14 Open System Interconnection (OS!) Model ‘Open System Interconnection (OSI) model developed by the International Standards: Organization (ISO) describes the flow of information from on Computer to another. OSI model is also called ISO OS! Reference Model, Itisa Conceptual model that has seven layers. Physical, data link, network, transpor, session, presentation and application are the seven layers of OSI model. Each layer performs distinct functions on the data in accordance with the previous layer functions. The application, presentation and session layers are called as upper layers. Figure 1.8 shows OS! Model. - ~ —_— Upper layers Figure 1.8 - OS! Model 10 etking®All the lay vers of the OSI releronce model use ditferent protocols. Protocol defines the procedure that is to be followed during data tran: ‘erased Eee 19 data transmission, Its th = g jn 1 Sot oF spe nd, is used to tran Ss ecified rules and standards used to transmit data from one 1.4.1 Physical Layer Physical layer is the first or the bottom most layer of the OSI model. This layer is used to este communication medium. It also defines the electrical and mechanical specifications like ish or terminate ing opi Physical layer receives data from the upper layer called the data link layer. It converts the received data into bit stream. The data is then transmitted through the medium to the receiver. At the receiving end, physical layer jons of the medium. cables, connectors a receives the data in bit format. It forwards the data to the data link layer. This funct shown in Figure 1.9, Sender Receiver From Data Unk Layer, To Data Link Layer Layer 2 Data Layer 2 Data i Layer frroro0o 0101100103) Toresoi0 ror v90104 & Transmission medium ZA Figure 1.9 - Functioning of Physical Layer Rect ; LE i” | Responsibilities of the physical layer are: connecting the Characteristics of media - Defines the characteristics of the interface which is uscd > devices, It also defines the type of the transmission media such as copper wires or fiber optic. cables. nd 1) Into signal. Encoding - Defines the encoding type. Encoding means changing bit stream (0s ai spending upon the Before transmission, physical layer encodes the signal into electrical or optical form der media. 3c per wa ‘Transmission Rate - Defines the transmission rate of bits. This provides number of bits transm 0 second. It defines how long will the duration of a bit be. > Transmission Mode - Defines the transmission mode between two devices. Transmission mes the direction of signal flow. The different types of transmission modes are: can only send und the Simplex - Communication is done only in one direction. One device only receive. Half duplex - Communication is done in both the directions but not at the same line = Fall duplex - Communication is done simultaneously in both the directionsLine Configuration’ Defines the way in which dovices are connected to the appropriate link. For example, point to point or multipoint.” “The point to point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two devices. But in the multipoint line configuration more than two devices share a single link. Topology Detines how the devices are connected to form a network. (Refer chapter number 2 for detal information on topology.) ay Synchronization of Bits - The sender and receiver must use the same bit ale. The clocks of the sender and recelver must also be synchronized for bit level synchronization 14.2 Data Link Layer Frames + Data link layer is the second layer of the OSI model. It handles data transfer between network and'the physical layers, Data unit at the data link layer is called as frame. Functioning of data link layer is shown in Figure 1.10. Data link layer receives data from network layer. It adds header and trailer to the data and passes data to the physical layer. At the receiver side, data link layer receives data from the physical layer. It detaches header and traller from the data and passes data tothe network layer. Sender Recelver { From Network Layer Totetwork Layer | Layer 3 Bata Layer 3 Don fr Layer 20313 Layer 2 Data To Physical Layer From Physical Layer Figure 4.10 - Functioning of Data Link Layer, Responsiallities of the data link layer are: Framing - The physical layer delivers raw bits from the source to destination. During transmission, the value of the bits cen change. It is also possible that the number of bits received by the receiver may 90 different from the number of bits sent by the sender. To resolve this problem, the data link layer organizes the bits into manageable data units called as frames. se Physical Addressing - Data link layer adds header to the frame which contains the physical eddress of the sender andor receiver. Headers are assigned when the frames are fo be distributed to various systems within the network. ‘When the devices in the network use the same link for communication, at atime only one t link layer provides access to a particular device to use the link at a sy Access Control - Goviee should transmit data, The data ——_ Qetking®> Flow Control «I may happen tha the speed at which the sencing and recelving nodes operate may ete, The sending node may transmit data ata faster rate but the receiving node may receive it at a slower rate, The rate of data transmission between two nodes should be controlled to keep both the nodes in synchronization. This process is callod flow contro. Error Control - Another function of the Data Link layer is error control. Error control detects and corrects > errors. During transmission, If a frame is lost or corrupted, the data link layer retransmits that frame. It also prevents duplication of frames. Error contol is accomplished using tral at tho end of the frame, 4.4.3 Network Layer packet “This is the third layer of the OSI model. The data unit at this layer is known as packet. There is no need of the network layer ifthe two communicating devices lie on the same network. However, when the two devices are connected on different networks, network layer is, essential for providing source to destination delivery of “packets. Functioning of network layer is shown in Figure 1.11. Network layer receives data from transport layer. It adds header to the data and passes data to the data link ayer. At the recelver side, network layer recoives data from data link layer. It detaches header from the data and passes data to the transport layer. . Sender Recelver . From Transport Layer ToTransperttner ayers Data ayer e Bats : re | ht] i Layer 3 Bata taper 30a ' To Datatink Layer From Data fink Layee i Figure 1.14 - Functioning of Network Layer | omonstitice of the exaot ijar re \ > Logical Addressing - The data lnk layer provides physical addressing which is usoful fr a local net \ When the packet is destined for a device outside the network, we require other addressing shone to Identity cource and dostination, Network layer adds header tothe data that includes the fo, "cl ati (IF tess of thesouce and detnain (tis a a2 adress that uniquely Henle the device connate Routing - Routing is a process wherein a proper path is dotined for the packets to reach the «sta! outing can be of two types, static or dynamic. In static routing, the route to be followed by @ pot“ feady ect by the network administrator. In dynamic routing, the route to be followed by a pasling Congestion Issues - Any given network has a certain capacity to deliveror handle number of packets. When the packets exceed the handling capacity, then the network is unable to cope with them and results in excess accimulation of packets over the network. This is called congestion. Congestion may occur due to various reasons like shortage of buffer space in network devices, slow links and slow processors It is the responsibilty of the network layer to control such congestion problems. > _ Internetworking - Intemetworking means connecting two or more computer networks together. The Internet is the best example of internetworking, There are diferent types of networks that exist inthe real world such: 4s LAN, MAN and WAN. These networks are interconnected using various notworking devices such as bridges, routers and gateways (Refer to chapter 10 fr detailed information about bridge, routers and gateways) 1.4.4 Transport Layer Ss on ‘This is the fourth layer of the OS! model. The data unit at this layer Is known as segment, The network layer deals with source-to-destination delivery of individual packets and does not recognize any relationship between them. On the other hand, the transport layer ensures that the entire message reaches in order and handles error Control and flow control at the source-to destination level ’ Funconing of tanspr layer is shown in Figute 1.12 Transpo layer receives daa rom the session layer. Gilde the data into segments with each segment having its own header and passes these eagmerts tothe network layer. At the receiver side, transport layer receives packets from the network layer. It detaches headers | trom them and nen reasombls the segments ino oginal message and pasces that message to tho session yer Sender Receiver, From Session Layer To Session Layer yer 3 Bata = t Layer Data ‘ayer 4 Ons [ieerscns rd Bae Tonetwar Layer From Network ayer Freansport Lave Fran Figure 1.12 - Functioning of Transport Layer Responsibilities of transport layer are: > Service-point Addres: 19 - There may be number of programs running at the same time on a computer. For this purpose, source-to-destination delivery should also include process-lo-process delivery. Data must be transferred from a specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process on another computer and to accomplish this, port address is required. Thus, transport layer includes service- point actdress (also referred to as port address) in the header. Using these port addresses transport layer delivers tne packets to the correct process, 1 a eseticing’Le lw having @ Segmentation and Reassembly - A message is divided into segments with each segment a . 19 numbers, se usnee number. When the message arves a the destination, wth the help of hese sequenc are the transport layer reassemble the message correc. Sequence numbers azo enable tranepo eterming and replace the segments that were lost inthe transmission i service. In > Connection Control - Transport layer provides either conneetion-orianted or connectinless Connection-oriented service, transport layer establishes a connection with the transport phen ‘destination before transmitting segments and terminates the connection when all the data is ce ce 'n connectioniess service, transport layer treats each segment as individual packet and transmits i fo transport layer at destination rt layer, on the Flow Control - Data link layer provides flow control of data across a single link. Transport lay’ ‘other hand is also responsible for flow control which is performed end to end. nd, Transport Error Control - Transport layer also performs error checking. Error control takes place end to er .ceiving machine layer at the sending machine ensures that the entire message is delivered at the receiving without an error. Segments are retransr 1d to achieve error correction. -destinatic id to end ‘Transport layer is concemed with delivering the entire message from source-to-destination. The en’ delivery of a message is shown in Figure 1.13, Message Message 1 Network layer 1 ' Host-torhost delivery \ —~—<—<$——___________, Transport layer End-to-end reliable delivery Figure 1.13 - End to End Delivery of Message “The transport layer is responsible for the source to destination delivery of the entice message. 4.4.5 Session Layer ‘Yass he fith ayer ofthe OS model, This layer establishes, manages, syichronizos and terminates uetweon the computers It also sets up, coordinates and terminates interactions end dislogn bes communicating devices. It provides either half duplex or ful duplex service, Functioning of sossion layer Is shown in Figure 1.14, Session layer receives data fr 2m the presentation layer. it adds head and eytehvonzaton Bs tothe dala and passes data to the anspor, ssossion layer receive ; layor, At the recelver si tom tango lye detaches hada af eyetonzaten a tation layer, ™ passes data to the prev: Geng ata eng isne eaten From Preterttton Layer ‘ToPresetaon Layer YoTampor Layer From Tanspont Layee Figure 1.14 - Functioning of Session Layer Responsibiities of session layer are: > Dialog Control - The session layer is responsible for setting up sessions between devices. It allows two devices to enter into dialog (communication process). These dialogs can take place ether in half-duplex rfl duplex mode, Dialog contol is implemented using a data token. The user that has the token is only allowed to send the data. When the user is done with the operation the token is passed on to next user. > Synchronization - At the session layer, checkpoints (synchronization bits) are added into a stream of data to synchronize the sessions. For example, i a device is sending a file of 1000 pages, then you can insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that these 100 pages are received without an error and acknowledged independently. If an error occurs while transmitting page 631, the only pages that should be retransmitted are trom 601 to 631. Previous pages need not to be resent because the successful reception of the pages form 1 to 600 must have acknowledged before transmission of the pages from 601 to 700. 1.4.6 Presentation Layer Functioning of presentation layer fs shown in Figure 1.15. Presentation layer receives data from application ‘ayer. adds hvader to the data and passes data tothe session layer. At the receiver side, the presentation layer ‘ecelves data from session layer. It detaches header from the data and passes data to the application layer. Sender cE ae oe Presentation! Encoded, encrypted & [Pretantailon] Encoded, encrypted & coal Canoes” [we]] Peta] Sees [|| ~t t " i Layer 6 Data Layer Date To Session Layer From Seasion Layer Figure 1.15 - Functioning of Presentation Layer 16 Seizing’| I EE eS Responsibilities of presentation layer are > Translation - The = The runnin 9 Programs on the computor exchange dala inthe form of character stings and numbers. Be o andes rae te Hemet should be converted to bits format. The presentation layer eee eee aaa eee eed ystems, At the jon layer changes the information from its sender-dependent format into @ ‘common format that will be accepted by the device. At the receiving side, presentation layer changes the information from the common format into its receiver-dependent format. For example, consider one device that uses Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBGDIC) to represent data and wishes t0 transmit data to a device using American Standard Code fr Information Interchange (ASCII) fo represent the samo data. The information sent directly won't be accepted by the device. To resolve this problem, the fo the EBCDIC code is converted presentation layer performs the conversion of codes. At the sender's into a common format. At the receiver's end the presentation layer again converts that data (common format) into ASCII code. > _ Encryption - The presentation layer also adds security to data by encrypting it. Encryption is @ process 0 which the data is converted into form that prevents unauthorized users from reading. Encryption allows a systom to catty sensitive and private information. The encrypted data is decrypted by the presentation layer at the receiving end. Decryption is a process opposite to encryption. It converts the encrypied message back to its original form. of encoding data using less number of bit > Compression - Data compression refers to a process le transrniting used to represent the Information. It is important w! multimedia information such as text, audio and video. Lossless and lossy compressions 15s compression, the data received alter decompressing the process reduces the number of bits the two types: cof data compression techniques. In Tosste compressed data fs the exact replica ofthe original data, In fossy compression, the data recelvod alter decompressing the compressed data fs not the exact replica ofthe orginal data, The data is ost in the compression and decompression processes. Presentation layor is responsible for performing data compression. 4.4.7 Application Layer means for the user to access information on the network ‘This is the seventh layer of the OSI model. I provi Using an application. It also supports serdees such as electronic mal, remote fle access and transfor and shared database management. Functioning of application layer Is shown in Figure 1.16. Jetking’Receiver. = ‘User Faw | [Ovecton] Bervee ee ‘To Presentation Layer Prom a ion Layer Figure 1.16 - Functioning of Applicat Services provi 19 this software the user can log Network Virtual Terminal -Itis a software version of physical terminal. Usin motely connected on the network. The application la jote host, tual terminal and sends it to the | | 1d by application layer are: | (on to a computer that is rer yer emulates a terminal at the remote host. When the user's computer wants to communicate with the rem vvitual terminal that converts the data inthe intermediary format used by the vir remote host. After processing the data the remote host replies to the terminal is application user can access files (to make ‘communicates with the in the reverse order. File Transfer, Access and Management (FTAM) - Using this changes) ina remote host. It also enables the user to retrieve and manage files from a remote computer so that the files can be used on a local computer. S Mall Services - Using this application e-mails can be forwarded to another device. Message handling system (MHS) is the OSI protocol used to transfer mail over the internet. Directory Services - Another service provided by the Application layer is directory services. directory is ‘a source of information about objects such as people, organizations, programs and files. These objects are managed by directory services. 14.8 Summary of Layers Each layer in the OSI model performs distinct functions on the data in accordance with the previous layer functions. Layers accept functions from the below layer and transfer the functionality to the layers above. The functions of the layers in the OSI model can be summarized as below: 2 User information is converted into data in the upper layers Data is converted into segments in the transport layer 2 Segments are converted into packets in the network layer > Packets are converted into frames in the data link layer > Frames are converted into bits in the physical layer 18