the cell
phone shown on Inside a Digital Cell Phone contains a Z-80 processor. The Z-80 is an 8-bit
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microprocessor developed in the 1970s and originally used in home computers of the time. The
Garmin GPS shown in How GPS Receivers Work contains a low-power version of the Intel
80386, I am told. The 80386 was originally used in desktop computers.

A typical low-end microcontroller chip might have 1,000 bytes of ROM and 20 bytes of RAM on
the chip, along with eight I/0 pins. In large quantities, the cost of these chips can sometimes be
just pennies. You certainly are never going to run Microsoft Word on such a chip -- Microsoft
Word requires perhaps 30 megabytes of RAM and a processor that can run millions of
instructions per second. But then, you don't need Microsoft Word to control a microwave oven,
either. With a microcontroller, you have one specific task you are trying to accomplish, and low-
cost, low-power performance is what is important.

The architecture of a typical microcontroller is complex and may include the following:

1. A CPU, ranging from simple 4-bit to complex 64-bit processers.

2. Peripherals such as timers, event counters and watchdog.

3. RAM (volatile memory) for data storage. The data is stored in the form of registers, and the
general-purpose registers store information that interacts with the arithmetic logical unit (ALU).
4. ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or flash memory for program and operating parameter storage.

5. Programming capabilities.

6. Serial input/output such as serial ports.

7. A clock generator for resonator, quartz timing crystal or RC circuit.

8. Analog-to-digital convertors.

9. Serial ports.
10. Data bus to carry information.