Cheat Sheet for Integrals

1. u-Substitution
For u-substitution, we usually look for a function (which we substitute as u), whose derivative is also
present there. For example if the integrand (the function to be integrated) is cos3 x sin x, then the
derivative of cos x which is − sin x is also present (ignore that “ − ” as it is just the constant -1). So,
we will substitute u = cos x, and continue from there.

cos( x1 )
Z
• dx - Here notice that the derivative of x1 is − x12 which is also present in the function.
x2
Hence, the right substitution is u = x1 and NOT u = cos( x1 ).
Z
x
• dx - Even though this does not look like a problem where substitution could be used,
x+9
however, sometimes it’s a good idea to experiment. Substituting u = x + 9 will give du = dx
u−9
and then the integrand becomes √ . This look very similar to the original integrand except
u √
we can now split this up by dividing each term in the numerator by u and then integrating
them separately.

2. Integration by Parts
Z Z
u dv = uv − v du

We usually look for an integrand which is the product of an algebraic function like x, x2 , 3x3 − 1
etc. and a transcendental function like ex , ln x, sin x, sin−1 x etc to use integration by parts. The
goal is to make sure that the choices of u and dv are made correctly, so that du and v can be found
out quickly, and v du can be integrated without much trouble.
We make choices for u and dv and then find du by differentiating u and find v by integrating dv. So
make sure the function dv can be integrated easily.
Z
• x ln x dx - The right choices are u = ln x and dv = x dx. This is because finding du = x1 dx
2
and v = x2 is easier than the other choice of u = x and dv = ln x dx. With the wrong choice we
would need to integrate ln x to get v which is not an easy task.
Z
• x sin x dx - Here the right choices are u = x and dv = sin x dx. This will lead to du = dx and
v = − cos x. Integrating v du is easier in this case. However, the other choice of u = sin x and
2
dv = x dx leads us to du = cos xdx and v = x2 . Even though we could find du and v easily, the
integral of v du is not that easy to find out.

3. Trigonometric Integral
Any integrand which is a power of sine, cosine, tangent, and secant (also cosecant and cotangent) is
a trigonometric integral. In addition, products of powers of sine and cosine and products of powers
of tangent and secant are also considered trigonometric integrals.

• Integrals of sinn x, cosn x, tann x, secn x can be evaluated using the reduction formulas for each.
The “base” cases are important.
Z If we start with an even power of sine, cosine, tangent, or secant,
then the base case is dx which is x + C. If we start with an odd power of sine and cosine then
Z Z
the base cases are sin x dx and cos x dx which are standard integrals. However, if we start

1
 Z
with an odd power of tangent, then the base case is tan x dx which is not a standard integral.
Z
tan x dx = ln | sec x| + C. On the other hand, if we start with an odd power of secant, then the
Z Z
base case is sec x dx which is again not a standard integral. sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.
Check
Z the lecture notes on how we evaluate these base cases.
• sinm x cosn x dx - We divide these into cases.

(a) Case 1 - At least one of m or n is odd. In this case take out one sine or cosine from
the function that is raised to the odd power. Then use u-substitution. If the integrand is
sin4 x cos3 x, then write it as sin4 x cos2 x cos x. Then replace cos2 x with 1 − sin2 x, and then
substitute u = sin x and continue with u-substitution.
(b) Case 2 - Both m and n are even. In this case choose the lower of the two even m and
n. Use the identity sin2 x + cos2 = 1, to write that power of sine or cosine in terms of the
other. Then the integrand will be a power of a single trigonometric function and reduction
formulas can be used. For example, if the integrand is sin2 x cos4 x, then replace sin2 x with
1 − cos2 x which leads to (1 − cos2 x) cos4 x = cos4 x − cos6 x. Each of these powers can now
be integrated using the reduction formula.
Z
• tanm x secn x dx - We again divide this into cases.

• Case 1 - m odd. In this case take out sec x tan x and then write the remaining integrand in terms
of sec x. Then use u-substitution with u = sec x. For example if the integrand is tan3 x sec2 x,
then write it as tan2 x sec x(sec x tan x). Now use the identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x to re-write
the integrand as (sec2 x − 1) sec x(sec x tan x), and then substitute u = sec x to continue. The
derivative of sec x is sec x tan x, so that part will go away with u-substitution.
• Case 2 - n even. In this case take out sec2 x nd then write the remaining integrand in terms of
tan x. Then use u-substitution with u = tan x. For example if the integrand is tan3 x sec3 x, then
write it as tan3 x sec2 x(sec2 x). Now use the identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x to re-write the integrand
as tan3 x(1 + tan2 x)(sec2 x), and then substitute u = tan x to continue. The derivative of tan x
is sec2 x, so that part goes away with u-substitution, and what’s left is an algebraic function of
u that can be easily integrated.
• Case 3 - m is even, n is odd. In this case write the even power of tangent in terms of secant
using the identity 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x. Then use the reduction formula. For example, if the
integrand is tan2 sec3 x, then re-write it as (sec2 −1) sec3 x = sec5 x − sec3 x. Reduction formulas
can now be used to evaluate the integral of sec5 x and sec3 x.

4. Trigonometric Substitution
We usually use trigonometric substitution when certain types of functions are present in the integrand.
These functions are a2 − x2 , a2 + x2 , and x2 − a2 , where a is a constant.

• Case 1 - a2 − x2 . When a function of this type is present, use the substitution x = a sin θ, and
continue with finding dx = a cos θ dθ and simplifying the integrand.
• Case 2 - a2 + x2 . When a function of this type is present, use the substitution x = a tan θ, and
continue with finding dx = a sec2 θ dθ and simplifying the integrand.
• Case 3 - x2 − a2 . When a function of this type is present, use the substitution x = a sec θ, and
continue with finding dx = a sec θ tan θ dθ and simplifying the integrand.

2
5. Partial Fractions
We usually use the method of partial fractions when the integrand is a rational function, i.e. a
x−1
quotient of two polynomials such as 2 . Here are the steps involved in this process.
x +x−6
P (x)
Let I(x) = be the integrand.
Q(x)
P (x) R(x)
(a) If deg P (x) ≥ deg Q(x), then use long division to write = Q1 (x) + . Now use partial
Q(x) Q(x)
R(x)
fraction method on .
Q(x)
(b) If deg P (x) < deg Q(x), then factor Q(x) completely. If no factor in Q(x) is repeated then
R(x)
split into partial fractions with the denominator of each partial fraction being one of the
Q(x)
factors. The corresponding numerator is the most general polynomial of one degree less than
the denominator. So, for example
x+1 A Bx + C
= +
(x − 1)(x2 + 1) x−1 x2 + 1

This is because the factor x − 1 is linear, so one degree less than that is a constant polynomial
which we denote by A. The factor x2 + 1 has degree two, hence, one degree lees than that is a
linear polynomial. The most general linear polynomial is Bx + C. It is important that we
use different letters for the constants.
(c) If factors of Q(x) are repeated, then every repetition introduces a new partial fraction with each
denominator of those partial fractions being a different power of that factor. For example,
x+1 A Bx + C Dx + E
2 2
= + 2 + 2
(x − 1)(x + 1) x−1 x +1 (x + 1)2

Since x2 + 1 is repeated twice, hence we have two partial fractions coming out of this. Each
of their denominators have a different power of that factor. The important thing here to note
is that the numerator depends on just the polynomial inside the parentheses. This means the
numerator is a polynomial of one degree less than the polynomial in the denominator INSIDE the
parentheses. Since the polynomial inside the parentheses is a degree two polynomial, therefore,
the numerators are still the most general degree one polynomial. Note that we have used different
letters for every constant. This is important.