FLOW OF FLUIDS

(Kinematics and Dynamics of fluid flow-Bernoulli’s Principle)

1. Introduction
Hydrostatic deals with the study of liquids when at rest, Hydro dynamics deals with motion of
fluid by taking into consideration the force or energy causing the flow and Hydro kinematics
deals with the study of velocity and acceleration of the fluid particles without taking into
consideration the force or energy causing the flow

2. HYDRO KINEMATICS

2.1 Types of fluid flow

The type of flow depends up on conditions of fluid flow. The types of fluid flow are:

a) Laminar flow
b) Turbulent flow
c) Uniform flow
d) Non Uniform flow
e) Steady flow
f) Unsteady flow
g) Compressible flow
h) In compressible flow
i) Rotational flow
j) Non-rotational flow
k) One, Two and three dimensional flow

a) Laminar flow: Laminar flow is defined as the flow in which the fluid particles move
along well-defined paths or stream line and all the stream lines are straight and parallel.
Thus the particles move in laminas or layers gliding smoothly over the adjacent layer.
This type of flow is also called streamline flow or viscous flow.
Conditions for this type of flow:
i) Low velocity of flow
ii) Highly viscous fluid
iii) Reynold number is less than 2000

b) Turbulent flow: Turbulent flow is the flow in which the fluid particles do not have a
definite path and move in a zigzag way. •The velocity of particles varies in magnitude
and direction from point to point and time to time. Due to the movement of fluid particles
in a zigzag way, eddies formation takes place, which are responsible for high energy loss.
Conditions for this type of flow:
i) High velocity of flow
 ii) Reynold number is more than 4000

a) Uniform flow: If the flow velocity is the same magnitude and direction at every point in
the fluid. The flow in which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect
to space. (i.e the length of direction of flow)

( )
∂v
∂ s t =constant
=0
Where,∂ v=change of velocity
∂ s=length of flow∈the direction of S
b) Non-uniform: If at a given instant, the velocity is not the same at every point the flow.
The flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to space.

( )
∂v
∂ s t =constant
≠0
c) Steady: A steady flow is one in which the conditions (velocity, pressure and cross-
section) may differ from point to point but DO NOT change with time.

( )
∂v
∂ t x,y,z ( )
=0 ,
∂p
( )
∂ t x, y,z
=0 ,
∂ρ
∂ t x,y,z
=0

d) Unsteady: If at any point in the fluid, the conditions change with time.

( )
∂v
∂ t x,y,z ( )
≠0,
∂p
( )
∂ t x, y,z
≠0,
∂ρ
∂t x,y,z
≠0

e) Steady uniform flow: Conditions do not change with position in the stream or with time.
An example is the flow of water in a pipe of constant diameter at constant velocity.
f) Steady non-uniform flow: Conditions change from point to point in the stream but do
not change with time. An example is flow in a tapering pipe with constant velocity at the
inlet -velocity will
g) Compressible Flow: Compressible flow is the flow in which the density of fluid changes
from point to point or in other words the density is not constant for the fluid.
h) In compressible flow is the flow in which the density is constant for the fluid flow.
Liquids are generally incompressible, while the gases are compressible.
i) Rotational flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along stream
lines also rotate about their own axis.
j) Non-rotational flow is a type of flow in which the fluid particles while flowing along
stream lines do not rotate about their own axis.
k) 1D flow is a type of flow in which flow parameter such as velocity is a function of time

and one space co-ordinate only, say ‘x’. The variation of velocities in other two mutually
perpendicular directions is assumed negligible. u=f ( x ) , v=0∧w=0
 l) 2D flow is the type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and two space co-
ordinates, say x and y. The variation of velocity in the third direction is negligible.
u=f 1 ( x , y ) , v=f 2 ( x , y )∧w=0
m) 3D flow is the type of flow in which the velocity is a function of time and three mutually
perpendicular directions.
u=f 1 ( x , y , z ) , v =f 2 ( x , y , z ) ∧w=f 3 ( x , y , z )

2.2 Types of lines in fluid flow

There are two types of lines
a) Path line: A path line is locus of a fluid particle as it moves along. In other words a
path line is a curve traced by a single fluid particle during its motion.

b) Stream line: stream line is an imaginary line drawn in a flow field such that the
tangent drawn at any point on this line represents the direction of velocity vector.
Stream line shows the direction of motion of a number of particles at the same time

Considering a particle moving along a stream line for a very short distance ‘ds’ having its
components dx , dy and dz, along three mutually perpendicular co-ordinate axes.
Let the components of velocity vector Vs along x, y and z directions be u, v and w respectively.
The time taken by the fluid particle to move a distance ‘ds’ along the stream line with a velocity
Vs is:
ds
t=
Vs

dx dy dz
Which is the same as t= = =
u v w
Hence the differential equation of the steam line may be written as:
dx dy dz
= =
u v w
3 Rate of Flow or Discharge
Rate of flow or Discharge is defined as the quantity of a fluid flowing per second through a

section of pipe or channel. For an incompressible fluid (or liquid) the rate of flow or
discharge is expressed as the volume of the liquid flowing cross the section per second. For
compressible fluids (gases) the rate of flow is usually expressed as the weight of fluid
flowing across the section per second
The discharge=Q=V × A

Where A=area of cross−section of a pipe

V =average velocity of fluid across the section

3
m
Unit for Q=
s

4 Continuity Equation
Conservation of mass –Matter cannot be created or destroyed (changed in to a different
form of matter) this is known as conservation of mass Principle is applied to fixed
volumes (control volume) as the figure

For any control volume, the principle of conservation of mass states;

Mass entering per unit time = mass leaving per unit time + Increase of mass in the
control area per unit time

For steady flow there is no increase in the mass within the control volume;

Mass entering per unit time = mass leaving per unit time
Consider two cross- sections of a pipe.
Let V 1 = Average velocity at cross section 1-1
ρ1 = Density of fluid at section 1-1
A1 = Area of pipe at section 1-1
AndV 2, ρ2 A2 are the corresponding values at section 2-2
Mass entering per unit time at section 1-1= ρ1 A 1 V 1
Mass entering per unit time at section 2-2 = ρ2 A2 V 2

According to law of conservation of mass,

Rate of flow at section 1-1 = Rate of flow at section 2-2

ρ1 A 1 V 1 =ρ2 A2 V 2

This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called
“Continuity equation”. If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ1= ρ2 and the continuity equation
reduces to A1 V 1=¿ A2 V 2

The flow of fluid through a real pipe (or any other vessel) will vary due to the presence of a wall
-in this case we can use the mean velocities in the above continuity equation.

Example: A 250mm diameter pipe carries oil of specific gravity 0.9 at a velocity 0f 3m/s. At
another section the diameter is 200mm.find the velocity at this section and the mass rate of flow
of oil
 FLUID DYNAMICS
1. INTRODUCTION
A fluid in motion is subjected to several forces, which results in the variation of the
acceleration and the energies involved in the flow of the fluid.
The study of the forces and energies that are involved in the fluid flow is known as
Dynamics of fluid flow
The various forces that influence the motion of fluid are due to gravity( F g ), pressure( F p ),
viscosity( F v ), turbulence( F t ) and compressibility( F c ).
If a certain mass of fluid in motion is influenced by all the above forces, then according to
Newton’s second law of motion
The net force F x =¿ . Ma x = ( F g ) x +( F p ) x +( F v ) x + ( F t ) x +( F c )x . If the flow is assumed to be
ideal viscous force (Fv) is zero and compressibility ( F c ) is negligible , the equations of
motion are known as Euler’s equation of motion
In this equation of motion the forces due to gravity and pressure are taken in to
consideration and derivation is by considering the motion of the fluid element along a
stream-line
dp
The Euler’s equation of motion¿ + gdz+ vdv=0
ρ
2. BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
The Bernoulli equation is an approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net frictional
forces are negligible. Bernoulli’s equation is obtained by integrating the Euler’s equation
of motion as
dp
∫ ρ +∫ gdz+∫ vdv=constant
For incompressible flow, ρ is constant and
2
p v
+ gz + =constant
ρ 2
2
p v
+ + z=constant
ρg 2 g
 2 2
p1 v 1 p2 v 2
i .e + + z 1= + + z 2=Constant
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g

The above equation is Bernoulli’s equation in which

p
=Pressure energy per unit weight of fluid∨ pressure head
ρg
2
V
=Kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid ∨kinetic head
2g
Z=Potential energy p er unit weight of fluid∨Potential head
Therefore, the Bernoulli equation can be viewed as an expression of mechanical energy
balance and can be stated as follows
The sum of the kinetic, potential and flow (pressure) energies of a fluid particle is
constant along a streamline during steady flow when compressibility and frictional
effects are negligible.’
Recall that energy is transferred to a system as work when a force is applied to the system
through a distance. In the light of Newton’s second law of motion, the Bernoulli equation
can also be viewed as:
The work done by the pressure and gravity forces on the fluid particle is equal to the
increase in the kinetic energy of the particle.

3. LIMITATIONS ON THE USE OF THE BERNOULLI EQUATION

The Bernoulli equation is one of the most frequently used and misused equations in fluid
mechanics. It is important to know the restrictions on its applicability and observe the
limitations on its use,
a) Steady flow: The first limitation on the Bernoulli equation is that it is applicable to
steady flow. Therefore, it should not be used during the transient start-up and shut-
down periods, or during periods of change in the flow conditions.
b) Negligible viscous effects: Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small,
and frictional effects may or may not be negligible.
c) No shaft work: The Bernoulli equation was derived from a force balance on a
particle moving along a streamline. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation is not
applicable in a flow section that involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine
or impeller since such devices disrupt the streamlines and carry out energy
interactions with the fluid particles. When the flow section considered involves any of
these devices, the energy equation should be used instead to account for the shaft
work input or output. However, the Bernoulli equation can still be applied to a flow
section prior to or past a machine (assuming, of course, that the other restrictions on
its use are satisfied).
 d) Incompressible flow: One of the approximations used in the derivation of the
Bernoulli equation is that 𝜌 = constant and thus the flow is incompressible.
e) Negligible heat transfer: The density of a gas is inversely proportional to
temperature, and thus the Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow sections that
involve significant temperature change such as heating or cooling sections.
f) Flow along a streamline: Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation
2
p v
+ + z=constant is applicable along a streamline, and the value of the constant
ρg 2 g
C is generally different for different streamlines.

APPLICATIONS OF BERNOULLI’S EQUATION

VENTURIMETER
A venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of fluid through a pipe.
The basic principle on which venturimeter works is that by reducing the cross-sectional area of
the flow passage, a pressure difference is created and the measurement of the pressure difference
enables the determination of the discharge through the pipe

A venture meter consists of (1) an inlet section, followed by a converging cone (2) a cylindrical
throat and (3) a gradually divergent cone.
• The inlet section of venture meter is the same diameter as that of the pipe which is followed by
a convergent cone.
• The convergent cone is a short pipe, which tapers from the original size of the pipe to that of
the throat of the venture meter.
• The throat of the venture meter is a short parallel – sided tube having its cross-sectional area
smaller than that of the pipe.
• The divergent cone of the venture meter is a gradually diverging pipe with its cross-sectional
area increasing from that of the throat to the original size of the pipe.
• At the inlet section and the throat i.e sections 1 and 2 of the venture meter pressure gauges are
provided.

Let a 1 and a 2 be the cross-section areas at inlet and throat sections, at which P1 and P2 the
pressures and velocities V 1 and V 2respectively.
Assuming the flowing fluid is incompressible and there is no loss of energy between section 1
and 2 and applying Bernoulli’s equation between sections 1 and 2, we get,

2 2
p1 v 1 p2 v 2
+ + z 1= + +z
ρf g 2 g ρf g 2 g 2
If Venturi is connected in a horizontal pipe then, z 1=z 2 then,
2 2
p1 v 1 p2 v 2
+ = +
ρf g 2 g ρf g 2 g

2 2
p1 p2 v 2 v 1
− = −
ρf g ρf g 2 g 2 g

2 2
p 1− p2 v 2 v 1
= −
ρf g 2 g 2g

p 1− p2
=H= pressure head (1)
ρf g
2 2
v2 v1
H= −
2g 2 g
Q=a1 v 1=a 2 v 2
Q Q
v 1= , v 2=
a1 a2

( )
2
Q 1 1
H= 2
− 2
2 g a2 a 1
a 1 a 2 √ 2 gH
Q=
√a −a22
1
2

Above equation is for ideal fluid and is called as the theoretical discharge equation of a
venturimeter .For real fluid the equation changes to
a a √ 2 gH
Qact =C d 1 22 (2)
√ a1 −a22
C d=discharge coefficient

Consider datum line A-A from manometer

p1− p2=hg ( ρm −ρf )

p1− p2=h ρf g
( ρm
ρf
−1
)
p 1− p2
ρf g
=h
ρm
ρf(−1
)
H=h
( ρm
ρf
−1
) (3)

Where ρ m=Density of manometric fluid

ρ f =Density of flowing liquid

Orifice meter
An orifice meter is a simple device for measuring the discharge through pipes.
Orifice meter also works on the same principle as that of venture meter i.e by reducing
cross-sectional area of the flow passage, a pressure difference between the two sections is
developed and the measurement of the pressure difference enables the determination of the
discharge through the pipe.
Orifice meter is a cheaper arrangement and requires smaller length and can be used where space
is limited.
This gives the discharge through an orifice meter and is similar to the discharge through venture
meter. The co-efficient C may be considered as the co-efficient of discharge
of an orifice meter. The co-efficient of discharge for an orifice meter is smaller than that
for a venture meter. This is because there are no gradual converging and diverging flow
passages as in the case of venture meter, which results in a greater loss of energy and consequent
reduction of the co-efficient of discharge for an orifice meter.
Pitot tube

A Pitot tube is a simple device used for measuring the velocity of flow.
The basic principle used in this is that if the velocity of flow at a particular point is reduced to
zero, which is known as stagnation point, the pressure there is increased due to conversion of the
kinetic energy in to pressure energy and by measuring the increase in pressure energy at this
point, the velocity of flow may be determined.
Simplest form of a pitot tube consists of a glass tube, large enough for capillary effects to be
negligible and bent at right angles.
A single tube of this type is used for measuring the velocity of flow in an open channel.
The tube is dipped vertically in the flowing stream of fluid with its open end A directed to face
the flow and other open end projecting above the fluid surface in the stream.
The fluid enters the tube and the level of the fluid in the tube exceeds that of the fluid surface in
the surrounding stream. This is so because the end A of the tube is a stagnation point, where the
fluid is at rest, and the fluid approaching end A divides at this point and passes around tube.