JULY, 2021

Volume : 49 § Number : 07 § Total Pages: 48

A view of Ahmedabad-Vadodara Expressway

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 INDIAN HIGHWAYS
Volume : 49 § Number : 07 § JULY, 2021 § ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934

CONTENTS
Ø From the Editor’s Desk 4-5

Ø Advertisements 6-9,19 & 46

Technical Papers

Ø Potential Emission Reduction Due to Improved Non - Motorized Transport Friendly Infrastructure-A
Case Study of Delhi 10
By Mukti Advani & Niraj Sharma

Ø Estimation of Equivalent California Bearing Ratio With Respect to Testing Surcharge Weights for Clayey Soil 20
By Bishwabikash Rout, Ashutosh Sat & Dr. V. Govindaraj

Ø Structural and Functional Design of A Vehicle Mounted Mobile Bridge Inspection Unit (MBIU) 29
By Rajeev Kumar Garg, Rajesh Chak, Vinod R. Dahake, Ashwani Kumar & Abhijit Mahapatra

Ø Recommendations to Avoid Delay in Construction of Elevated Metro Project 36

By Dr. Abhijeet S. Gandage, Vinik K. Saraf & Viraj V. Bhadale

Ø MoRT&H Circular 42

FEEDBACK
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 RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ROAD SECTOR

Roads are the dominant national assets for transport and constitute a pedal for national economy to fuel
economic growth and reap social benefits. The roads and road transport are constantly evolving in response to
large social, economic, and environmental shifts. Economic progress and fast-paced urbanization trend further
motivate the establishment of integrated and cost-effective transport systems for the mobility of persons and
goods. With growing road network of the country and with ambitious road development programme, the role of
R&D inputs become most valuable, considering the large impact that even a minor technological change can
bring in such scenario. The basic aim of research should be to develop durable infrastructure, to improve in-
service performance, reduce maintenance needs and costs, reduce life-cycle costs and significantly use new
technologies and marginal materials.

Road systems require solutions that promote energy efficiency, multimodality, sustainability, reductions in road
congestion, and safety in transport. Research and development play very important role in arriving at the above
solutions and towards evolution of technology. As technologies are changing at a fast pace, we must come with
new ideas, learn from our experiences and develop the capacity to compete and innovate user friendly
technologies.

The Research and Development can be broadly categorized into three verticals: (a) Basic research, (b) Applied
research, and (c) Proof-of-concept or field demonstration. An important prerequisite for taking up sustained
research and development under the second and third vertical is the necessity of having strong foundation of
basic research expertise. A research ecosystem already exists in our country to carry out high-quality basic
research.

We know that the development of innovative products and technologies requires access to advanced
laboratories and testing facilities. At present the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI), State government
research laboratories, several academic institutes viz, IITs, NITs, etc & Private industries are doing pioneering
service to the road research. Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) and its allied agencies and
other Government Departments associated with Road Sector are giving major push to the R&D activities and
standardization in the road sector. In MoRTH, there is a dedicated Standards and Research (S&R) zone which
provides funding for several research schemes and studies on topical subjects not only to the CRRI but also to
the Regional Research Centres in the states and academic institutions (IITs, NITs, etc.). MoRTH have also
signed Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) for promoting research and training in the area of Development
of Highway Infrastructure with IIT Roorkee and BHU IIT.

The oil industry (Indian Oil Corporation & Hindustan Petroleum) and the cement industry have also their own
R&D centres and they are contributing to research in their niche areas. For example, Hindustan Petroleum have
joined hands with Colas of France and produce bituminous emulsions which help in promoting cold-mix
technology and reducing carbon foot print. This has encouraged some private firms to produce bituminous
emulsions with technology support from the CRRI. However, research initiatives by the private industry are
driven primarily from commercial angle.

The IRC has also been playing an active role in the promotion of road research. In October, 1973, the Highway
Research Board (HRB) was set up under the auspices of the IRC for giving undivided attention to research and
development activities. Identification, Monitoring and Research Application (IMRA) Committee looks after
the research work and compiles data of road research work done in the country on yearly basis. Under the aegis
4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021
of HRB, an Expert Committee for “Accreditation of New Materials and Techniques” was constituted for the
purpose of recommending usage of New Materials/Products/Technologies on trial basis for road and bridge
works in India. For wider dissemination, the HRB publishes State-of-the-Art Reports, Highway Research
Record and Highway Research Journal.

The main thrust of Research and Development (R&D) in the roads sector is to build a sustainable and
environment friendly road infrastructure comparable with the best roads in the world. To build such roads, our
existing technology policy needs to be reformulated in the light of the scenarios emerging from technological
development taking place elsewhere in the world, increased traffic, depleting sources of construction materials,
environmental damage and aesthetic consideration. We need to be more aggressive in acquiring and applying
advanced technologies in wide range of fields, including roads, bridges, tunnels, traffic, transportation and
incident management.

Investment in road research should be viewed as a long-term investment, to put the country on higher pedestal in
the field of highways. It is well established that investment in road research gives larger benefits. Recent
Government announcement that Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) spends of 2% may include research
grants to institutes engaged in promoting science and technology research, is expected to give boost to R&D
activities.

Often it is seen that research schemes take a lot of time to commence after their identification and taking the
research work to a logical completion also takes considerable time. There is a need to evolve a strategy to reduce
this time period and put R&D activities on a fast track. It is essential to shorten the time taken in award of the
research work and in implementing them by following a comprehensive monitoring system which should also
solve the bottlenecks, when faced, while carrying out research work. Further, there are many organizations in
the country which are involved in the R&D activities. There is an urgent need to coordinate all these R&D
activities to avoid duplication of research work and their dissemination for effective application of the available
results in the field.

The construction of Road infrastructure is presently getting the highest priority and required budgetary support
from Government of India. Therefore, there is a greater need for accelerating research focussed on innovative
and implementable practices and technologies to meet the challenges in making our road infrastructure as one of
the best in the world.

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 5

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POTENTIAL EMISSION REDUCTION DUE TO IMPROVED NON - MOTORIZED
TRANSPORT FRIENDLY INFRASTRUCTURE-A CASE STUDY OF DELHI

MUKTI ADVANI1 NIRAJ SHARMA2

ABSTRACT
Worldwide air pollution from the vehicles have been identified as the one of the major contributors of air pollution in
various urban centres of the world specially in less industrialised countries like India. Delhi, the capital city of India, has
been experiencing exponential growth in the motorized vehicle population which has increased from ~4.3 million in the year
2005 to ~10.7 million in 2018. Among these ~80% of the vehicles are cars and motorised two wheelers. It is estimated that
~83% of CO, ~36% of NOx and ~20% of PM2.5 emissions are contributed by motor vehicles only. Further, the transportation
sector is the third most GHG emitting sector in India, in which the road transportation sector is the major contributor
contributing ~ 95% and ~53 % of total annual CO2 and CO transport emissions. Recently, in order to control severe air
pollution problem in Delhi, Government has taken several measures and also introduced emergency response plans in case
of hazardous air pollution levels, particularly during winter months. Amongst various remedial measures/action plans,
formulation of “National Clean Air Programme” (NCAP) and “Comprehensive Action Plan” (CAP) for Delhi and NCR are
the major initiatives taken by the Government which amongst other measures also include infrastructure development for
Non-Motorized Transport (NMT) at city and state level to improve air quality in various polluted cities in the country
including Delhi. Even after known qualitative benefits of NMT friendly infrastructure, it is important to quantify such
benefits to reclaim the road space and budget for various projects of transport sector. Further, for better decision making
involving short and long term planning, segregated benefits for captive (existing) and potential users becomes important.
The present study focuses on estimating benefits of providing NMT friendly infrastructure in terms of reduction in fuel
consumption and corresponding vehicular emissions for Delhi. The study estimated the potential non-motorised trips by
converting existing short length trips (trips < 6 km) made by Car and/or Motorised Two Wheelers into non-motorised trips.
The study found ~14% reduction in fuel consumption and ~7-14% reduction in vehicular emission loads along with ~15%
reduction in CO2e.
1. INTRODUCTION measures taken by the Government, the air pollution
situation in these cities is still far from satisfactory. Among
Increasing air pollution level is one of the biggest the most polluted cities in the world (based on the PM2.5
environmental challenge and health issue being faced by values) six are from India, with Ghaziabad (a satellite town
the entire world. More than 90% of the world population in Uttar Pradesh near Delhi) is at the top while Delhi at
lives in places where air pollution levels exceed WHO number five apart from Noida, Gurugram, Greater Noida
standards (IHME, 2018). Higher air pollution levels not and Bhandwari at number six, seven nine and ten
only affects human health (premature deaths, diseases and respectively.
shortening the life span) but also adversely affects
economic growth of any country. The Sustainable Motor vehicles have been identified as one of the major
Development Goals (SDGs), which is a "a blueprint to contributors in deterioration of air quality in these cities
achieve a better and more sustainable future for all by (CPCB, 2015). Further, the road transport sector has been
2030" adopted in year 2015 in UN General Assembly, also identified as one of the major contributors of CO2
call for reduction of the burden of deaths and diseases from emissions in India contributing ~87% of the total CO2
the air pollution. Air pollution situation in most of the equivalent emissions from the transport sector (India GHG
urban centres of the India is quite alarming. Despite several Programme, 2015).

1 Senior Scientist, Email: [email protected]

2 Senior Principal Scientist, } Transportation Planning and Environment Division,
Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi

10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

As per the recent estimates (IITK, 2016), vehicular to quantify such benefits to reclaim the road space and
emission contributes ~9% PM2.5,~20%PM10,~36%NOX and budget for various projects of transport sector. Within the
~83%CO of total air pollution load in Delhi. The problem is scope of NMT friendly infrastructure, the present study
further compounded by the fact that ~55% of the considers (i) walk able footpaths (ii) segregated cycle lanes
population (~7.8 million people) in Delhi resides within on major arterial roads (iii) safe vehicular speed on all other
500 m of roads and is therefore, at increased risk from roads to keep walking and cycling safe (iv) minimum grade
traffic pollution (Jerrett et al., 2010). In fact, Delhi has been separated crosswalks (v) priority for cycling at
experiencing exponential growth in the motorized vehicle intersections, etc. However, considering the definition of
population, which has increased from ~4.3 million in the NMT, the present study has only considered walking and
year 2005 to ~10.7 million motor vehicles in 2018, growing cycling as NMT. Further, electric rickshaws have not been
at the average rate of ~9.9% per year. Among these ~80% considered as NMT due to two reasons; first, it has a motor
of the vehicles are personalized mode of transportation (i.e. motorised) and second, it can be operated at the speed
followed by ~10% public transportation. Delhi has very higher than 20 km/hr.
high traffic density resulting in regular traffic congestion
and delays at various traffic intersections. For better decision making for short and long term
planning, segregated benefits for captive and potential
In order to control severe air pollution problem in Delhi, users becomes important, which depend on availability of
Government has introduced emergency response plans like primary and/or secondary data. Dhār and Shukla (2013)
Air Quality Index (AQI) based Graded Response Action opined that though there is no time series data available for
P l a n ( G R A P ) a n d l o n g e r- t e r m s t r a t e g i e s v i z . , non-motorised transport in India, the same has been
Comprehensive Action Plan (CAP) for Delhi and NCR estimated at 220 billion passenger kilometres (pkm) for the
Further Government has also formulated “National Clean year 2020. Further, Non-motorised transport catered to
Air Programme (NCAP), which is a comprehensive, city 25% pkm in 2010 out of a total demand of 892 billion pkm
and pollution specific, time bound action plan in 102 for urban transport which included passenger as well as
Indian cities (including Delhi) that are considered to have freight transport in India.
air quality worse than the specific stipulated by National
Ambient Air Quality Standards. Recently, the Government It is estimated that the CO2 emissions from transport in
of India has notified “Commission for Air Quality BAU (Business As Usual Scenario) would increase by
Management for the National Capital Region and around 5.5 times from year 2010 to the year 2050.Tiwari et
Adjoining Areas Ordinance, 2020” (GOI, 2020). This al. (2016) studied travel behaviour of two medium size
Commission is a statuary authority with powers to issue Indian cities namely Rajkot and Vishakhapatnam focusing
directions and take up complaints, restrict, regulate, on Passenger transport only. The impact of improving built
prohibit and close any activity/industry which is and /or environment and infrastructure on travel mode shares, fuel
are likely to cause air polluition in NCR and adjoining are consumption, emission levels and traffic safety were
as comprising the states of Delhi, UP, Haryana, Punjab and analysed. The study observed that for the scenario of
Rajasthan. The Commission has also replaced earlier improving only NMT infrastructure, estimated percentage
Supreme Coourt appointed EPCA. improvement in emissions is expected to be between 5 -
12% based on range of modal shift.
Amongst other remedial measures/action plan(s), NCAP
The present study focuses on estimating the benefits of
and CAP for Delhi and NCR and recent ordnance on air
providing NMT friendly infrastructure for the Delhi, the
quality, the Government have also identified and stipulated
capital of India. The study also estimated the potential non-
infrastructure development for Non-Motorized Transport
motorised trips by converting existing short length trips (<
(NMT) as one of the action plans for city and state level to
6 km) made by Car and Motorised Two Wheelers (MTWs)
control the air pollution in various polluted cities in the
into non-motorised trips. Potential benefits are quantified
country (including Delhi). National Urban Transport
in terms of reduction in fuel consumption and
Policy (NUTP, 2014) also mentions that the Government
corresponding vehicular emissions.
would give priority to the construction of cycle tracks,
pedestrian paths and facilities for cycle rickshaws in all
cities to enhance safety and thereby enhance use of non- 2. OBJECTIVES AND STUDY AREA
motorized modes.
The objectives of the present study are:
Indian cities traditionally relied on walking, bicycling, and
public transport modes for daily commute. Many cities still s To estimate the number of shorter trips (< 6 km) made
have high share of these modes despite the current surge in by private vehicles (Car and Motorised Two
personal vehicle ownership. Even after known qualitative Wheelers) in Delhi as potential non-motorised trips.
benefits of NMT friendly infrastructure(s), it is important
s To quantify fuel consumption and vehicular

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 11

 TECHNICAL PAPER

emission, if these potential trips are converted to Apart from the benefits from the shift from Cars and Two
NMT by providing NMT friendly infrastructure. Wheelers to NMT, improvement is expected for other
motorised vehicles as well. Benefits for motorised vehicles
In this study, NMT friendly infrastructure is considered for is associated with level of service (speed), which is
the entire city, and not for any limited/restricted area. associated with the space availability. Most commonly,
National Capital Territory of Delhi has been chosen for the pedestrians do walk on 'road' and not on footpath due to
present case study. The population of Delhi has increased poor quality of footpaths which results in reduced space for
from 13.9 to 16.75 million (~21% increase) between year motorised vehicles. By providing better NMT friendly
2001and 2011and it has already crossed 28 million mark in infrastructure, pedestrians and cycle users with other Non-
2017. A UN report released in 2018 says Delhi could be the Motorised Vehicles (NMVs) (Pedestrians, Cycles and
world's most populated city by 2028 with 37.2 million Cycle rickshaws) will utilise it fully and result in additional
people. Rapidly growing city in terms of area and space for motorised vehicles.
population has led to higher number of vehicles,
particularly personal vehicles, which is putting enormous 4. DATA COLLECTION
pressure not only on transport infrastructure but
environment also. Study included collection of following primary and
secondary data from various sources:
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
i. Disaggregated data of households (HHs) including
Research methodology adopted to achieve the objectives is their vehicle ownership is collected for 5% of Delhi
shown in Fig. 1. Secondary data from various sources were Population from Micro Census Data (Census, 2011).
also collected and extracted for estimating the total number
of motorised trips made by private vehicles (cars and ii. Trip characteristics of household members owning
MTWs). Out of total motorised trips by these private different types of vehicles from household surveys
vehicles, number of shorter trips (i.e. <6 km) has been carried out in Delhi (CRRI, 2017) for 5,066
estimated based on trip length distribution data. These households.
estimated trips are considered as potential trips to be
converted into non-motorised trips i.e. walking, cycling iii. Modal split information has been collected from
and cycle rickshaw by providing suitable NMT multiple sources i.e. CRRI studies conducted in year
infrastructure. 2017 and 2019, Annual report of DMRC (2020) and
report by Government of National Capital Territory
To estimate the potential benefits in terms of reduction in (GNCT, 2019)
fuel consumption and corresponding vehicular emissions,
detailed analysis has been carried out in two scenarios. iv. Fuel consumption and vehicular emission estimates
Scenario A is for estimation of (existing) total trips made are done using data related to age profile of cars and
by cars and two wheelers and Scenario B estimates the
MTWs along with information related to percentage
number of short trips (<6 km) made by these vehicles in
Delhi. Finally, fuel consumption and vehicular emission of Petrol, diesel and CNG driven cars in the car fleet
reduction for two scenarios are calculated for estimating of Delhi; Sharma et al., 2019). Further, VKT based
the potential benefits of providing NMT friendly emission factors (CPCB, 2015) and deterioration
infrastructure. factors for different categories of vehicles (CPCB,
2000) were used to estimate corresponding vehicular
emissions. Further, CO2e (CO2equivalent) estimates
[for estimating the Global Warming Potential (GWP)
of Green House Gases (GHGs) were made] by using
fuel based IPCC emission factors (IPCC;2000, 2006).

5. CHARACTERISTICS OF CAR AND MTW

TRIPS
Primary data collected from 5066 Households of Delhi in
year 2015 (CRRI, 2017) included the details of trips made
by households' members owning different types of
vehicles. Out of these 5066 households, 946 households
did not own any motorised vehicle, 1284 households
owned at least one car but did not own any MTW, 1678
Fig. 1 Study Methodology

12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

households owned at least one MTW without any car and Table 2 Trip Length Distribution of
1158 households owned at least one car and one MTW. It is Car andMTW Trips
to be noted that household owning a particular vehicle type
may own one or more than one vehicles of that type.
Data regarding the number of trips made by owned
vehicles were collected among the households owning at
least one vehicle (i.e. 5,066-946=4,120). Out of 4,120
households, trip details for 113 households were
incomplete/unclear, leaving 4,007 households for trip
analysis. Among the 4,007 households, average number of Source: (CRRI, 2017)
trips made by MTWs and Cars is presented in Table 1. 6. ESTIMATION OF CAR AND MTW TRIPS OF
ALL HOUSEHOLDS
Table 1 Number of Car and MTW Trips The present study estimates the number of cars and MTW
by Vehicle Ownership since year 2019 for estimating the number of trips made by
them and their Vehicle Kilometres Travelled (VKT) in a
day. Estimation approach is given in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2 Approach for Estimating VKT by Personalised

Motorised Vehicles in Delhi for the Year 2019
As recorded by Census of India, there were 25,54,149 and
33,58,465 HHs in the year 2001 and 2011 respectively in
Delhi indicating an average growth rate of 3.1% per year in
number of HHs. Accordingly, number of households in
Delhi for year 2019 is estimated to be 41,63, 313. Among
these, vehicle ownership is unknown. Census data provide
information regarding number of Cars and MTWs owned
by all HH in Delhi in year 2001 and 2011. Based on this,
numbers of Cars and MTWs for year 2019 have been
estimated for the number of HHs in year 2019 (i.e.
41,63,313). This is estimated as 32,89,462 and 68,96,357
respectively for Cars and MTWs as shown in Fig. 3.
Micro data of Census (Census, 2011) provided vehicle
Accordingly, total trips considered for analysis are 7,287 ownership information for 5% random sample of total
and 4,961 for MTWs and Cars respectively. These trips households in Delhi (1,66,983 households). In the present
have been categorised based on their trip length i.e. Trip study, information pertaining to these 5% households has
length frequency distribution. Trip length distribution for been extrapolated for all households. These are shown
these MTW and Car trips is presented in Table 2. in Table 3.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 13

 TECHNICAL PAPER

total trips made by Cars and MTWs respectively. Similarly,

VKT of trips <6 km have been estimated to be ~9% and
~15% for Cars and MTWs respectively.
Accordingly, it is estimated that 1,15,66,145 km are the
potential VKT shift by cars and MTWs to NMT modes.
This estimated VKT by cars and MTWs have been further
analysed to quantify the potential fuel saving and reduction
in vehicular emissions.

Fig. 3 Number of Cars and MTWs Owned 7. ESTIMATION OF FUEL CONSUMPTION

by Households in Delhi AND VEHICULAR EMISSIONS
Table 3 Number of Households and Their Vehicle The resent study considers two scenarios for estimation of
Ownership in Delhi fuel consumption and corresponding vehicular emissions.
“Scenario A” is a” Do nothing” scenario” and fuel
consumption and corresponding vehicular emissions are
estimated for all existing trips made by cars and MTWs
without considering any shift towards NMT. The “Scenario
B” is “NMT friendly scenario” and fuel consumption and
corresponding vehicular emissions are estimated
considering that all trips of ≤ 6 km made by cars and MTWs
will shift to non-motorised modes. Total fuel consumption
by cars and MTWs has been estimated by using following
equation 1.

Where;
i = Vehicle type
j =Trip length categories
Trip length distribution as observed for 5,066 HHs is taken k = Fuel type (e.g. Petrol Diesel or CNG)
for all trips made by Cars and MTWs. Accordingly, the Nij = Number of trips made by i vehicle type and j
number of trips made with different trip length(s) by these trip length
two modes are given in Table 4. Tlij = Average trip length (km) under each trip length
category
Table 4 Estimated Car and MTW Trips by Fcik = Fuel consumption (average) for vehicle type i
Trip Lengths with fuel k(l/km for Petrol and diesel driven
vehicles and kg/km for CNG vehicles)
Similarly, for estimation of vehicular emissions, two methods
have been used in the present study. First method based on
Vehicular Kilometre Travelled (VKT) (Top–Down
Approach) and it is used to estimate the conventional
vehicular pollutants like CO, HC, NOX, PM and CO2,while
second method based on fuel based IPCC emission factors
(IPCC 2006) (Bottom-up Approach) is used to estimate
contribution towards direct greenhouse gases (CO2,CH4 and
N2O) and indirect greenhouse gases (CO, NOx and NMVOC;
Non Methane Volatile Organic Compounds). Further, CO2e
(CO2 equivalent) has been estimated by using appropriate
GWP (Global Warming Potential) of direct GHGs and not
accounting for indirect GHGs as per the standard protocol.
It is assumed that if a NMT friendly infrastructure is
provided, all trips with their trip length <6 km will shift to The VKT based method involves using CPCB emission
NMT, including walk. Total existing number of trips with factors for different categories of vehicles (CPCB, 2015)
their trip length <6 km is estimated to be 27% and 41% of and deterioration factors (CPCB, 2000) (to account for

14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

aging and maintenance of vehicles). The emission Where;

factors are expressed in terms of g/km, for different i = Vehicle type
categories of vehicles as a function of their types, engine j = Trip length categories
capacity fuel used and manufacturing year (to account k= Fuel type (e.g. Petrol Diesel or CNG)
for engine technology used in the motor vehicles). FC = Quantity of total fuel consumed (as a function of
Vehicular emissions emitted by vehicles under VKT ijk) (refer equation 1)
approach can be estimated by using equation 2. NCV = Net Calorific Value of fuel type k (megajoules
/gm or MJ/gm)
EF = Emission factor for fuel type (k) (gm/
magajoules or gm/MJ
Where;
i = Vehicle type 7.1 Scenario A: Do Nothing Scenario
j = Trip length categories
This scenario assumes that there is no change in vehicle
Nij = Number of trips made by i vehicle type and j trip usage and all estimated trips irrespective of their lengths
length are being made by Cars and Two Wheelers. For estimation
VKTij = Total distance travelled by vehicle type i of quantity of fuel consumed by cars and MTWs, the fuel
under trip length category j efficiency of petrol and diesel cars (15.75 km/l and 16.75
Efik = Emission factor for vehicle type i and pollutant km/l respectively) as well as for motorised two wheelers
type k i.e. 50.4 km/l (assuming them to be driven 4-stroke
In fuel based IPCC emission factor approach (IPCC;2000, engines) has been adopted from Goel and Guttikunda
2006; Sharma et al. 2019), the estimated quantity of fuel (2015). The fuel efficiency for CNG cars (24.11 km/kg) has
(petrol diesel or CNG) (from equation 1) is converted into been adopted from Subramanian et al. (2013). Similarly,
quantities of direct greenhouse gases and indirect age profile and distribution of petrol, diesel and CNG/LPG
greenhouse gases by using appropriate net calorific value cars in Delhi's car fleet (67%,27% and 10% respectively)
of the respective fuel(s) and their corresponding fuel based has been adopted from Sharma et al. (2019).
IPCC emission factor(s) (equation 3) Table 5 presents the estimates of quantities of different types of
fuels consumed by cars and motorised two wheelers assuming
negligible contribution from two stroke engines (2W-2S).
Table 5 Estimation of Fuel Consumed by Cars and MTWs for Various Trip Length(s)

1
Quantity of Petrol (l/day) 2 Quantity of Diesel (l/day) 3 Quantity of CNG (kg/day)
The values given in Table 5 can be converted into monetary values estimates in terms of CO, HC, NOX, PM and CO2 pollutants for
using the current market rates of different types of fuels and the different trip lengths combined for cars and MTWs. It is evident
total value is ~ Rs. 30 Cr/day. Table 6 gives the vehicular emission that CO2 is the dominant pollutant followed by CO, NOx and HCs.
Table 6 Estimation of Vehicular Emissions (t/day) Based on VKT Approach

*
PM ~ PM 2.5 in Vehicular Exhaust Emissions

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 15

 TECHNICAL PAPER

As may be seen, the short trips of ≤6 km generate 7-14% of 7.2 Scenario B: NMT Friendly Scenario
total pollutants and that part can be completely by moving
these trips to NMT by providing suitable NMT This scenario assumes that for all existing trips made by
infrastructure. cars and MTWs of trip length less than 6 km will shift to
non-motorised modes, if suitable NMT infrastructure is
Similarly, Table 7 represents the quantities of direct and provided to them. Accordingly, potential number of trips
indirect greenhouse gases emitted by cars and MTWs as a for this NMT shift (i.e.,< 6 km from cars and MTWs) has
function of trip lengths in Delhi by using IPCC emission
been estimated along with their fuel consumption and
factors. This has been further converted into CO2e by
corresponding vehicular emissions based on VKT and
employing appropriate Global Warming Potential
(GWP100) (100-year time horizon) of various direct GHGs. IPCC fuel-based emission factors.

Table 7 Estimation of GHG Emissions (t/day) From Table 8, it is evident that after converting the shorter
trips (< 6 km) by cars and MTWs to NMT trips, the
monetary value of the fuel consumed by other trips (>6 km)
by cars and MTWs is estimated to be ~Rs. 25 Crore
indicating ~15% reduction in fuel consumption in
monetary terms. Further, based on VKT approach ~15%
reduction has been estimated in the quantities of various
pollutants (Table 9). Similarly, ~15% reduction in CO2e
has been estimated by facilitating shifting of all <6 km car
and MTW trips into NMT trips (Table 10).

Table 8 Estimation of Fuel Consumed by Cars and MTWs Under Various Trip Length Categories

1
Quantity of Petrol (l/day) 2Quantity of Diesel (l/day) 3 Quantity of CNG (kg/day
Table 9 Estimation of Vehicular Emissions Table 10 Estimation of GHG Emissions (CO2et/day)
(t/day) Based on VKT Approach

1
PM ~ PM 2.5 in Vehicular Exhaust Emissions
Two different approaches viz. Top-down and bottom-up In the present study related to vehicular emission load
are generally used for preparation of emission inventories estimations, VKT based emission factors (bottom-up
for understanding of air pollution issues in a region to approach) and fuel based IPCC emission factor approach
enable decision makers to make “informed policy (top-down approach) have been used. While top-down
decisions”. No particular approach can be regarded as approach is widely used for compilation of national
better than the other, as accuracy of estimates depends database of emissions and it allows researchers and policy
upon the uncertainties involved in various inputs used for makers an access to geographically complete information
in that particular methodology. (i.e. national emission inventory) which has been derived

16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

based on universally accepted methodologies and Total existing numbers of trips are estimated to be
protocols. This national level information can further be 74,09,013 and 29,06,413 for MTWs and Cars respectively.
used to estimate emission contributions more reliably for Out of total trips made by MTWs, ~41% are estimated to be
smaller geographical regions/sectors (IPCC; 2000-2006). with trip length < 6 km for potential shift to NMT.
Whereas, the bottom-up approaches, although requires Similarly, ~ 27% of total Car trips are estimated to be
more extensive activity data than top-down approach, but potential trips for NMT. Further, ttotal existing VKT is
are more often used for local air quality assessment and estimated to be 5,87,53,472 km and 2,84,10,183 km for
management purposes where road transport sector is the MTWs and cars respectively. Out of the total existing VKT
most dominating source of the air pollution in the region of MTWs, 15.26% of MTWs and 9.16% of VKT of Cars
(Pallavidino et al., 2014). These approaches, many times have the potential for shift to NMT.
complement each other despite the fact that on several
occasions both approaches may lead to different results This study has also quantified the benefits in terms of
savings in fuel consumption and reduction in vehicular
depending upon the uncertainties involved in the various
emission reduction due to converting all short motorised
inputs used in their estimation methodologies.
trips (i.e.<6 km) to non-motorised trips though it is
In the present study also, estimation of CO and NOX based expected that few small trips will always be made by
on VKT and IPCC approach (Table 9 and Table 10) vary motorised modes even in the presence of suitable
significantly and emission estimates based on VKT infrastructure for NMT modes which have not been
approach (bottom-up approach) being significantly higher considered in the present study. The study found that after
than the IPCC emission factor based estimates (top-down converting the shorter trips (<6km) by cars and MTWs to
approach) which is not uncommon while using these two NMT tripsby providing NMT friendly infrastructure/
different approaches (Abulude et al., 2018). In VKT based facilities, ~15% reduction in fuel consumption in monetary
approach, the greatest source of inaccuracy and uncertainty termscan be achieved (Table 8). Further, ~7-14%
occurs due to emission factors for different categories of reduction in the quantities of various pollutants (viz.,CO,
vehicle Emission Factors (EFs) which denotes empirical HC, NOX and CO2)and ~15% reduction of CO2e has been
functional relations between pollutant emissions and the estimated by facilitating shifting of all <6km car and MTW
activity that causes them (Sharma et al., 2005; Franco et al., trips into NMT trips
2013).
Authors consider the future scope of this study by
8. CONCLUDING REMARKS including estimation of captive (existing) ridership of
NMT in different sized cities of India for a generic
Government of India (MoHUA, 2020) has decided to guideline, to be prepared in near future for better decision
implement a three-pronged strategy to adopt in a phased making regarding sustainable transport planning. These
manner (Short, Medium and Long term) which includes guidelines can be further strengthened by including
converting short trips i.e. 5 km trip length as an opportunity quantified benefits of better public transport for cities other
to be converted into NMT trips. The present study has than 3 cities (Udaipur, Rajkot, Vizag) studied by Tiwari
assumed ≤ 6 km trips as the possible trips which has the (2016). Further, guidelines can include the possible modal
potential to be converted into NMT trips by providing shift towards increased usage of personalized vehicles in
suitable NMT infrastructures. The (short) trip length upto 6 absence of NMT and PT users' friendly infrastructure
km considered in the present study for considering the studied by Clean Air Asia Centre (2013).
potential NMT trips is quite close to government's
suggested (≤ 5 km)for possible consideration into NMT REFERENCES
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In Delhi growing number of personal vehicles i.e. Cars and (20 18). A Review on Top-Down and Bottom-up
Approach for Air Pollution Studies. World Journal of
MTWs is one of the key reason for worsening air quality in
Environmental Research7(2):52-60. (https://doi.org/
Delhi. An important strategy to reduce alarming air 10.18844/wjer.v7i2.3427)
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transport share through suitable infrastructure development. 2 Census (2001and 2011). Households' information Macro
and Micro Data published by Office of the Registrar
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bicycling and using cycle rickshaws. The total number of 3 Clean Air Asia Centre (2013), 'Promoting Non-Motorised
Transport in Asian Cities: Policymakers' Toolbox'.
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personalised vehicles (cars and MTW) to NMT have been 2015/03/Promoting-NMT-in-Asian-Cities-Policymakers
estimated to be 37% and 13% of existing usage. -Tool box. pdf. Last accessed on 7th August 2019.

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4 CPCB (2000). Transportation Fuel Quality for year 2005. Management in National Greenhouse Gas Inventories
PROBES/78/2000-01, Central Pollution Control Board, Programme Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change
Ministry of Environment and Forest, New Delhi, Govt. of Technical Support Unit Kanagawa Japan 2006.
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5 CPCB (2015). Status of Pollution Generated From Road english/(accessed on Aug. 8 2019).
Transport in Six Mega Cities. Central Pollution Control 13 Jerrett M, Mcconnell R, Chang CCR, Wolch J, Reynolds K,
Board, Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change Lurmann F, Gilliland F, Berhane K. (2010). Automobile
(Govt. of India).file:///C:/Users/CRRI-/Downloads/ Traffic Around the Home and Attained Body Mass Index: A
NewItem_215_Report_Status_Road Transport_ Six Longitudinal Cohort Study of Children Aged 10–18 years.
Cities.pdf. Prev. Med 50, S50–S58. [PubMed: 19850068]
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Te c h n o l o g i e s f o r S u s t a i n a b l e Tr a n s p o r t a t i o n Ministry of Road Transport and Highways. Government of
(SUSTRANS). 12th Five Year Plan Project Funded by India.
Planning Commission of India through CSIR.
15 Lancet (2021).Health and Economic Impact of Air
7 Dhar S. & Shukla P. R. (2015). Low Carbon Scenarios for Pollution in the States of India: the Global Burden of
Transport in India: Co-Benefits Analysis. Energy Policy 81 Disease Study 2019, Lancet Planet Health 2021; 5:e25–38
186–198. doi:10.1016/ j.enpol.2014.11.026. (Available on https://doi.org/10.1016/ S2542-
8 Franco V. Kousoulidou M. Muntean M. Ntziachristos L 5196(20)30298-9)
Hausberger S. Dilara P. (2013) Road Vehicle Emission 16 NUTP (2014). National Urban Transport Policy Ministry
Factors Development: A Review Atmospheric of Urban Development, Government of India.
Environment 70: 84-97 GoI (2020), “Commission for Air
Quality Management for the National Capital Region and 17 Pallavidino L. PrandiR. R Bertello A. Bracco E. and
Adjoining Areas Ordinance, 2020”, Gazetted Notification PavoneF. (2014). Compilation of a Road Transport
(Extraordinary) No. CG-DL-F-28102020-222804), dated Emission Inventory for the Province of Turin: Advantages
October 28, 2020. Ministry of Law and Justice, and Key Factors of a Bottom–up Approach Atmospheric
Government of India. Pollution Research 5: 648-655.
9 IHME (2018), State of Global Air /2018 – A Special report 18 Sharma N. Chaudhry K.K. and Chalapati Rao C.V. (2005).
on Global Exposoure to Air Pollution and its Disease Vehicular Pollution Modelling in India. Journal of the
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Stateofglobalair.org/ sites/ default/files/saga-2018- 19 Sharma, N., Kumar, P.V. Pradeep Kumar., Singh, A.,
report.pdf (Accessed on August 2, 2019) Dhyani, R., Sekhar, C.R, and Ravinder, K. (2019).
Measurement of Idling Fuel Consumption and Estimation
10 IITK (2016). Comprehensive study on Air Pollution and of Emission at Selected Signalized Intersections in Delhi.
Green House Gases (GHGs) in Delhi (Final Report: Air Journal of Cleaner Production, 212: 8-19
Pollution component). Prepared by IIT Kanpur for
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Capital Territory of Delhi and Delhi Pollution Control A p p l i c a t i o n o f Te c h n o l o g i e s f o r S u s t a i n a b l e
Committee, Delhi. (Available on Transportation. 12th Five Year Plan Network Project
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(accessed on Aug.19th, 2019) India.

11 IPCC (2000). J. Penman, D. Kruger, I. Galbally, T. 21 Tiwari G. Jain D. & Ramachandra Rao K. (2016). Impact of
Hiraishi, B. Nyenzi, S. Emmanul, L. Buendia, R. Hoppaus, Public Transport and Non-Motorized Transport
T. Martinsen, J. Meijer, K. Miwa, and K. Tanabe ( eds). Infrastructure on Travel Mode Shares Energy Emissions
Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty Management in and Safety: Case of Indian cities. Transportation Research
National Greenhouse Gas Inventories, International Panel P a r t D : Tr a n s p o r t a n d E n v i r o n m e n t 4 4 2 7 7 -
on Climate Change (IPCC) National Greenhouse Gas 29.doi:10.1016/ j.trd.2015.11.004
Inventories Programme. Institute for Global
22 Tiwari P. & Gulati M. (2013). An Analysis of Trends in
Environmental Strategies, Hayama, Kanagawa, Japan.
Passenger and Freight Transport Energy Consumption in
12 IPCC (2006). “Quantifying Uncertainties in Practice” India. Research in Transportation Economics,
Chapter 6 IPCC Good Practice Guidance and Uncertainty 38(1):8490.doi10.1016/ j.retrec.2012.05.003

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List of Abbreviations

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 19

 ESTIMATION OF EQUIVALENT CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO WITH
RESPECT TO TESTING SURCHARGE WEIGHTS FOR CLAYEY SOIL

BISWABIKASH ROUT1 ASHUTOSH SAT2 DR. V. GOVINDARAJ3

ABSTRACT

The subgrade is the foundation for construction of any type of pavement. The performance of the pavement is directly
related to the performance of the subgrade layer. The construction of a durable subgrade layer depends on various factors
like nature of soil, moisture content, field compaction etc. The strength of subgrade material is usually determined by the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test. The 96 hours soaked CBR test results are widely used to calculate the Resilient
Modulus values for subgrade layers, which is used as an input for pavement crust thickness design. The CBR test is
performed as per IS 2720 Part 16, the samples for which are prepared using maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content obtained as per IS 2720 Part 8. The CBR test results primarily depend on nature of soil, percentage compaction,
initial moisture content, soaking period and surcharge weights used during soaking and testing. IS 2720 Part 16 stipulates
usage of surcharge weights equal to weight of base material and pavement layers expected or existing over the subgrade. This
surcharge weight for typical highway flexible pavements varies in the range of 15-25 kg, but traditionally surcharge weight
of 5-7.5 kg have been used to determine the CBR results, especially during tendering and design stages, where the crust
thickness are unknown. This paper presents a brief study on effect of compaction, moisture content and surcharge weights
on CBR of clay soil. The authors also propose empirical correlations to convert the tested CBR value of clayey soil to
equivalent CBR values at different surcharge weights.

1. INTRODUCTION variable material. The inter-relationship of the soil texture,

density, moisture content and strength are very complex
Subgrade is the bottom most layer and the ground support and cumbersome to evaluate especially under repeated
on which pavements are constructed. A typical flexible loading conditions. The California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
pavement cross section is shown in Fig. 1. It usually test is very common worldwide for determination of the
consists of fine grained cohesive or non-cohesive soils. A subgrade soil strength. The ease of performing the test
durable subgrade should possess adequate compaction and especially in a small project laboratory and potential low
strength to cater to the design traffic for the total service budget test set up makes it very popular among practicing
period of the pavement. As per “Specifications for Road engineers. The CBR test results primarily depend on nature
and Bridge Works” Ministry of Road Transport and of soil, percentage compaction, initial moisture content,
Highways-Vth revision, soil with Liquid limit less than soaking period and surcharge weights used during soaking
50%, plasticity index less than 25%, free swell index less and testing. The test mandates usage of surcharge weights
than 50% and maximum dry density in excess of 1.75 g/cc equal to weight of base material and pavement layers
is deemed fit for subgrade construction. Varieties of expected or existing over the subgrade during the soaking
materials like soil, moorum, gravel, flyash or a feasible and testing of specimen. This surcharge weight for typical
mixture of all these materials are of ten used for highway flexible pavements varies in the range of 15-25
construction of the subgrade layer. Natural soil is the most kg. But traditionally surcharge weight of 5-7.5 kg has been
commonly used ingredient in the subgrade. Soil is a highly used to determine the CBR results, especially during

1 Manager, Email: [email protected]

2 Post Graduate Engineering Trainee, Email: [email protected]
3 Head, Email: [email protected]
} R&D, L&T Construction, Chennai

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tendering and design stages, where the crust thickness are research has been carried out on CBR of soils. The impact
unknown.This paper is an attempt to fill this gap by of compaction and soaking period have been studied by
evaluating the effect of compaction, moisture content and many researchers, but the study on effect of surcharge on
surcharge weights on CBR of clay soil. The authors also the CBR value has not been precisely quantified. This
propose a methodology to convert the tested CBR value of study quantifies the effect of few of the earlier studied
clayey soil to equivalent CBR values at same compaction parameters like compaction and moisture content on the
levels for different surcharge weights. CBR values and also presents a method to covert CBR
value determined at certain surcharge value to an
equivalent CBR value at a different surcharge value
especially for clay soil.
2.1 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
In India, the CBR test is performed mostly as per IS 2720
Part 16 guidelines. The soil is compacted in a CBR mould
of diameter 150mm at the desired degree of compaction
with the optimum moisture content which is determined
from the standard or modified proctor test. The material
used for preparation of the CBR test specimen should pass
through the 19 mm sieve. Allowance for larger material
shall be made by replacing it by an equal amount of
material which passes a 19 mm IS Sieve but is retained on
4.75mm IS Sieve. Compaction of the soil sample in the
CBR mould is done by either static or dynamic method as
stipulated in IS 2720 Part 16. The CBR test specimen is
kept immersed or soaked in water for 96 hours. A weight
equivalent to the expected surcharge on the subgrade by the
overlaying layers is loaded on the specimen for the entire
soaking period and also during the test. Swelling of the
sample may be measured by using a dial gauge/LVDT over
the specimen. In the CBR test, a plunger of diameter 50 mm
penetrates the CBR specimen at the 1.25 mm per minute.
The Automatic CBR test set up at L&T Construction
Research and Testing center is shown in Fig. 2. The load
Fig. 1 Typical Flexible Pavement Section deformation values are recorded and plotted to produce a
2. LITERATURE REVIEW smooth load deformation curve. A Typical CBR load
deformation curve for clayey soil is shown in Fig.3. The
Over the years a lot of work has been done regarding CBR CBR value is calculated by obtaining the percentage ratio
of soils. Black (1962) gave the relationship between CBR of load value obtained at 2.5 mm or 5 mm of plunger
and bearing capacity factor 'Nq' of soil. He emphasized penetration with that of the standard defined loads.
that soaked and un-soaked CBR of soil are related through Generally, the CBR value at 2.5mm penetration will be
moisture content of soil. Jan and Walker (1963) studied the greater than at 5 mm penetration and in such cases, the
effect of lime and compaction on CBR of soils. Razauki former shall be taken as the CBR value for design purposes.
and Janabi (1999) commented that the concept of 4 days If the CBR value corresponding to a penetration of 5mm
soaking in highly gypsiferous soils is highly misleading exceeds that for 2.5 mm, the test shall be repeated. If
and instead proposed a 120 day soaking period. Razouki identical results follow, the CBR corresponding to 5 mm
and Shefi (2002) studied the effect of surcharge on the penetration shall be taken for design.
CBR of soil and resilient modulus values. However their
study was confined to a very small sample size and only 3. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
one CBR load. Patel and Desai (2010) gave empirical
equations with the help of non-linear regression using Black cotton clay Soil was used for the entire study. The
SPSS tool to find out CBR from index properties of soil. soil was classified as CI (Intermediate Plastic Clay). All the
Marren (2015) pointed out that CBR can be a quick and basic physical properties of the soil were determined as per
efficient tool to check the stabilization of expansive clays. the relevant IS standards. The test results are tabulated in
It is clear from all the literature available that extensive Table 1. Fig. 4 shows the maximum dry density versus
moisture content curve for the soil.

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Table 1 Physical Properties of Black clay soil

Fig. 2 Automatic CBR Test Set up

4. DESIGN OF TEST AND ANALYSIS

This study was undertaken to understand and quantify the

effect of degree of compaction, initial moisture content and
surcharge weight on the CBR values of clayey soil. CBR
Fig. 3 Typical Load-Deformation Curve of CBR test samples were prepared at compaction levels of 80%, 85%,
90% and 98% of the laboratory maximum dry density at
two different moisture contents Optimum moisture content
and Optimum moisture content + 5.0%. Surcharge weights
of 5, 10 and 25 kg which typically covers the entire range of
layered loading on the sub-grade were used in the study.
The test design is tabulated in Table 2. Total of 96 CBR
specimens were prepared and tested for various
combinations as described above. The average CBR values
for all the combinations are given in Table 3. The following
section examines the effect of various individual factors on
Fig. 4 Dry Density Vs Moisture Content Curve the CBR values.

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Table 2 Design of Test

Table 3 Average CBR Test Results of all the combinations

4.1 Effect of Degree of Compaction moisture content and surcharge weights after 96 and 336
hours of soaking respectively.
The degree of compaction has always been a vital quality
evaluation criteria for construction of subgrade layer. The 4.2 Effect of Moisture Content
“Specifications for Road and Bridge Works” Ministry of
Road Transport and Highways-Vth revision mandates a CBR specimens are generally prepared at the optimum
minimum 97% compaction requirement for the subgrade moisture content and compacted to the required degree
layer. Inadequate compaction reduces the strength of the of compaction. This study presents a comparison of
subgrade layer and accelerates pavement deterioration CBR values of specimens prepared with the optimum
especially during monsoon season. CBR specimens were moisture content and 5% over and above the optimum
prepared and tested at four different compaction levels moisture content. Clay soil are very sensitive to
(80%, 85%, 90% and 98%) to understand and quantify the moisture and loose strength drastically on prolonged
effect that degree of compaction can have on the strength of exposure to moisture. The comparison is shown in Figs.
subgrade layer with clayey soil. Figs. 5 and 6 shows the 7 and 8 for specimens soaked for 96 and 336 hours
effect of degree of compaction in combination with respectively.

Fig. 5 Effect of Percentage Compaction on CBR Fig. 6 Effect of Percentage Compaction on CBR value
value of Clay soil after soaking period of 96 hours of Clay soil after soaking period of 336 hours

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Fig. 7 Effect of Moisture Content on CBR Value of Clay Soil After Soaking Period of 96 hours

4.3 Effect of Surcharge Weight and 98% of MDD at OMC and OMC +5% moisture levels.
The variation in CBR values are shown in Figs. 9 and 10 for
Surcharge weights are used to simulate the loading on
specimens soaked for 96 and 336 hours respectively.
subgrade due to the overlaying layers. Typical flexible
pavement layer thicknesses with their corresponding bulk 5. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA)
specific gravities for design traffic of 50 MSA and subgrade
CBR of 10% as prescribed in Plate-6 of IRC:37-2018 is Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique
given in Table 4. The total stress exerted by the materials of that is used to check if the mean of two or more groups are
the compacted layers on the subgrade for the layer significantly different from each other. ANOVA checks the
combination given in Table 4 is computed to be 1325 impact of one or more factors by comparing the means of
kg/sqm. This translates to a surcharge load of 23.4 kg for a different samples. A two-way ANOVA analysis was
CBR specimen. Typically used surcharge loading of 5-7.5 kg performed with degree of compaction and surcharge
is found to be 3-4 times lower than the calculated surcharge weights and Moisture content and surcharge weights. The
load and does not simulate any realistic pavement layer result of the both the ANOVA is given in Table 5 and 6
combination. Further, many site based laboratories do not respectively. The ANOVA analysis between degree of
have the testing and curing set up to accommodate larger compaction and surcharge weights shows that the F values
surcharge weights. Hence the selection of appropriate for both degree of compaction and surcharge weights are
surcharge weight is of prime importance to accurately substantially higher than the F critical values. This
determine the CBR value of subgrade material. In this study indicates that the null hypothesis is not true for both the
surcharge weights of 5, 10 and 25 kg were used to determine
variables and there exists statistically significant difference
the CBR values of specimens compacted to 80%, 85%, 90%
in the test results with respect to degree of compaction and

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surcharge weights. This observation is further moisture content and surcharge weight shows the F values
strengthened by the P-values which are substantially lower to be lower than the F critical indicating that the null
than the base value of 0.05. The ANOVA also shows that hypothesis is true and the statistical mean of both the sets
there exists statistical relationship between the two are similar and there is not much variation or dependency
variables as the interaction F value is more than F critical between the variables. The P values are also higher than
and P value is also lower than 0.05. The ANOVA analysis of 0.05 complimenting the above observation.

Fig. 8 Effect of Moisture Content on CBR value of Clay Soil after Soaking Period of 336 hours
Table 4 Typical Layer Thickness and Calculated Stress
as given in Table 6 of IRC:37-2018 for 50 MSA Traffic

Fig. 9 Effect of Percentage Compaction on CBR value

of Clay Soil after Soaking Period of 96 hours

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6 DISCUSSION
In this study more than 96 CBR specimens were cast,
cured, tested and analyzed with different combination of
compaction, moisture content, surcharge weight and
curing period. The influence of these parameters on the
CBR value is discussed below.
6.1 Degree of Compaction
It was observed that lower degree of compaction had minor
effect on the CBR values. The CBR values at 80% and 85%
compaction at different surcharge weights were almost
similar with nominal average increment of 18%. The effect
of degree of compaction on CBR values was found to be
significant at 90% and 98% of compaction. The average
increment from 85% to 90% of compaction was observed
Fig. 10 Effect of Percentage Compaction on CBR value to be 74% and that from 90% to 98% was 117%.
of Clay Soil after Soaking Period of 336 hours
6.2. Surcharge Weight
Table 5 Two-Way ANOVA Analysis with Degree
of Compaction and Surcharge weights The surcharge weights used during the testing process
along with the degree of compaction have a major
influence on the CBR values of clayey soil. It was observed
that the effect of surcharge weight on the CBR values was
less profound on the lower compaction levels of 80-85%
than that at compaction levels of 90-98%. The average
increment of CBR values for 80-85% compaction ranged
from 18% to 37% was lower than that for 90-98% which
ranged from 47% to 100%. The effect of surcharge on the
CBR values for 85, 90 and 98% compaction was found to
reduce with increase in the curing period.
6.3. Moisture Content
Table 6 Two-Way ANOVA Analysis with Degree
of Compaction and Surcharge weights The effect of initial moisture content used for preparation of
specimens on the CBR values was found to vary with respect to
surcharge weight and days of curing of the specimens. In
general the CBR values were found to increase with 5%
increase in the initial moisture content. The quantum of
increment in the CBR values was mostly found to reduce with
increase in the surcharge weight for specimens cured for 96
hours whereas this trend was found to reverse in case of
specimens cured for 336 hours. The reversal in the trend may be
attributed to the increased strength of the specimens resulted
due slow drained consolidation of the specimen under complete
saturation. The average increment of the CBR values over
SS – Sum of Squares surcharge values of 5, 10 and 15 kg for degree of compaction of
df – Degress of Freedom 85%, 90% and 98% were more in case on 336 hours cured
specimens than that compared to the 96 hours cured specimens.
MS – Mean Square
F – Variation between sample means / variation within 7 EQUIVALENT CONVERSION OF CBR
the samples VALUES
P-Value- probability of obtaining results at least as Various codes of practice for determination of CBR
extreme as the observed results of a statistical hypothesis stipulate the usage of surcharge weight equivalent to the
test, assuming that the null hypothesis is correct. pavement crusts existing over or expected over the
subgrade during the curing and testing process. Though
F critical –If the calculated F value in a test is larger than
ASTM D 1883 mentions that in absence of layer thickness
your F critical, then we can reject the null hypothesis.
information a nominal surcharge weight of 4.5 kgs should

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be used for CBR testing. This nominal surcharge weight

usually leads to underestimation of the CBR values
especially for clay soil, hence impacting the overall design
of the pavement.
Conversion of available CBR value at a particular
surcharge to equivalent CBR at higher or lower surcharge
value can be an ideal tool for designers and quality
engineers to predict the in-situ effective CBR values.
Authors have made an effort to present simple conversion
models to determine equivalent CBR values. The data
obtained through various CBR test were modelled using
non-linear regression analysis with the help of SPSS-IBM Fig. 12 Comparison Between the Predicted Values
software. The model incorporates a factor “r” which is the and Experimental Values for r < 1
ratio of the surcharge weight for which the CBR has to be
determined to that of surcharge weight of CBR value design of flexible pavements. A small example is shown
available. Two non- linear regression models were derived here to quantify the effect of change of CBR at the design
stage of a flexible pavement. Let us assume the laboratory
for 'r' greater than 1 and 'r' less than 1 respectively.
CBR of a subgrade clay soil at 97% compaction level is
Equations 1 and 2 show the models derived for 'r' greater
obtained to be 5%. The CBR testing for the particular soil
than 1 and 'r' less than 1 respectively. Figs. 11 and 12 show
was conducted with surcharge weight of 5 kgs. The
the actual versus predicted plots for equation 1 and 2
pavement layer crust thicknesses for traffic of 50 MSA for
respectively. The R square for both the cases was found to CBR of 5% as per IRC:37-2018 Plate 1 is given in Table 7.
be greater than 0.9 exhibiting strong correlation of the The total material cost for construction of the layers is
formulated model. estimated at Rs.185 Lakhs. These pavement layers exert
total lateral earth pressure of 1411 kg/sqm on the subgrade
layer. This lateral earth pressure translates to surcharge of
25 kgs for a standard CBR mould of diameter 150 mm.
Now, using the above proposed equation 1 , for “r” value of
5 (25/5) and CBRx value of 5%, the equivalent CBR at 25
kg surcharge is found to be 12%. The pavement layer crust
thicknesses for traffic of 50 MSA for CBR of 12% as per
IRC:37-2018 Plate 7 is also given in Table 7. We observe
that the total thickness of the flexible pavement is reduced
by 40 mm and also there is 15% reduction in the material
cost. Hence, the equivalent conversion of CBR can be a
handy tool for optimization during design stage of the
pavements.
9 CONCLUSIONS

After careful evaluation and deep analysis of the results the

following conclusions can be drawn out.
Fig. 11 Comparison between the Predicted Values i. The effect of degree of compaction on CBR increased
and Experimental Values for r >1 exponentially as the compaction effort was increased
from 80% to 98%. There was not much difference in
the CBR values at compaction levels of 80 to 85%.
ii. The effect of surcharge weight on the CBR values was
also similar to that of degree of compaction. The
increase in the CBR values was less profound on the
lower compaction levels of 80 to 85% than that at
8 EFFECT OF CBR CONVERSION ON compaction levels of 90 to 98%.
PAVEMENT DESIGN iii. The CBR values were found to increase with 5%
increase in the initial moisture content.
The Subgrade CBR plays a major role in the crust thickness

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 27

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 7 Effect of Predicted CBR value on Flexible Pavement Design

iv. Authors have proposed two models to convert the 5. Jan, M.A. and Walker, R.D., 1963. Effect of Lime,
CBR values with respect to surcharge weights.The Moisture and Compaction on a Clay Soil. Highway
models incorporate a factor 'r' which is the ratio of the Research Record, (29).
surcharge weight for which the CBR has to be 6. MoRTH, 2013. Specification for Road & Bridge
determined to that of surcharge weight of CBR value Works (Fifth Revision). Ministry of Road Transport
available. Two different models have been proposed and Highways, Indian Roads Congress New Delhi.
for r values less than and greater than 1.
7. Marren, H., 2015. Critical Assesment on the
v. The R square for experimental and model predicted Stabilization Of Expansive Soils by Different
curves was found to be greater than 0.9 exhibiting Techniques (Doctoral dissertation, Addis Ababa
strong correlation of the formulated model. University).
vi. The predicted CBR values at higher surcharge 8. Patel, R.S. and Desai, M.D., 2010, December. CBR
weights can be used during investigation and Predicted by Index Properties for Alluvial Soils of
analysis of existing pavement structures. This can South Gujarat. In Proceedings of the Indian
also result in reduction in the overlay thickness Geotechnical Conference, Mumbai (pp. 79-82).
required.
9. Qun-zuan, Q.I.U., Pei-jun, Z.H.A.N.G. and Xiao-peng,
REFERENCES Z.H.A.N.G., 2005. Inside CBR Test for Roadbed Soil-
filling. Communications Standardization, (12), p.49.
1. ASTM D1883, 2016. Standard Test Method for
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) of Laboratory- 10. Razouki, S.S. and El-Janabi, O.A., 1999. Decrease in
Compacted Soils. the CBR of a Gypsiferous Soil due to Long-term
Soaking. Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology
2. Black, W.P.M., 1962. A Method of Estimating the
and Hydrogeology, 32(1), pp.87-89.
California Bearing Ratio of Cohesive Soils from
Plasticity Data. Geotechnique, 12(4), pp.271-282. 11. Razouki, S.S. and Al-Shefi, A.M., 2002. Effects and
3. Code, IS 2720 Part 16 , “ Determination of Soaked Observations of Surcharge Load on the Laboratory
and Un Soaked CBR of Soil” CBR and Resilient Modulus Values of Roadbed Soil.
Quarterly Journal of Engineering Geology and
4. Decky, M. and Hájek, M., 2016. In Situ
Hydrogeology, 35(1), pp.89-95.
Determination of the California Bearing Ration of
Pavement Sub grade. International Multi 12. Yan-ran, W.A.N.G. and Ding-sheng, C.A.O., 2004.
disciplinary Scientific Geo Conference: SGEM: Testing Study on CBR Value of Improved Expansive
Surveying Geology & mining Ecology Soils. Chinese Journal of Rock Mechanics and
Management, 1, pp.855-861. Engineering, 23(S1), pp.4396-399.

28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 STRUCTURAL AND FUNCTIONAL DESIGN OF A VEHICLE MOUNTED
MOBILE BRIDGE INSPECTION UNIT (MBIU)

RAJEEV KUMAR GARG1 RAJESH CHAK2 VINOD R. DAHAKE3 ASHWANI KUMAR4 ABHIJIT MAHAPATRA5

ABSTRACT

A Mobile Bridge Inspection Unit (MBIU) is a crucial component of the Bridge Management System (BMS) to facilitate proper
inspection and repair of the civil infrastructure. The present study provides details of designing MBIU as a device suitable for
inspection of commonly available 2-3 lane bridges on typical National Highways. One of the main components of MBIU is a set
of lattice frames whose one end is mounted permanently on the vehicle. The lattice frames comprise of several mechanical
joints actuated with electric motors (or hydraulically) to facilitate the desired positioning of the working platform underneath
the bridge deck. The design parameters incorporate the functional and safety aspects under operating conditions as
recommended by ANSI-SIA 92.8. To ensure structural safety under operating conditions possible worst wind conditions,
including wind-induced dynamic forces, are taken into account. Thus overturning of the system is avoided during the
occurrence of high winds. Importance of various aspects related to the structural design while incorporating the mechanical
components such as the support sub-system, mechanism for rotation of the lattice frames, fabrication methodologies, control
parameters and safety aspects during operation are highlighted. The design and prototyping involve multi-disciplinary
knowledge, such as structural, mechanical, control and manufacturing engineering. The prototype is developed, tested and
used during inspection of several bridges on National Highways in India.

1. INTRODUCTION the hidden components particularly, underneath the bridge

deck remains a critical aspect during an inspection, NDT
Maintenance and management of bridge stock (BMMS) and repair of bridges. The MBIU in the form of an aerial
are vital for the upkeep of the road or railway transportation platform offers an industrial engineering solution to inspect
networks. The strategy towards BMMS (FHWA-2009- the bridge from different sides, particularly underneath the
0074 (2009), FHWA-PL-08-016 (2008), UIC Code 778-4 bridge deck which otherwise is very difficult to access.
R (2009), IRC:SP:35 is a combination of several modules
such as inventorisation (creation of database), visual The proposed device is composed of several lattice frames
inspection, non destructive testing (NDT), chemical (arms) interconnected through mechanical joints. The
analysis, vibration signature analysis, load testing, distress design of the system satisfies the forces during its
diagnostics, performance evaluation of bridges, budgeting maneuver such as different orientations of the lattice
and prioritising of repair of bridges. However, access to frames at various stages of its assembly, operation and
1 Scientist, Bridge Engg. and Structures Division, CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi, Email: [email protected]
2 Scientist, Email: [email protected]
3 Scientist, Email: [email protected],
4 Scientist, Email: [email protected]
} CSIR-CMERI-Center of Excellence in Farm
Machinery (CoEFM), Ludhiana.

5 Scientist, Email: [email protected], CSIR-CMERI, Durgapur.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 29

 TECHNICAL PAPER

actuation of controlled motion. The design and detailing of the chassis of the vehicle form the support of the structural
the lattice frames and their connections are carried out after lattice frame. Also, the allowable length, breadth and the
satisfying the allowable stress criteria of relevant height of a vehicle are typical to a country or a city of usage
guidelines such as MOST/MORTH; The Motor Vehicle The Motor Vehicle Act (1988, 2007) which influences the
Act (MVA) 1988 & Amendment Bill-2007; IS 800 (2007); geometric bound of the device. The mechanical joints
IS 4923(2017); AS- 1170.2 (1989). The design of remain intact during the inspection stage as well as under
mechanical joints meets the functional requirements. The transportation mode.
details related to designing and prototyping are described
in the following sections. The functioning of MBIU has
successfully been demonstrated at several bridge sites
(Sahu et al., 2016). The operational activities for its proper
and safe use, along with the maintenance schedule
(Rossnagel et al., 1988) have been documented in its
operation and maintenance manual.

2. GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS AND

FEATURES

2.1 Various Components

One end of the device is fixed over the vehicle (refer Fig. 1)
and during unfolding, each of the arms opens in an
automated manner in a particular sequence, as shown in
Fig. 2. The last stage of the unfolding is achieved when the
Fig. 1 Schematic Diagram of the Mobile
working platform spreads below the deck, over which a
Bridge Inspection Unit
bridge inspector can move and carry out the inspection.
The vehicle-mounted MBIU can be taken over the bridge.
It is parked by the roadside or near the railing of the bridge.
The unfolding of the device is activated using an automated
process with the help of a control sub-system. After
carrying out an inspection, it is folded back to its
transportation mode. In the transportation mode, the MBIU
can be transported to a desired place of inspection. The
dimensions of the frame are such that while opening the
frame, it maintains horizontal as well as safe vertical
distances from the bridge components such as bridge
railing and soffit. The maximum lowering depth of the
frame is chosen so that there is sufficient vertical clearance
below the deck for the working personnel. Also, the
working platform can move between two adjoining piers so
that the deck within the span under inspection is covered
without vacating the working platform. Geometric
parameters of MBIU namely the maneuverable vertical
height below the deck, the height of the frame above the
railing of the bridge, width required from the side of the
truck to the edge of the bridge railing have been decided
based on standard drawings prepared by MOST/MoRTH7
as given in Table 1. These parameters meet the
requirements of most of the 2 or 3 lane bridges with or
without railings on National Highways. The two beams of Fig. 2 Sequence of Operation

30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 1 Details of Chosen Geometric Parameters of MBIU

2.2 The Maneuverability of the Aerial Platform facilitating it to rotate in a horizontal plane (associated with
joints 4 and 5) for broader coverage of the inspection area
The device consists of mainly three components in the underneath the bridge (between two piers). It can facilitate
form of the lattice frames, six mechanical joints capable of its variable length (associated with joint 6). The support
activating four mechanisms, and the control sub-system, as sub-system is attached to the chassis of the vehicle. The
shown in Fig. 1. The sub-systems are the base support sub- vertical arm is having a cross-section of 800 mm x 800 mm,
system (with members A, B, C, and D) along with the which is braced with crossbars leaving a clear inner space
launching mechanism (with members F and G associated of 730 mm x 730 mm. Each of the mechanical joints is
with joints 1 & 2), the vertical frame (members H, J and M) designed as an electro-mechanically operated sub-system
associated with vertical translatory motion (joint 3), and with the help of an electrical motor. The other possibility is
the working platform (members V, U, X and Y). The to adopt a hydraulically operated system keeping in view
working platform is associated with a mechanism the complex functional requirements.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 31

 TECHNICAL PAPER

3. DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS imposed over the working platform. A payload comprising

of the weight of 4 persons (of 75 kg each) and equipment
Various aspects of designing the device by considering weighing 100 kg is considered during analysis. The total
material properties and fabrication process are described imposed load on the working platform is 400 kg, and half of
below. that, i.e. 200 kg has been considered to be applied at the
extreme free end of the working platform.
3.1 Design of Joints
For the structural design of the frame, a stringent stress
Operating conditions have been kept in mind while
requirement out of the three codes namely IS: 800 (2007),
designing the mechanical joints. A brief description of
IS: 4923 (2017) and ANSI-SIA-A92.8 (1993) have been
joints is given below (refer Fig. 1).
adopted. The allowable stress in the ductile material is
Joint-1: The first joint is rotatory and is fixed at the support 0.125 σult Here, σy is the yield stress, and σult is the ultimate
base (c), which is mounted over the chassis of the truck. stress. Most of the joints of the lattice frames are planned as
Thus, it facilitates to place the vertical frame towards the welded joints; still, at some locations or for some
edge of the bridge. components, use of nuts and bolts may be desirable. Due to
Joint 2: It is the launching mechanism (F and G) and is a the use of high strength structural steel, it is appropriate to
rotational type which places the device on one side of the use suitable high strength weld.
bridge, where the inspection is to be carried out. 4. ANALYSIS OF THE FRAME
Joint 3: It provides a translatory motion to move the
Various aspects related to satisfying strength criteria of the
vertical frame (H) up or down in the vertical direction using
device are described below.
a linear bearing. This mechanism helps to lower the device
below the bridge deck and lifting it after its use. It also 4.1 Loads and Structural Analysis
provides to maintain the desired clearance between the
component of the bridge intended to be inspected and the The structural frame of the device is analysed as a lattice
floor level of the working platform. frame consisting of tubular members. The finite element
software NISA-II (Cranes Software, 2018) is used for the
Joint 4: It is a rotational type of joint (K) facilitating the
analysis. The resulting stresses decide the sizing of the
working platform to swing in a horizontal plane (i.e. ±90
tubular members. The structural frame is subjected to
about the vertical axis). A thrust bearing has been used to
several load cases and their combinations. Two of the
provide the rotation. It is possible to design the device with
dominating load cases are mentioned below.
a rotation of ±180 as a special case, as was demonstrated
during the use of the prototype. Case 1: The self-weight (DL) of the device along with the
Joint 5: It is a hinge type of joint (P) installed at the bottom payload or live load (LL) as mentioned above.
of the vertical frame and facilitates to control the motion of
Case 2: The load from case-1 along with wind or
the working platform while folding or unfolding.
earthquake load.
Joint 6: It is a linear type of joint (W) called a telescopic
joint to adjust the length of the working platform (X and Y). Either the wind or earthquake loads along with the live load
It is composed of two parts, having an overlap of 1.0 m to (LL) is considered for the analysis. For the present lattice
accommodate the sliding mechanism. frame resting over a truck, it has been observed that the
combination with the wind load governs the design. During
3.2 Design of Lattice Framework
the analysis, the structural sub-systems are considered as a
High strength square and rectangular hollow sections (SHS set of several lattice frames, and the motion is implemented
or RHS) have been used for the lattice frames. This high through the joints, which rigidly holds the connected
strength material, having yield strength, fyof 310 Mpa (Tata components after the actuation is over. Thus joints as nodes
Structura, 2006) possess better corrosion resistant get lumped mass and do not contribute towards the stiffness
properties. Square hollow sections also offer better weight to the frame. Therefore, the joints hence the device has
to strength ratio because of high compressive/tensile been treated as a rigid frame during various stages of
strength and torsional rigidity compared to open sections. analysis. A factor of safety of 2.0 is ensured under
At the end of the joint-1, there is a counterweight of 4000 operational conditions when personnel are working over
kg. The payload is the total load which can be safely the working platform.

32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

4.2 Dynamic Forces under Gusty Wind along with the chassis frame (using bending beam
elements) in which the location of tyres is considered as
In India, the maximum basic wind speed (3-second gust at fixed with the bridge deck to ensure the safety of the
the height of 10 m) is prescribed as 55 m/s (IS: 875 part III, chassis.
2015) which, however, does not usually occur suddenly.
Thus the frame is designed to withstand high wind speeds 5. STABILITY AND SAFETY ASPECTS
but without any live load, as there is enough time for the
personnel to move out from the platform in case there is an 5.1 Stability Analysis
occurrence of high wind speed at the site. It is necessary,
It has been ensured that the truck-mounted frame remains
therefore, that an anemometer is attached or Beaufort-scale
stable under various loading, operational and environmental
description is provided. A warning in bold letters is
conditions. As mentioned earlier, the frames connected with
displayed on the platform that the person should leave the
joints can be treated as a rigid frame. Therefore, a rigid-body
platform if the wind speed exceeds a value of 14 m/s at the
analysis of the entire frame using software ADAMS (MSC
site. The threshold of the wind speed is that of the breeze
Software) has been carried out to assess its stability at
wind, which can be felt by a bridge inspector. Therefore,
various stages of operation, as shown in Fig. 2. The contact
personnel should move out before the severe wind arrives
points marked as 1 to 6 in Fig. 3a refers to the wheel contact
so the device should be able to resist the forces induced by
points in which 1, 3 and 5 are wheels towards the bridge
severe wind but without any payload. The earthquake loads
railing. The reaction forces are computed for each of the
are not severe for either stability of the truck or the device.
wheels under different stages of the unfolding of the device.
Therefore, these loads are ignored during the analysis.
The results are shown in Fig. 3 b. The maximum and the
The free vibration analysis yields the lowest frequency of minimum reaction forces may be observed during various
vibration, fo as 0.13 Hz. The corresponding mode shape for stages of operation of MBIU. It is ensured that there is no
this fundamental mode of vibration resembles the induced negative reaction force under any wheel, thus
swinging of the working platform in the horizontal plane avoiding overturning of the device. It may be observed in
(fully unfolded device). Since fo is less than the threshold Fig. 3b that the rear axles experience the maximum induced
frequency of 1.0 Hz, large along with wind forces due to reaction forces when the vertical arm is opened and the
fluctuating (gusty) winds can be experienced by the frame working platform is partly opened, i.e. lying parallel to the
(AS 1170.2-1989; IS: 875(3)-2015; Garg et al., 1997). An axis of the bridge. Based on this stability analysis, the
estimate based on the gust factor method described in counterbalancing weight of 4.0 ton on the structure was
IS:875(3), 2015 has been made, and resulting enhancement adopted to avoid the overturning of the vehicle. The need for
in the forces have been found of the order of 2.95 times the additional support arms or rollers like elephant pads to avoid
smooth wind (static wind load) case for which the possible overturning was ruled out as the stability is ensured
structural members are critically stressed. Highly stressed without the pads.
areas are observed to be around the sliding joint-3 (H),
where the design of the cross-bracings is critical.

4.3 Load Path Analysis and Displacements

The Free-Body Diagram (FBD) of each of the sub-

assemblies has been drawn. The resulting stresses in
various members of the sub-assembly are further
controlled. The maximum displacement of the tip of the
horizontal platform under critical load case is computed as
0.06 m and is nearly 1 in 170 of the span (of 10 m). For such
a device, the limit on deflection is not enforced in codes (IS
800-2007 and ANSI/SIA A92.8-1993). Further, during
field trials of the device, the displacement of the working
platform was not noticeable, thus poses no hindrance
during its operation. A total load of lattice frame is finally
transferred to the chassis and finally to the wheels of the Fig. 3a Simulated Truck Stability
truck. The whole of the structural frame is modeled in FEM (wheels marked 1-6)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 33

 TECHNICAL PAPER

sliding (joint-3, H) was to be mounted. Random checks for

weld strength with NDT were carried out. A raised test
platform was built to simulate the bridge conditions.
Initially, different components and then the whole system
(without truck) have been tested over this raised platform.
Anti-Corrosive treatment to the external surfaces of
various components was carried out. The recommended
procedure is to get hot dip galvanised all the members and
an application of two coats of primer followed by another
two coats of structural yellow or orange paint on all
external surfaces of the members.

The supply of electricity (AC) was provided using an

onboard electric generator of the capacity of 15 KVA which
has been installed over the floor of the vehicle. Appropriate
lightning arrester was provided at the top of the device. The
lightning arrester consists of one lightning rod of copper
Fig. 3b Force distribution in a Stable Configuration with a spike on one of its end and threading on the other
5.2 Integration of Components and Control Sub- end.
System 5.5 Other Aspects
The integration of all the sub-assemblies has been carried Timely inspection and repair of the infrastructure using
out after considering the sequence of operation of MBIU. modern inspection tools and aid like MBIU help to avoid
Electrical control logic using Programmable Logic the failures of bridges (Garg et al., 2021) and providing the
Circuits (PLC) have been implemented on a standard desired level of serviceability. The MBIU itself does not
control framework and is attached with the panels placed function to collect data on the bridge since it is a facility to
over the truck. Validated software modules have been provide an access to the bridge engineers to reach all
embedded with the PLCs. around the bridge. Typical constraints of an MBIU are its
permissible payload and the length of the working
5.3 Safety Aspects
platform. The length of the working platform correlates
Under severe winds, the operation should be stopped to with the depth across the width of the bridge where an
avoid any possibility of overturning, thus harming persons inspection team can reach and varies from 6 m to 14 m
working over it. An anemometer has been installed on the depending upon its needs. The payload permitted includes
vehicle, and the warning sub-system gets activated issuing the weight of the personnel and instruments to be carried
warning through an audio system if the ambient wind speed with. The team can plan accordingly the accessories being
exceeds a limit of 14 m/s. Safety of personnel may also be taken along with them. This MBIU system is competitive
improved by providing them with safety helmets and safety for functional as well as technical features and other
belts. Sufficient numbers of these safety devices and aspects of technology lifecycle including development are
manuals should be kept in the vehicle (Occupational provided in Garg and Sharma (2020). The cost of
Health and Safety Regulation). indigenously manufactured unit is lower its maintenance is
easy. The communication system between the driver and
5.4 Considerations during Fabrication the team working at the platform is optional. It is
recommended that one assistant remains always on the
Three-dimensional drawings in AutoCAD were prepared alert for communicating with the team on the working
for arriving at exact sizes of various members to be cut and platform and surroundings.
marked individually. A mock assembly of each of the
components is made before welding them. Standard 6. CONCLUSIONS
fabrication techniques, such as mentioned in CIDECT
(Dutta et al., 1988) have been used. The surfaces of The mobile bridge inspection unit has been designed by
structural members were aligned and smoothened considering it as a lattice frame connected with appropriate
particularly, at the junction with the mechanical joint of masses (additionally contributed from electric motors and

34 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

mechanical components) at the joints. The type of bridges, Boundary Layer Wind Tunnels. J Wind Engineering &
provisions of the motor vehicle act and the functional Industrial Aerodynamics. 72 (1997) 1-12.
requirements are found to govern the sizing of the device. 8 Garg RK, Chandra S. & Kumar A. (2021): Analysis of
The choice of the type of mechanical joints depends upon Bridge Failures in India from 1977 to 2017, International
the maneuverability that is the movement of various arms Journal Structure and Infrastructure Engineering.
DOI: 10.1080/15732479.2020.1832539
for the desired operation of the MBIU. The dynamic wind
loads have been found to be governing the structural 9 Garg RK and Sharma R. (2020). Technology Development
design, including overturning, which has been based on of Mobile Bridge Inspection Unit at CSIR in India.
possible operational scenarios of the structural frame at the Swadeshi Vigyan Patrika, The Vigyan Bharti (VIBHA),
Delhi, India, Vol. 1 (2), Pp. 25-31, July-Dec, 2020.
bridge site. The avoidance of overturning; thus, the
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/350063817_Tec
stability of the device has been achieved by employing hnology_Development_of_Mobile_Bridge_Inspection_U
appropriate counterweights based on rigid body stability nit_at_CSIR_in_India
analysis. The integration of different sub-assemblies is
10 IRC:SP-35. Guidelines for Inspection and Maintenance of
accomplished utilising a multi-disciplinary engineering Bridges. Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
approach involving civil, mechanical and electrical
engineers on board. 11 IS 4923:2017. Steel Hollow Tubes for General Engineering
Purpose. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 12 IS 800-2007. Code of Practice for General Construction in
Steel. Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi 2007.
The authors express gratitude to Department of Science
13 IS: 875(3)- 2015. Code of Practice for Design Loads (other
and Technology (DST), New Delhi for funding the Grant-
than earthquake) for Buildings and Structures, Part 3: Wind
in-Aid project entitled “Distress Diagnostics, Performance Loads). Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
Evaluation and Bridge Management System for Concrete
14 MOST/MoRTH, Standard Plans for Highway Bridges:
Bridges“ (DST/TSG/STS 76) and the Director of CSIR- PSC Girders RC Slab Composite Superstructure, Ministry
CRRI as well as CSIR-CMERI to permit publishing this of , Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi.
paper.
15 NISA-II Software. Cranes Software Inc.
REFERENCES (www.cranessoftware.com).

1 ADAMS Software: Multi-body Dynamics Simulation. 16 Occupational Health and Safety Regulation. Mobile Cranes,
Boom Trucks, Tower Cranes and Sign Trucks,
MSC Software Corporation (www.mscsoftware.com).
(http://www2.worksafebc.com/publications/ohsregulation).
2 ANSI/SIA A92.8 (1993), American National Standard for
17 Rossnagel WE, Higgins LR & MacDonald JA. Handbook
Vehicle-Mounted Bridge Inspection and Maintenance Devices,
of Rigging for construction and Industrial Operations,
American National Standards Institute Inc., New York.
McGraw-Hill Inc. 1988.
3 AS 1170.2 (1989). Minimum Design Loads on Structures
18 Sahu, G.K. et al (2016) Collection and Analysis of Bridge
(known as the SAA loading code), Part 2: Wind Loads. Condition and Bridge Inventory Data by MBIU for the
Standards Australia. Purpose of the Major/Minor Bridges on all NHs in the State
4 Dutta A, Wardenier J, Yeoman N and Akae K. (1988). of Jharkhand (Package No. 8). Report under Indian Bridge
Design Guide for Fabrication, Assembly and Erection of Management System (IBMS), submitted to Ministry of
Hollow Section Structures. CIDECT. (www.cidect.org). Road Transport and Highways, New Delhi. ICT Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi and CSIR-CRRI, New Delhi.
5 FHWA-2009-0074 (2009). National Bridge Inspection
Standards, Department of Transportation, Federal 19 Tata Structura: Steel Hollow Sections. Technical Details of
Highway Administration, USA. Weather Resistant Square and Rectangular Hollow
Sections, TISCO, India 2006.
6 FHWA-PL-08-016, Bridge Evaluation Quality Assurance
20 The Motor Vehicles Act-1988 & The Motor Vehicles
in Europe, Report grant no. DTFH61-99-C-005,
(Amendment) Bill-2007. Ministry of Shipping, Road
Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Transport and Highways, New Delhi.
Administration, USA 2008.
21 UIC Code 778-4 R, Defects in Railway Bridges and
7 Garg R.K., Lou J.X. and Kasperski M. (1997). Some Procedures for Maintenance, International Union of
Features of Modeling Spectral Characteristics of Flow in Railways 2009.

INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021 35

 RECOMMENDATIONS TO AVOID DELAY IN CONSTRUCTION
OF ELEVATED METRO PROJECT

DR. ABHIJEET S GANDAGE1 VINIK K. SARAF2 VIRAJ V. BHADALE3

ABSTRACT
With the focus being shifted from consumption-driven growth to investment-driven growth there is an increase inmigration to
urban areas for better education and employment opportunities. Rapid urbanization and spatial separation between various
important locations, necessities adequate transport systems to satisfy travel needs of population. Large scale construction of
urban transport infrastructure is undertaken in India under various schemes. The scope of the project and site layout factors
influence the duration of construction work zones. The nature of construction activities and the composition of surrounding
vehicular traffic influence each other's time schedule.
Projects like construction of a metro corridor on a busy road network are capital intensive and time sensitive. Such projects if
delayed have significant cost and time implication, leading to disputes between stakeholders resulting in time consuming
arbitration process and long term environment impact. The geometry of metro site work zone, traffic management around the
construction site as well as management of site operations and resources have impact on the project completion schedules. On
the basis of these factors, a 90 day observation based qualitative study was undertaken on 1.25 km long stretch of elevated
metro corridor in Pune Metro project. On the basis of field observations, site layout related problems that influence the project
time schedules were identified. Based on literature review and research studies undertaken on similar such projects, the study
explores the possibility of application of few measures like, Hierarchical Planning for decision making, Bundling of Projects
and Last Planner System (LPS), to streamline the site operations and decision making so as to avoid project delay.

1. INTRODUCTION As per the recent survey by Tom Tom Traffic index, 2020(1),
conducted across 416 cities in 57 countries, 3 Indian cities
India is the 2nd most populated country in which the younger appear in top 10 list as most traffic congested cities in the
population (25 to 35 years) out numbers the other age world. The cities in the list are Mumbai (2ndrank/4th rank in
group. Skewed planning principles have led to biased 2019), Bengaluru (6th rank/1st rank in 2019) and Delhi (8th
development of certain areas in the country resulting in rank/no change with respect to 2019 survey). Pune which
large scale migration of the employable population in was 5th placed in the 2019 survey, now appears on 16th rank
search of better opportunities to urban centres. This causes in the 2020 survey. On an average the citizen in Bengaluru
strain on urban infra structural assets like transport, water spend 243 hours, in Mumbai 209 hours, in Pune 193 hours
supply, etc. Due to wide gap in transport demand and and in Delhi 190 hours respectively in traffic congestion
supply there is large scale uncontrolled proliferation of per year. With such statistics highlighting the problems of
private vehicles on the urban roads. This leads to traffic urban transportation, traffic planners and engineers
congestion, air as well as noise pollution and overall recommend dedicated public transport corridors like
wastage of productive man hours. metros. Presently in India there are 28 metro projects at
1 Assistant Professor, School of Construction Management, NICMAR, Pune, Email – [email protected]
2 Student,
3 Student,} PGP Advanced Construction Management, NICMAR, Pune

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER
(2)
different stages of development . According to the work zone conditions were calculated to be around Rs. 20
Detailed Project Report of the Pune Metro Rail Project, it crore per km per year.Maximum percentage of economic
has been estimated that mass rapid transit system like losses is due to loss in time by bus passengers in the work
metro can reduce the consumption of energy up to 5 times zone. The authors suggest prioritization of public transport
per km than that of existing road transport system, also around the work zone Yu Qiao, et al. (2019)(8) studied the
carry traffic of 5 lane bus. Further justifying the need for influence of the project bundling on maintenance of traffic
this approach has been supported by reduction in the cost in a highway project and anticipated lower likelihood
(3)
journey time by 50 to 75% . Metro infrastructure can be of delay, less traffic interruption to construction work,
either completely elevated, part elevated and part reduced travel time and lower risk of construction related
underground or completely underground. Construction of injuries Amit Shankar Munje, et al. (2014)(9), undertook a
metros in busy traffic corridors needs meticulous planning study of implementing last planner system, which is a
of construction site activities and systematic management technique of lean construction, to traditional construction
of vehicular traffic around the work zone. The study group management. This study listed advantages like continuous
has undertaken a qualitative approach to identify the site improvement culture, coordination and personal
based reasons for delay in metro construction activities. commitment of last planners to reduce constructional
Further, measures to minimize the delays and stream line delays.
site based operations, few techniques like Hierarchical
decision making, Last Planner System and Bundling of Based on the literature review following key points were
Projects have been explored. The following sections identified
present the literature review, description of the study area, i. Traffic delays and congestions not only affect output
observations made during the study duration and of construction but also have collateral damage on
recommendations. environment.
ii. In case of metro projects, missing key milestones in
2. LITERATURE REVIEW the project activities has cost implications.
iii. Construction delays influence time, cost and quality
Study undertaken by Sabharwal, et al. (2011) (4), highlights
in equal measure. To avoid the negative impact of
the interrelation between growth in population and
project delays it is important to identify the potential
insufficiency of the existing transportation systems leading
causes and prepare appropriate strategy in either pre
to heavy collateral damage to the environment in form of
planning or planning stage.
air pollution. The study justifies the concept of Delhi metro
with potential benefits and the cost-benefit ratio was found 3. STUDY AREA
out to be between 2.3 to 1.9 at 8 & 10 percent interest rate
and internal rate of return of about 17 percent was reported. A case of the Pune Metro Project has been taken into
Ping Liu, et al. (2016)(5), recognized Construction Schedule consideration. Pune metro rail project passes across the
Plan (CSP) as a critical step in construction planning. middle of Pune city. The project envisages two routes.
Multi-Attribute Utility Theory (MAUT) was employed to Corridor 1 is proposed from Pimpri-Chinchwad (PCMC)
measure and integrate time, cost and quality taking a case to Swargate, while Corridor 2 is proposed from Vanaz to
of the pile foundation in a bridge construction and by Ramwadi.
developing scenarios with different attributes into a Table 1 Details of Metro Alignment under
comparable utility index. Accordingly, an optimal CSP that Construction in Pune City
produces the maximum value of total utility could be
determined.

Pornsirichotirat Thapanont, et al. (2018)(6), identified the

time overrun factors like lack of proper documentation,
lack of equipment efficiency, poor cash flow management,
human resources issues & delay in evaluating
environmental impact in highway projects of Thailand
Ravi Bhutani, et al. (2014)(7), quantified the impact of The present study considered a section of 1.25 km in
construction work zone of a mass rapid transit system on Corridor 2 of the Pune metro rail project keeping in mind
the nature of the alignment. Alignment considered is from
traffic environment. The total economic losses due to the
the Pune RTO to Jahangir Hospital.

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 TECHNICAL PAPER

This particular site has been selected for the following

reasons:
i. Based on site visit undertaken, it was observed that
the study area is relatively a straight section
ii. Many public utility buildings and spaces such as
government offices, railway station, hospitals,
educational institutes and luxury hotel are located
along this alignment.
iii. It is considered to be a VIP route as this alignment is a
part of route that connects Pune Airport to Pune
Vidhan Bhavan (Council Hall)
4. OBSERVATIONS RELATED TO DELAYS IN
STUDY AREA
4.1 Material Issue on Construction Site
Projects of the scale of metro construction require accurate Photo 1 Cave-Ins at Foundation level
material forecasting and inventory management. However,
4.4 Site and Equipment Mobilization
in thestudy area it was observed that there were frequent
instances of material shortage(in particular, shuttering The alignment considered for study is an elevated metro
material). The shortages were attributed to poor corridor, whose construction requires deployment of large
communication and documentation between site team and capacity hydraulic cranes for handling of various resources
stores department. Also due to lack of storage space for the (shuttering, reinforcement and pre cast segments etc.).
materials near construction site, some portion was However as the site is located on congested traffic corridor,
damaged due to other operations, weather conditions and there were site layout (inadequate entry/exit points)
poor handling as well storage. limitations that hampered the mobilization, maneuvering
4.2 Workmen Shortage and operation of these equipments. This resulted in
prolonged idle time of the equipment resources causing
Large scale employment of semi skilled workmen with no delay of dependent construction activities
prior exposure to equipment resource and technologies
employed for metro construction was major handicap for
the speedy completion of the project activities. Due to
construction activities on busy traffic corridor, movement
of workmen from one section of site to other was delayed
leading to under staffing of workmen on some sections of
the site.
4.3 Cave Ins
The successful completion on construction projects
depends on internal factors (construction management
practices adopted by the contractors and stakeholders) as
well as external factors (weather and site conditions).
During one of the study visit, Cave-Ins of an un-shored pile
cap activity was observed. This incident happened on
account of excessive rains, traffic vibration by vehicles
passing from nearby lanes and presence of expansive soil. Photo 2 Equipment Mobilization in Limited
This incident resulted in damage to the reinforcement of Pace around Point of Construction
pile cap adding to the construction delay. With proper
4.5 Over Flow of Storm Water Drain
communication and transfer of information related to the
underground utilities, between project stakeholders and Inadequate site investigation and poor inter organisational
municipal departments such incidences can be avoided and communication also impacts timely completion of
help mitigate project delays. construction activities resulting in overall delay of the

38 INDIAN HIGHWAYS JULY 2021

 TECHNICAL PAPER

project.In the present study area, existence of storm water The above figure presents the loss in production time
drains was identified during construction stage. Due to lack observed in concrete delivery operation. In the study it was
of information regarding the capacity of the drain, temporary observed that the concrete delivery was undertaken with
dewatering measures by employing small capacity pumps the help of transit mixers. The ideal case scenario (green
was undertaken. As this activity was undertaken in rainy line) highlight the unit production times of each step viz.
season it led to flooding of the foundation pit as well as positioning, testing, pouring and exit. One represents the
neighbouring railway tracks. This resulted in overall 3 optimal time taken for each step in concrete delivery. Blue
months delay in construction of the particular foundation. line indicates the stepwise time required for transit mixer
1.It was observed that due to constricted work zone the
transit mixer wasted significant amount of time in
positioning and pouring operations of concrete. Based on
the operational delay observed for transit mixer 1 some
adjustments on site and instructions to driver of transit
mixer 2 helped in reduction of non productive time related
to positioning and pouring steps. The time required for
testing of concrete and exit time were similar for both the
transit mixers as the testing point and exit gate were fixed
with respect to the point of discharge of the concrete from
the transit mixers. The delay observed was related to
positioning of the transit mixer and pouring of the concrete
mix at construction point.
4.7 Road Widening
Photo 3 Poor Utility Management (Storm Water To ease traffic congestion around the construction site and
Drains) and Flooding of Foundation Pits
ensure fast turn-around time for construction vehicles, road
4.6 Issue of Transit Mixers widening activity was undertaken around the work zone.
Construction of elevated metro section in heavy traffic This was achieved by compromising the pedestrian space.
However, the geometric design factors were not taken into
corridor needs careful traffic management plan that enables
consideration. The road widening activity resulted in
timely movement of vehicles transporting construction
productivity loss of the work zone as its objective was not
materials in and out of the site. Due to lack of traffic
fulfilled and even the well-built footpaths were disturbed.
movement data, constricted workspace and criticality of
activities there were instances observed where the arrival time 4.8 Inadequate Amenities
of the concrete transit mixers got delayed, thereby affecting
The work zone was a stretch of 1.25 kilometres and with
the quality of concrete which resulted in discarding of the
almost 4 to 5 workmen crew working at different locations.
concrete batch. Further in some instance it was observed that
Each crew comprised of 8-12 workmen. Provision of
due to constricted site layout there was delay in correct
adequate drinking water and sanitation facility is required
positioning of the transit mixer with respect to the placement
for all personal on site. However, due to the layout and
equipment which affected the properties of fresh concrete.
location of site that it was not practical to provide adequate
number of water and sanitation facility. This resulted in
prolonged water and toilet breaks on the part of workmen
upto the extent of 1 hour in some instances.

Based on the above observations noted over a period of 90

days the delay factors were categorised on the bases of
frequency of occurrence and its impact. Fig. 2 presents the
matrix structure defining the interrelationship between
frequency of occurrence of delays and its potential impact
on the construction stage of the project. The abscissa
defines the frequency of occurrence of delays while, the
Fig. 1 Production Time Analysis for ordinate signifies the impact of the identified delays on the
Concrete Delivery operation project.

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Decentralizing the decision making process on the basis

of the above hierarchical levels, leads to speedy
decision making, improves capacity building of the
construction team due to their involvement in decision
making process and boosts team morale Table 2
identifies typical decision factors, related to site
operations, associated with different hierarchy in the
organization. Such clear identification of decision
points related to different authorities in the organization
helps in speeding up the site operations in the project.

Table 2 Decision at Different Hierarchical Level

to Minimize Delays in Site Operations
Fig. 2 Relationship Matrix Indicating Impact of
Delay and Frequency of Occurrence for
Different Delay Factors Identified
5. RECOMMENDATIONS TO OVERCOME THE
DELAYS IDENTIFIED
Based on the literature review, the study identifies some
measures for efficient site management practices. It is
proposed that majority of the operational delays can be
overcome by systematic strategizing of operations (Strategic
Planning), identifying and assigning accountability (LPS)
and adopting the concept of project bundling.
5.1 Hierarchical Planning
5.2 Adopting Lean Principle like Last Planner System
The ability of construction organizations to undertake time
decisions in response to site conditions impacts the time Last Planner System (LPS) is a lean construction
completion of the project. Stakeholder organizations technique that presents a sequence of work to be
involved in construction projects have various hierarchical undertaken in a construction project to avoid delays and
levels for smooth conduct of various operations that assigning accountability to team members responsible for
impacts the decision making process as well as time completing specific tasks in the project. LPS helps in
required to arrive and communicate the decision. The micro level planning, by identifying last planners
common hierarchy observed in organizations areTop responsible for a particular activity. The last planner
(Strategic), Middle (Tactical) and Lower (Operational). system identifies specific people in the project team
responsible for specific task/activity by assigning them the
requested resources such as materials; equipments and
information to complete the specific task. The last planner
can before men, site supervisors, site engineers and
construction managers depending on the scale of the
activity and task. Last Planner System also includes
monitoring unit production rates for each activity with
reference to benchmark production rate; identify control
factors for work flow and evaluation as well as compliance
of quality standards. In addition, LPS helps to identify the
root cause of production delays thereby helping
authorities to adopt appropriate trouble shooting
Fig. 3 Hierarchical Level for Decision Making to mechanisms to make timely decisions that increase
Ensure Minimization of Delays in Site Operations productivity.

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6. CONCLUSION
The paper identifies some factors that cause operational
level delays in Pune Metro Project based on the
observation study undertaken. On the basis of the site
observations, it can be concluded that, the factors
contributing to delay of site activities can be minimized by
adopting decentralization in decision making process
(Hierarchical Planning approach), fixing accountability for
operations and tasks assigned to site personnel (Last
Planner System) and minimizing duplication of tasks and
resources by reducing the number of stakeholders
(Bundling of Project). Hierarchical approach to decision
making improves human resource performance and
confidence thereby impacting the speed of project
Fig. 4 Representation of Last Planner activities. Last Planner system helps to streamline work
System8 and its Contents flow on construction site by assigning correct tasks to
correct individual. Project bundling system can help
5.3 Concept of Project Bundling improve project delivery goals, reducing unaccounted
In the present study, it was observed that multiple service costs and improves overall contracting efficiency.
providers were appointed to undertake different REFRENCES
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