Lectures

Engineering Physics (PH-101)

For BTech (Engineering Physics)

by
Dr. Tulsi Anna
Department of Physics and Photonics Science
A seminal book on
Electrodynamics
❖Introduction Four Realms of Mechanics

For objects in the

Adequate to explain
dimensions of
the “Everyday life”
atoms and
phenomena
molecules

At high speeds (near

the speed of light); Objects that are both
1905 very fast and very small

Note:
1. A mechanics that combines relativity and quantum principles is in order; this relativistic
quantum mechanics is known as quantum field theory.
2. We shall work exclusively in the domain of classical mechanics, although
electromagnetism extends with unique simplicity to the other three realms.
Contd..
Four Kinds of Forces
❖ Mechanics tells us how a system will behave when subjected to a given force. There are just four basic forces
known (presently) to physics: I list them in the order of decreasing strength:

1. Strong force: This holds the protons and neutrons together in the atomic nucleus, have extremely
short range (10−15 m); so we do not “feel” them, in spite of the fact that they are almost 100 times
powerful than the electrical forces.
2. Electromagnetic force: These are forces which involve in our daily lives like, friction, chemical forces
that bind molecules together, force of impact between two colliding billiard forces. Indeed, it is
scarcely an exaggeration to say that we live in an electromagnetic world—virtually every force
we experience in everyday life, with the exception of gravity, is electromagnetic in origin.
3. Weak forces: This forces account for certain kind of radioactive decays, are also short range forces
(10−18 m); much weaker than the electromagnetic forces.
4. Gravitational forces: As for gravity, it is so pitifully feeble (compared to all of the others) that it is
only by virtue of huge mass concentrations (like the earth and the sun) that we ever notice it at all.
The electrical repulsion between two electrons is 1042 times as large as their gravitational attraction,
and if atoms were held together by gravitational (instead of electrical) forces, a single hydrogen atom
would be much larger than the known universe.
Contd.. Rise of Electromagnetism
✓ In the beginning, electricity and magnetism were entirely separate subjects. The one dealt with glass rods and cat’s
fur, pith balls, batteries, currents, electrolysis, and lightning; the other with bar magnets, iron filings, compass
needles, and the North Pole.
✓ But in 1820 Oersted noticed that an electric current could deflect a magnetic compass needle.
✓ Soon afterward, Ampère correctly postulated that all magnetic phenomena are due to electric charges in
motion.
✓ Then, in 1831, Faraday discovered that a moving magnet generates an electric current.
✓ By the time Maxwell and Lorentz put the finishing touches on the theory, electricity and magnetism were
inextricably intertwined.
✓ They could no longer be regarded as separate subjects, but rather as two aspects of a single subject:
electromagnetism.

Hans Christian Oersted Michael Faraday

James Clerk Maxwell André-Marie Ampère
Contd..
What is Electromagnetism?
✓ Electromagnetism is a branch of physics
involving the study of the
electromagnetic force, a type of physical
interaction that occurs between
electrically charged particles. The
electromagnetic force is carried by
electromagnetic fields composed of
electric fields and magnetic fields, and it
is responsible for electromagnetic
radiation such as light.
✓ The electromagnetic force plays a major
role in determining the internal properties
of most objects encountered in daily life.

The fundamental problem a theory of electromagnetism hopes to solve is this: I hold

up a bunch of electric charges here (and maybe shake them around); what happens
to some other charge, over there?
To start with electromagnetism/Electrodynamics we must have some knowledge of Differential Calculus

The Gradient
✓ Suppose, now, that we have a function of three variables—say, the temperature
T (x, y, z) in this room. (Start out in one corner, and set up a system of axes; then T
for each point (x, y, z) in the room, T gives the temperature at that spot.
✓ We want to generalize the notion of “derivative” to functions like T , which
depend not on one but on three variables.
✓ A derivative is supposed to tell us how fast the function varies, if we move a little
distance. But this time the situation is more complicated, because it depends on
what direction we move.
✓ In fact, the question “How fast does T vary?” has an infinite number of answers,
one for each direction we might choose to explore.

❖ A theorem on partial derivatives states that

(1)

This tells us how T changes when we alter all three variables by the infinitesimal amounts dx, dy, dz. Notice that we do
not require an infinite number of derivatives—three will suffice: the partial derivatives along each of the three
coordinate directions.
Contd.. The Gradient
(1)

Equation (1) is reminiscent of a dot product (or scalar product):

(2)

Hint:

The numbers Ax , Ay , and Az , are the “components” of A;

geometrically, they are the projections of A along the three
coordinate axes (Ax = A ・ ˆx, Ay = A ・ ˆy, Az = A ・ ˆz).

If two vectors are parallel;

Distributive law for Dot product
❖ Dot product of two vectors
If two vectors are perpendicular
Contd.. The Gradient
Infinitesimal displacement vector (dl)

The magnitude can be written as

A unit vector pointing radially outward

The infinitesimal displacement vector, from (x, y, z) to (x + dx, y + dy,

z + dz), is

**We could call this dr, since that’s what it is, but it is useful to have a special notation for infinitesimal displacements.
Contd.. The Gradient

(2)

Where;
(3)

is known as the gradient of the function T; for a fixed point with distance at 𝑑𝐥

✓ Note that ∇T is a vector quantity, with three components; it is the generalized derivative we have been looking for.

✓ The vector differential operator ∇ , called “del” or “nabla”, is defined in three dimensions to be:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ = 𝜕𝑥 ˆx + 𝜕𝑦 ŷ + 𝜕𝑧ˆz (4)

✓ This vector operator may be applied to (differentiable) scalar functions (scalar fields) and the result is a
special case of a vector field, called a gradient vector field.
✓ Gradient of a scalar function is also known as direction derivatives.
Contd.. The Gradient
➢ Geometrical Interpretation of the Gradient
Like any vector, the gradient has magnitude and direction.
To determine its geometrical meaning, let’s rewrite the equation (2), as follows;

(5) Hint:

where θ is the angle between ∇T and dl.

✓ Now, if we fix the magnitude |dl| and search around in various directions (that is, vary θ), the maximum change in
T evidentially occurs when θ = 0 (for then cos θ = 1).

✓ That is, for a fixed distance |dl|, dT is greatest when I move in the same direction as ∇T . Thus:
Contd.. The Gradient

Important:
What would it mean for the gradient to vanish?
If ∇T = 0 at (x, y, z), then dT = 0 for small displacements about the point (x, y, z).
This is, then, a stationary point of the function T (x, y, z). It could be a maximum (a summit), a minimum (a valley), a
saddle point (a pass), or a “shoulder.” This is analogous to the situation for functions of one variable, where a vanishing
derivative signals a maximum, a minimum, or an inflection.

In particular, if you want to locate the extrema of a function of three variables, set its gradient equal to zero.
❖The Dell Operator

✓ Of course, del is not a vector, in the usual sense. Indeed, it doesn’t mean much until we
provide it with a function to act upon.
✓ Furthermore, it does not “multiply” T ; rather, it is an instruction to differentiate what
follows. To be precise, then, we say that ∆ is a vector operator that acts upon T ,
not a vector that multiplies T .
Contd..

✓ With this qualification, though, ∇ mimics the behavior of an ordinary vector in virtually every way
❖The Divergence
➢ The ‘divergence’ of a vector function can be written as follows:

Note:
1. Divergence of a vector function is the ‘dot’ or ‘scalar’ product of the operator ‘del’ with a ‘vector’
function.
2. The divergence of a vector function, v is itself a scalar ∇ ・ v.
3. A vector function v(x, y, z) = vx (x, y, z) ˆx + vy (x, y, z) ˆy + vz (x, y, z) ˆz is really three functions—
one for each component.
4. There’s no such thing as the divergence of a scalar.
Contd.. The Divergence
Geometrical Interpretation of Divergence
✓ The name “Divergence” is well chosen, for ∇.v is a measure of how much the vector, v, spreads out
(diverges) from the point in question.
✓ It’s a point relation; not about a region.
✓ A point of divergence is a source, or “faucet”; a point of negative divergence is a sink, or “drain”.

A = (x, y, z) A = (0, 0, 1) A = (0, 0, z)

Fig. (a) The vector function has a large positive divergence (if the arrows pointed in, it would be a negative divergence); Fig.
(b) The function has zero divergence; Fig. (c) The function has a positive divergence
Contd.. The Divergence

2
❖The Curl

➢ The ‘curl’ of a vector function can be written as follows:

Note:
1. There is no such thing as the curl of a scalar.
2. Curl of a vector is a ‘vector’ quantity.
3. Direction of this field (curl) can be found using right hand thumb rule
Contd.. The Curl
Curl ≈“Rotating Effect”
Geometrical Interpretation of curl
✓ The name “Curl” is well chosen, for 𝛁 × 𝒗 is a measure
of how much the vector, v, swirls around the point in River
question.
✓ It’s a point relation; not about a region.
✓ A whirlpool would be a region of large curl.

A = (x, y, z) A = (-y, x,0)

Fig. (b) The vector function have a substantial curl, pointing in

the z-direction; as the natural right hand rule suggest.
Whirlpool
Contd.. The Curl

3
Nature of Divergence and Curl of the Flux Vector
Integral Calculus:
In electrodynamics, we encounter several different kinds of integrals, among which the most important are
✓ Line (or path) integrals,
✓ Surface integrals (or flux), and
✓ Volume integrals.
❖ Line (or path) integrals

✓ A line integral is an expression of the form:

where v is a vector function, dl is the infinitesimal displacement

vector. The integral is carried out along a prescribed path, as
shown in the figure, from point “a” to point “b”.

✓ If the path in the question forms a closed loop; i.e.

a=b, we shall put a circle on the integral sign:

Note: At each point on the path, we take the dot product of v (evaluated at that point) with the displacement dl to
the next point on the path.
Example: Work done by a force, F:
Contd..

(2,2,0)

(1,1,0)

**

**
Contd..
❖ Surface integrals
S
✓ A surface integral is an expression of the form

where v is again some vector function, and the integral is over a specified
surface S. Here da is an infinitesimal patch of area, with direction
perpendicular to the surface

✓ If the surface is closed (forming a “balloon”), in which case I shall

again put a circle on the integral sign:

✓ Then tradition dictates that “outward” is positive, but for open da

surfaces it’s arbitrary

✓ If v describes the flow of a fluid (mass per unit area per unit time),
then v · da represents the total mass per unit time passing through
the surface— hence the alternative name, “flux.”
Contd..
❖ Surface integrals

✓ There are, of course, two directions perpendicular to

any surface, so the sign of a surface integral is
intrinsically ambiguous.
Example: Calculate the surface integral of v = 2xz ˆx + (x+2) ˆy + y(z2−3) ˆz over five sides (excluding the bottom) of the
cubical box (side 2) in Fig. Let “upward and outward” be the positive direction, as indicated by the arrows.

Answer:
Taking the sides
one at a time
Contd..
❖ Volume integrals
✓ A volume integral is an expression of the form

where “T” is a scalar function and “dτ” is an infinitesimal volume element. In Cartesian
coordinates,

✓ For example, if T is the density of a substance (which might vary from point to point), then
the volume integral would give the total mass.
✓ Occasionally we shall encounter volume integrals of vector functions:

because the unit vectors (ˆx, ˆy, and ˆz) are constants, they come outside the integral.
Contd..
❖ Volume integrals
Example: Calculate the volume integral of T = xyz2 over the prism as shown in the figure.
Contd..
The Fundamental Theorem for Curls: Stokes’ theorem
The fundamental theorem for curls, which goes by the special name of Stokes’ theorem, states that

(1)

“the surface integral of the curl of a function over a surface bounded by a closed surface is equal to the
line integral of the particular vector function around that surface”

Geometrical Interpretation:
✓ Recall that the curl measures the “twist” of the vectors v; a region of high curl is a
whirlpool—if you put a tiny paddle wheel there, it will rotate. Now, the integral of the curl
over some surface (or, more precisely, the flux of the curl through that surface) represents the
“total amount of swirl,” and we can determine that just as well by going around the edge and
finding how much the flow is following the boundary.

✓ Indeed, is sometimes called the circulation of v.

Contd..
The Fundamental Theorem for Curls: Stokes’ theorem
You may have noticed an apparent ambiguity in Stokes’ theorem: concerning the boundary line integral, which way are
we supposed to go around (clockwise or counterclockwise)? If we go the “wrong” way, we’ll pick up an overall sign
error. The answer is that it doesn’t matter which way you go as long as you are consistent, for there is a compensating
sign ambiguity in the surface integral: Which way does da point? For a closed surface (as in the divergence theorem), da
points in the direction of the outward normal; but for an open surface, which way is “out”? Consistency in Stokes’
theorem (as in all such matters) is given by the right-hand rule: if your fingers point in the direction of the line integral,
then your thumb fixes the direction of da (Fig).
Contd.. The Fundamental Theorem for Divergences
(Gauss’s theorem, Green’s theorem, or simply the Divergence theorem)
The fundamental theorem for divergences states that:
“The integral of a derivative (in this case the divergence)
over a region (in this case a volume, v) is equal to the value
of the function at the boundary (in this case the surface S
that bounds the volume)”

Note: The “boundary” of a line is just two end points, but the boundary of a volume is a (closed) surface.
Geometrical Interpretation
✓ If v represents the flow of a fluid, then the flux of v (the right side of the previous equation) is the total amount of fluid
passing out through the surface, per unit time.
✓ Now, the divergence measures the “spreading out” of the vectors from a point—a place of high divergence is like a “faucet,
"pouring out liquid.
✓ If we have a bunch of faucets in a region filled with incompressible fluid, an equal amount of liquid will be forced out
through the boundaries of the region.
✓ In fact, there are two ways we could determine how much is being produced: (a) we could count up all the faucets, recording
how much each puts out, or (b) we could go around the boundary, measuring the flow at each point, and add it all up. You get
the same answer either way:

This, in essence, is what the divergence theorem says.

Contd..

•R. Hiemstra, R. Huijsmans, M. Gerritsma Published 9 September 2012 Mathematics arXiv: Numerical Analysis
 MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
✓ The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) was the first person to truly understand
the fundamental nature of light. He also made major contributions to thermodynamics, optics,
astronomy, and color photography. Albert Einstein described Maxwell’s accomplishments as “the
most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton.”

✓ So far, we have encountered the following laws, specifying the divergence and curl of electric and
magnetic fields; before Maxwell’s contribution:
Integral Form
Differential Form

(Gauss’s Law of
Magnetism)

Note that ✓ Maxwell added the “Displacement current” term in

Ampere’s law; which we will discuss later
 Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855)
Electrostatics: Field Lines, Flux, and Gauss’s Law
✓ Herewith , we will try, at first, to calculate the divergence and curl of electrostatic field, E, using divergence and curl.
As, using integrals to compute E, can be formidable, even for reasonably simple charge distributions

✓ Let’s begin with the simplest possible case: a single point charge ‘q’, situated at the origin:

The constant ε0is called the permittivity of free space.

In SI units, where force is in newtons (N), distance in meters (m), and
charge in coulombs (C),
ε0 = 8.85 × 10−12 C2N · m2 .
It represents the capability of a vacuum to permit electric fields
✓ Few representative vectors are shown in the figure (a)
𝟏
✓ Because the field falls off like 𝒓𝟐, the vectors get shorter as you go
farther away from the origin; they always point radially outward.
✓ But there is a nicer way to represent this field, and that’s to connect up
the arrows, to form field lines.
✓ The magnitude of the field is indicated by the density if the field
lines; it’s strong near the center where the field lines are close
together, and weak farther out, where they are relatively far apart.
Contd….
✓ In truth, the field-line diagram is deceptive, when I draw it on a two-
dimensional surface,
✓ For the density of lines passing through a circle of radius r is the total
number divided by the circumference (n/2πr ), which goes like (1/r ),
not (1/r2).
✓ But if you imagine the model in three dimensions; then the density of
lines is the total number divided by the area of the sphere (n/4πr2),
Circle Sphere
which does go like (1/r2).

✓ Field lines emanate from a point charge symmetrically in all directions.

✓ Field lines begin on positive charges and end

on negative ones.
✓ Field lines can never cross—at the
intersection, the field would have two
different directions at once!
✓ Field lines can not be terminated in “mid-air”,
though they may be extended out to infinity.
Contd….
Flux” of E through a surface S
✓ Let us now write the “flux” of E through a surface S

✓ Flux is a measure of the “number of E field lines”, passing through S.

(a)
✓ Total number of lines would be infinite, but for a given sampling rate,
the flux is proportional to the number of lines drawn, because the
field strength, remember, is proportional to the density of field lines
(the number per unit area), and hence E · da is proportional to the
number of lines passing through the infinitesimal area da.
✓ The dot product picks out the component of da along the direction of
E, as indicated in the Figure. It is the area in the plane perpendicular
to E that we have in mind when we say that the density of field lines
is the number per unit area.
This suggest that
(b)
❖ The net electric flux through the surface is actually proportional to the
magnitude of the net charge in the box.
Contd….
Essence of Gauss’s Law: Hence, the filed lines that originate
on a positive charge must either pass out through the surface,
or else terminate on a negative charge inside as shown in fig.
(a). On the other hand, charges outside the surface will
contribute nothing to the total flux, Since its fields lines pass in
one side and out the other as shown in fig. (b).

We can further understand and define that

➢ In the case of a point charge q at the origin,

the flux of E through a spherical surface of
radius r is

(1)
Contd….
Hint for the calculation in (1):
Surface area in spherical coordinates

✓ An area element on a sphere has constant radius r, and two angles.

✓ One is longitude ϕ , which varies from 0 to 2π.
✓ The other one is the angle with the vertical. To avoid counting
twice, that angle only varies between 0 and π.

So the area element is written as:

𝑑𝒂 = 𝑟𝑑θ𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛θ𝑑ϕ = 𝑟 2 sinθdθ dϕ

Integrating over the whole surface gives:

a=

So equation (1) becomes;

(1)

Also we can write flux as ; 𝑞

Φ𝐸 = (2)
𝜖0
Contd….

(1)

✓ Notice that the radius of the sphere cancels out, for while the surface area
goes up as r2, the field goes down as 1/r2, so the product is constant.

✓ In terms of the field-line picture, this makes good sense, since the same number of field lines pass through any
sphere centered at the origin, regardless of its size. In fact, it didn’t have to be a sphere—any closed surface,
whatever its shape, would be pierced by the same number of field lines.
✓ Evidently the flux through any surface enclosing the charge is q/ε0.

Gauss’s law: Qualitative Statement

“The net electric flux (number of lines) penetrating a closed surface is directly proportional to the total
electric charge enclosed by the closed surface and is independent of the size of the enclosed surface”.

✓ The closed surface called as the gaussian surface. This same theorem also can be states as “the normal
component of the electric field (i.e. the net outward electric flux) over any closed surface of any shape
1
drawn in an electric field is equal to times the net charge enclosed by the surface”.
𝜖0
Contd….
✓ Now suppose that instead of a single charge at the origin, we have a bunch of charges scattered
about. According to the principle of superposition, the total field is the (vector) sum of all the
individual fields:

✓ The flux through a surface that encloses them all is

✓ For any closed surface, then

Quantitative statement of
Gauss’s law in Integral
Form
(2)

where Qenc is the total charge enclosed within the surface

Since 𝑸𝒆𝒏𝒄
𝜱𝑬 = ර 𝑬. 𝒅𝒂 = 𝜱𝑬 (3)
𝝐𝟎
Contd….
Gauss’s law in differential form:
We have:
(1)

*** By applying the divergence theorem;

Rewriting Qenc in terms of the charge density ρ, we have

➢ So Gauss’s law (1) becomes

And since this holds for any volume, the integrands must be equal:

Gauss’s law in differential 1st law of Maxwell

form
✓ Where 𝜵. 𝑬 is the divergence of the electric field, 𝝐𝟎 is the electric constant, and 𝝆 is the total electric
charge density (charge per unit volume)
 Some observations regarding the Gauss’s law
✓ Symmetry is crucial to this application of Gauss’s law. As far as we know, there are only three kinds of symmetry
that work:

1. Spherical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a concentric sphere.

2. Cylindrical symmetry. Make your Gaussian surface a coaxial cylinder.
3. Plane symmetry. Use a Gaussian “pillbox” that straddles the surface

Why do we need symmetry?

✓ Gauss’s law is always true, but it is not always useful.

✓ If ρ had not been uniform (or, at any rate, not spherically
symmetrical), or if I had chosen some other shape for my Gaussian
surface, it would still have been true that the flux of E is q/ε0.
✓ But E would not have pointed in the same direction as da, and its
magnitude would not have been constant over the surface, and
without that we cannot get |E| outside of the integral.
Contd….
➢ Before going to continuity equation and other three laws of maxwell let us revise some
concept of electrostatics and magnetostatics

✓ Up to now, we have confined our attention to the simplest case, electrostatics, in which the source charge is at rest
(though the test charge need not be).
✓ The time has come to consider the forces between charges in motion.

✓ I could hold up a test charge near these wires, as shown in the

figure, and there would be no force on it, for the wires are in fact
electrically neutral.
✓ It’s true that electrons are flowing down the line—that’s what a
current is—but there are just as many stationary plus (+ve) charges
as moving minus (-ve) charges on any given segment.
✓ Whatever force accounts for the attraction of parallel currents and
the repulsion of antiparallel ones is not electrostatic in nature.
✓ It is our first encounter with a magnetic force.

✓ Whereas a stationary charge produces only an electric field E in

the space around it, a moving charge generates, in addition, a
magnetic field B.
Contd….
✓ The field B does not point toward the wire, nor away from it, but
rather it circles around the wire. In fact, if you grab the wire with
your right hand—thumb in the direction of the current—your
fingers curl around in the direction of the magnetic field.

✓ How can such a field lead to a force of attraction on a nearby

parallel current? At the second wire, the magnetic field points into
the page, the current is upward, and yet the resulting force is to the
left! It’s going to take a strange law to account for these directions.

Magnetic Forces: Lorentz Force Law

✓ The above example can be justified if we consider the vector cross product: the magnetic force on a charge Q,
moving with velocity v in a magnetic field B; as follows:

(1)

This relationship is known as the Lorentz force Law. It is a fundamental axiom of the theory, whose justification
is to be found in experiments such as described in the previous slide.
✓ In the presence of both electric field and magnetic fields, the net force on Q would be:

(2)
Contd….
Another important thing to note down

➢ Basically one important difference in electrostatic and magnetostatic is we know that electric
charges can be isolated i.e., we can have single positive charge and single negative charge.
➢ However we can not isolate a magnetic charge i.e., we can never isolate a north pole or south
pole of magnetic field individually. It means wherever a magnetic south pole there must be a
magnetic north pole. So magnetic monopole do not exists.
➢ So we know that source of a magnetic field is an electric current i.e, a steady current which is
flowing through a wire or any conducting loop.
➢ In such a magnetic field a moving electric charge experienced a sidewise forces and that force is
given by

When charge are When charge are in

static only exerts motion exerts
electric field magnetic field
Contd….
Implication of Lorentz force law:
For if Q moves an amount dl = v dt, the work done is

(3)

Hint: (v x B) is perpendicular to v, so (v x B). v =0

Scalar triple product

✓ Magnetic forces may alter the direction in which a particle moves, but they cannot speed it up
or slow it down.
✓ The fact that magnetic forces do no work is an elementary and direct consequence of the
Lorentz force law.
Contd….
Steady current
➢ Steady current is defined as amount of charge crossing the boundary of a surface S of a volume per unit
time. (Rate of change of charge in the volume)
➢ OR a continuous flow that has been going on forever without change and without pilling up anywhere.

➢ I = steady current has to be same all along the line.

So Bio Savart Law for line current for Surface current for Volume current
𝑟Ƹ
I
𝑟

𝑑𝑙 ′

Now see line current, surface current and Current Density; or Current per unit area or volume.

✓ The current in a wire is the charge per unit time passing a given point.
✓ By definition, negative charges moving to the left count the same as positive ones to the right. This
conveniently reflects the physical fact that almost all phenomena involving moving charges depend on the
product of charge and velocity (I = Qv).
✓ Current is measured in coulombs-per-second, or amperes (A). Current is a vector quantity.
Contd….
❖ Line current
✓ Line charge λ travelling a wire with speed v constitutes a current:
𝑞 𝜆𝑥
𝐼 = = = 𝜆𝑣 (1)
𝑡 𝑡
Current due to line charge
because a segment of length vΔt, carrying charge λvΔt, passes point P in a time interval Δt.
❖ The magnetic force on a segment of current-carrying wire is (from Lorentz force law)
(2)
As I and dl both point in the same direction, we can write, considering the current is constant in magnitude:

(3)

❖ Current Density; or Current per unit area

When charge flows over a surface, we describe it by the surface current
density, K, defined as follows: Where: dl⊥: infinitesimal width of
(4) the “ribbon” along which charge is
flowing and
In words, K is the current per unit width. In dI: Current in the ribbon
particular, if the (mobile) surface charge density is σ
The magnetic
and its velocity is v, then (6)
(5) force on the
surface current is
Contd….
Current Density
✓ When the flow of charge is distributed throughout a three-dimensional region,
we describe it by the volume current density, J, (as shown in the figure); we
can define this as follows:
(7)

“tube” of infinitesimal cross section da⊥, running parallel to the flow; the current in this tube is dI,

✓ In words, J is the current per unit area. If the (mobile) volume charge density is ρ and the velocity is v, then

(8)

✓ The magnetic force on a volume current is therefore

(9)

Let us now define equation of continuity

Contd….
Equation of Continuity: Local Charge Conservation
✓ “In steady state there is no accumulation of charge in a volume” this gives the idea of continuity equation.
❖ According to the principle of conservation of charge the net amount of charge in an isolated system remains
constant. For generality let us assume that the charge density is a function of time. Then the conservation of
charge may be states as follows;
“If the net charge crossing a surface bounding a closed volume is zero, then the charge density within the
volume must change with time in such a manner that the time rate of increase of charge within the volume
equals the net rate of slow charge into a volume”.
This statement of conservation of charge in a medium may be expressed by the equation of continuity which may
derived as follows;

So we can say that “the net flow of current out of the volume (positive current flow) must be equal to the
negative rate of change of charge with time”.

➢ Surface S here separates volume into

left and right part. So if electric
charges are crossing the boundary S
left to right, in that case there is a
depletion of charges in the left side and
to the right side there is an increment ds =da
of charge. Surface area
Contd….
So from conservation of charge statement; the time rate of decrease of charge within the volume equals
the net rate of increase charge into a volume
𝑑𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − (1) 𝑄𝑖𝑛 total charge enclosed by the closed surface.
𝑑𝑡
the total current crossing a surface S can be written as

𝐼 = ර 𝜌𝑣Ԧ . 𝑑𝒂 (2)
So the current flowing through the boundary S is
volume current density, J, surface S
(3)
be normal to the flow.
And charge in volume v is
𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑡 = න 𝜌 𝑟, 𝑡 𝑑𝑉 (4)
v

So local conservation of charge from equation (1) and (4)

𝑑𝑄𝑖𝑛 𝑑 (5)
− = න 𝜌 𝑟, 𝑡 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Now from equation (3) 𝑑𝜌

න 𝑑𝑉 = − (6)
𝑑𝑡
Contd….
In particular, the charge per unit time leaving a volume V is;

Using divergence theorem

Because charge is conserved, whatever flows out through the surface must come at the expense of what
remains inside and equation (6) becomes
The minus sign reflects the fact that an
outward flow decreases the charge left in V.

Since this applies to any volume, we conclude that

(7)

This is the precise mathematical statement of local charge conservation; it is called the continuity
equation.

(8)
Contd….

Note that

✓ Stationary charges produce electric fields that are constant in time; hence the term electrostatics.
✓ Steady currents produce magnetic fields that are constant in time; the theory of steady currents is called
magnetostatics.
✓ Formally, electro/magnetostatics is the régime

(9)

✓ Both electrostatics and magnetostatics describe artificial worlds that exist only in textbooks. However,
they represent suitable approximations as long as the actual fluctuations are remote, or gradual.
✓ For steady current (continuous flow that is going forever); the continuity equation becomes:

(10)
Contd….
The Divergence of B: Gauss’s Law of Magnetism
The Biot-Savart law for the general case of a volume current reads:

(11)

This formula gives the magnetic field at a point r = (x, y, z) in terms of an integral over the
current distribution J(x’, y’, z’).
It is best to be absolutely explicit at this stage:
B is a function of (x, y, z),
J is a function of (x’, y’, z’)
r = (x − x) ˆx + (y − y) ˆy + (z − z) ˆz,
dτ’ = dx’ dy’ dz’

The integration is over the primed coordinates; the divergence and the curl of B are with respect to the unprimed
coordinates.
Contd….
The Divergence and Curl of B
Applying the divergence to Eq. 11, we obtain

Invoking vector algebra product rule:

But ∇ × J = 0, because J doesn’t depend on the unprimed variables,

While ∇ × ( ˆr/r2) = 0; which gives

(18) Second Law in the

set of Maxwell’s
The divergence of the magnetic field is zero. Equations
Contd….
Second Law in the set of Maxwell’s Equations
 Magnetostatics
The Curl of B: Ampere’s Law
The Biot-Savart law for the general case of a volume current reads:

(1)

Now applying curl to the above equation, we obtain: (2)

Again, our strategy is to expand the integrand, using the appropriate product rule—

Hint:
Note: Terms involving derivative of J has been dropped, because J does not depend on (x, y, z). The second term
in the above equation integrates to zero; while the first term can be written as:
Hint: Page 45 of Griffiths’s book
Dirac Delta Function
Hence:

(3) Ampere’s Law

Contd….
The Curl of B: Ampere’s Law
The equation for the curl of B; called the Ampere’s law (in the Differential Form)
(3)

Now to convert it into Integral form; we can use the fundamental theorem of curls - Stoke’s theorem

(4)

Now, ‫𝑱 ׬‬. 𝒅𝒂 is the total current passing through the surface (Fig), which we call Ienc (the current enclosed
by the Amperian loop)
ර 𝐁. d𝐥 = µ0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (5)

This is the integral version of Ampère’s law.

The right hand-thumb rule will decide the direction
through the surface corresponds to a “positive current”.
If the fingers of your right hand indicate the direction of integration around
the boundary, then your thumb defines the direction of a positive current.
Contd….
The Curl of B: Ampere’s Law
✓ Like Gauss’s law, Ampère’s law is always true (for steady currents), but it is not always useful.

✓ Only when the symmetry of the problem enables you to pull B outside the integral
ර 𝐁. d𝐥 = µ0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐

We can you calculate the magnetic field from Ampère’s law.

✓ The current configurations that can be handled by Ampère’s law are

Infinite Straight Lines Infinite solenoids Toroid

Infinite Planes
Contd….
Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostatics
✓ The divergence and curl of the electrostatic field are: Maxwell’s equations for electrostatics

Together with the boundary condition E → 0 far from all charges, Maxwell’s equations determine the field, if the
source charge density ρ is given; they contain essentially the same information as Coulomb’s law plus the
principle of superposition.

✓ The divergence and curl of the magnetostatic field are: Maxwell’s equations for magnetostatics

Again, together with the boundary condition B → 0 far from all currents, Maxwell’s equations determine the
magnetic field; they are equivalent to the Biot-Savart law (plus superposition).
Contd….
Comparison of Magnetostatics and Electrostatics

✓ The electric field diverges away from a (positive) charge;

the magnetic field line curls around a current.
✓ Electric field lines originate on positive charges and
terminate on negative ones.
✓ Magnetic field lines do not begin, or end anywhere-to do so
we need nonzero divergence. They typically forms closed
loops, or extend out to infinity.
✓ To put it in another way, there are no point sources for B,
as there are for E; there exits no magnetic analog to
electric charge. This is the physical content of the statement
of the “Gauss’s law of magnetism”. There is no magnetic
monopole.
✓ Ampere was first to speculate that all magnetic effects are
attributed to electric charges in motion (currents).
✓ It takes a moving electric charge to produce a magnetic
field, and it takes another moving electric charge to “feel” a
magnetic field.
Contd…. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Faraday’s Law In 1831 Michael Faraday reported on a series of
experiments, including three that (with some difference
from history) can be characterized as follows:
Experiment 1. He pulled a loop of wire to the right through a
magnetic field (Fig. a). A current flowed in the loop.
Experiment 2. He moved the magnet to the left, holding the loop
still (Fig. b). Again, a current flowed in the loop.
Experiment 3. With both the loop and the magnet at rest (Fig. c),
he changed the strength of the field (he used an electromagnet,
and varied the current in the coil). Once again, current flowed in
the loop.

❖ Faraday had an ingenious inspiration: A changing magnetic field induces an electric field
Here, the E is related to the change in B by the equation:

(1) Integral form of Faraday’s law

From fundamental theorem of curls; or Stoke’s theorem we can write: ර 𝐄. d𝐥 = න(𝛁 × 𝐄). d𝐚
Hence, we can write:
(2)
Differential form of Faraday’s law
Contd….
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
✓ The Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879) was the first person to truly understand the
fundamental nature of light. He also made major contributions to thermodynamics, optics, astronomy, and
color photography. Albert Einstein described Maxwell’s accomplishments as “the most profound and the
most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton.”

✓ So far, we have encountered the following laws, specifying the divergence and curl of electric
and magnetic fields; prior to the contribution of Maxwell.

Differential Form Integral Form

(Gauss’s Law of
Magnetism)

Note that
✓ Maxwell added the “Displacement current” term in
Ampere’s law; which we will discuss later
Contd…. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Maxwell’s contribution:
✓ It happens that there is a fatal inconsistency in these formulas; as mentioned in the previous slides.
✓ It has to do with the odd rule that divergence of curl is always zero.

(1)
Hint: Use the vector identity: A. (B x C) = (A x B). C
➢ Let us apply this rule to the Faraday’s law:

Applying above rule

(2)

✓ The left side is zero because divergence of curl is zero; the right side is zero by virtue of equation (ii);
Gauss’s law of Magnetism.

➢ But when we apply this same rule for Ampere’s law; we land up with some trouble

Applying above rule

(3)

✓ The left side must be zero, but the right side, in general, is not. For steady currents, the
divergence of J is zero, but when we go beyond magnetostatics, Ampère’s law cannot be right.
Contd…. Maxwell’s contribution to 4th equation: Displacement current MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
✓ Of course, we had no right to expect Ampère’s law to hold outside of magnetostatics; after all, we derived it from
the Biot-Savart law.
✓ However, in Maxwell’s time there was no experimental reason to doubt that Ampère’s law was of wider validity.
✓ The flaw was a purely theoretical one, and Maxwell fixed it by purely theoretical arguments.

We know that Ampere law for steady current

ර 𝐁. d𝐥 = µ0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 (1)

Where

the current enclosed by the Amperian loop.

Contd….
❖ Maxwell example and experiment while modification of ampere law for nonsteady current and
introduction of displacement current:
➢ Consider ampere’s law for usual infinitely
long wire carrying a steady current I, but
now break the wire at some point and put in
two large metal plates, a capacitor,,
maintaining the steady current I in the wire
everywhere, so that charge is simply piling
up on one of the plates and draining off the
other.

➢ Now when Maxwell put a magnetic needle at position A, this magnetic needle is displaced to different direction say
this is from r distance from wire and it is usuall.
➢ Now if we assume normal circular path around wire and ampere law tell us

ර 𝐁. d𝐥 = µ0 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 Here if Ic =0
(1)
B also =0

➢ However, when he placed that magnetic needle in between the capacitor at

position B it also displaced. This happened when we switch on battery but
when switch off the battery needle does not displaced.
Contd….
➢ So now we apply a ampere law, that means we will make a loop if there is a loop there
must be current, so if there is a current there must be B; if not no B should be there.
➢ But here there is nothing in between which can gives us current, so how needle displaced.
SO THIS IS THE CONTROVERY IN AMPERE LAW.
➢ It means something is there no question is what is there in between capacitor which
providing us magnetic field?

➢ ANSWER is Maxwell says moving charges make current statement given by Ampere is incomplete, because
something else also make magnetic field change so we need to know what kind of current is this?
➢ That current is not made by moving charges and not a conduction current this current is known as
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT.
✓ So DISPLACEMENT CURRENT is due to the charge
accumulation along two capacitor, as conduction current is
supplied by battery +ve charge growing at C plate and –ve
charge at D and due to this a growing electric field in time
generated.
✓ And E electric field is growing in time because more and more
𝝏𝑬
charge going to accumulate so here is acting. So a electric
𝝏𝒕
current which is responsible to generate a magnetic field.
Contd….
➢ And this current which is generated by change in electric field is known as DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

Here D is electric displacement vector

𝐷 = 𝜖0 𝐸

This also we can say for nonsteady currents

➢ Here Maxwell said that “Just as a changing magnetic field induces an electric field (Faraday law) A
changing electric field also induces a magnetic field”
➢ We will just add this extra 𝐽𝑑 term in Ampere law

➢ Now Mathematically we can also modify the 4th equation as

Now go back to that problem which has arises the right side of Eq. 3, which should be zero, but isn’t.
(3)
✓ Applying the continuity equation and Gauss’s law, the offending term can be rewritten as:

(4) From 1st equation of Maxwell

✓ If we were to combine ε0(∂E/∂t) with J, in Ampère’s law, it would be just right to kill off the extra divergence:

(5)
Contd…. MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Maxwell 4th equation
(5) OR
Modified Ampere law
Differential Form

In Integral Form this equation will be (6)

✓ Such a modification changes nothing, as far as magnetostatics is concerned: when E is constant, we

still have ∇ × B = μ0J. Equation (5) also reflects the following:
A changing electric field induces a magnetic field

Sometimes you can also see this form of fourth equation

Contd…. Summary MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
Maxwell’s contribution:

➢ Maxwell called his extra term the

displacement current:

✓ It’s a misleading name; ε0(∂E/∂t) has

nothing to do with current, except that it
adds to J in Ampère’s law.
✓ It is actually a source of magnetic field.
✓ In displacement current, no real movement of electrons takes place.
✓ Displacement current is produced due to the change of electric field or electric flux with time during the
procedure of charging or discharging of capacitor.
✓ Displacement current and conduction current are equal during charging or discharging of capacitor.
✓ Magnetic field is produced by displacement current.
✓ Unit of displacement current and conduction current will be Ampere (A).
Contd….
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS
(Finally in Summary)
Differential Form

Integral Form

Electric Field E
Magnetic Field B
Magnetic Flux: 𝜙𝐵 = Magnetic Field (B) x Area (A)
perpendicular to the magnetic field
Electric Flux: 𝜙𝐸 = Electric Field (E) X Area perpendicular to
the electric field (A)
Current Density J= Current per unit area
Charge density 𝜌= charge per unit volume
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

𝑫 = 𝝐𝟎 𝑬
𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯
Contd….
Continuity equation derived from the Maxwell's equations
Maxwell-Ampere Law can be written as:
𝜕𝐸
𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑗 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
Multiplying 𝛻 ∙ on both sides,
𝜕𝛻 ∙ 𝐸
𝛻 ∙ 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝛻 ∙ 𝑗 + 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡

Since ∙ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝛻∙𝛻×𝐵 =0

𝜌
Substituting 𝛻 ∙ E = 𝜖
0
𝜕𝜌
=> 0 = 𝜇0 𝛻 ∙ 𝑗 + 𝜇0 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝜌
=> 𝛻 ∙ 𝑗 = − 𝜕𝑡

This equation is known as the equation of continuity/ conservation of charges.

Contd….
MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS

❖ There is a pleasing symmetry to Maxwell’s equations; it is particularly

striking in free space, where ρ and J vanish:

Charge and Current free space

1. 𝛻 ∙ E = 0
2. 𝛻 ∙ 𝐵 = 0
𝜕𝐵
3. 𝛻 × 𝐸 = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
4. 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡
 The Electromagnetic Spectrum
✓ The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses electromagnetic waves of all frequencies and wavelengths.

Now let us first see

Electromagnetic waves in free space

Vacuum Matter
 Derivation of EM wave Equation from Maxwells equation
Electromagnetic waves in free space Vacuum
We have
Maxwells equations: ❖ Charge and Current free space
𝜌
I. 𝛻∙E=
𝜖0
1. 𝛁∙𝐄=𝟎
II. 𝛻∙𝐵 =0 Here we will see 𝒒 = 𝟎 ; 𝑱 = 𝟎
𝜕𝐵
2. 𝜵∙𝑩=𝟎
III. 𝛻×𝐸 =− 𝝏𝑩 And 𝑫 = 𝝐 𝑬
𝜕𝑡 3. 𝜵×𝑬=− 𝟎
𝜕𝐸 𝝏𝒕 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯
IV. 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝑗 + 𝜇 0 𝜖0 4. 𝜵×𝑩= 𝝁𝟎 𝝐𝟎
𝝏𝑬
𝜕𝑡
𝝏𝒕

From equation 4, taking 𝛻ത × on both sides, Taking curl

Taking curl of (3) 𝜕
ത ത ത ത ത ത 2
𝛻 × 𝛻 × 𝐵 = 𝛻 𝛻 ⋅ 𝐵 − 𝛻 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝛻ത × 𝐸ത
𝜕𝑡

When there is no charge or current 𝛻ത ⋅ 𝐵ത = 0

𝜕𝐵ത
From equation 3. 𝛻ത × 𝐸ത = − 𝜕𝑡
𝜕 ത
2𝐵
𝛻 𝐵ത = 𝜇0 𝜖0 2
2
𝜕𝑡 𝑩 = 𝝁𝟎 𝑯
𝜕2𝐻ഥ
2
𝛻 𝐻ഥ = 𝜇0 𝜖0
𝜕𝑡 2
Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space

OR we can write
2ത ഥ Eq. (A) and (B) said to be
𝜕 𝐸 𝜕2𝐻
𝛻 2 𝐸ത − 𝜇0 𝜖0 2 = 0 (A)
2ഥ
𝛻 𝐻 − 𝜇0 𝜖0 2 = 0 (B) Electromagnetic waves in
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡 free space
Equation (A) and (B) represents where equations governing
fields E and H in free space. We obtained the wave equation in three
Since we know that second order differential wave equation dimensions which is satisfied by both E
and B or H
1 𝜕2𝜙 1 𝜕2𝜙
𝛻2𝜙 = 2. 𝛻2𝜙 − 2. =0
𝑣 𝜕𝑡 2 𝑣 𝜕𝑡 2 (C)

𝒊𝒇 𝝓 = 𝑨 𝒆𝒊𝝎𝒕

➢ This 𝝓 function should satisfy the equation (C). Similarly each

component of E and B or H should satisfy the equation (A)
and (B) (scalar equations).
➢ On comparing equations (A), (B) and (C) we can write
1
𝑣= = 2.94 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 Velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space.
𝜇0 𝜖0
Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space

➢ So we obtained 1
𝑣= = 2.94 𝑥 108 𝑚/𝑠 Velocity of electromagnetic wave in free space.
𝜇0 𝜖0

➢ So we can say that light waves are also electromagnetic waves.

Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space
Now we have plane Electromagnetic waves in free space as

2ത
𝜕 2 𝐸ത 𝜕 2ഥ
𝐻
𝛻 𝐸 − 𝜇0 𝜖0 2 = 0 2ഥ (B)
(A) 𝛻 𝐻 − 𝜇0 𝜖0 2 = 0
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

(1) To find the solution of above equation for plane electromagnetic waves.
✓ A plane wave is defined as a wave whose amplitude is same at any point in a plane perpendicular to the direction of
propagation. Plane wave solution of the above equations can be written as
Wave number or propagation vector

𝐸ത 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖 Ԧ
𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡 ഥ 𝑟,
𝐻 Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐻0 . 𝑒 𝑖 Ԧ
𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡

Electric field Magnetic Complex Angular frequency

Complex Electric field Magnetic field
field 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 position, time in space.
Amplitude Amplitude
Constant in time and space Constant in time
and space
➢ 𝒌. Wave number or propagation vector pointing in the direction of propagation 𝒌, whose magnitude of
𝟐𝝅
wave vector 𝑲 = 𝝀
𝟐𝝅 ෡ unit vector in the direction of wave vector.
𝒌= ෡
.𝒌 𝑾𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 𝒌
𝝀
And 𝑘. 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡
Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space
(2) To find the direction of E and H vector with respect to propagation 𝒌,
𝛁∙𝐄=𝟎 1.
In free space Maxwell first two equations are
2.
𝜵 ∙ 𝑩 = 𝟎 𝑶𝑹 𝜵∙𝑯=𝟎
➢ And we know now the solutions of maxwell equation those satisfy the scalar wave equation as well as all Maxwell
equations so using solution and first two equation we will get

𝐸ത 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖 Ԧ
𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡 ഥ 𝑟,
𝐻 Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐻0 . 𝑒 𝑖 Ԧ
𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡

OR ത ⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 ത ⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 ത ⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡

𝐸ത = 𝑖𝐸
Ƹ 0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘 ҧ
Ƹ 0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖
+ 𝑗𝐸 𝑘 ҧ ෠ 0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖
+ 𝑘𝐸 𝑘 ҧ ത ⋅ 𝐻 = ⅈ 𝑘ത ⋅ 𝐻 = 0
Similarly, 𝛻
Let us take divergence of this
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
Hence, 𝒌 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑯 are orthogonal to each other
ത ҧ ത ҧ ത ҧ
𝛻ത ⋅ 𝐸ത = 𝐸0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 + 𝐸0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
We know that
തҧ ҧ ത ത ⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡
ҧ
= 𝑘𝑥 𝐸0𝑥 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑦 𝐸0𝑦 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘⋅𝑟−𝜔𝑡 + 𝑘𝑧 𝐸0𝑧 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘
𝑘. 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑘𝑥 𝑥 + 𝑘𝑦 𝑦 + 𝑘𝑧 𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡
= ⅈ 𝑘ത ⋅ 𝐸ത = 0 (from Maxwell 1st law)

It means that ഥ =𝒊⋅𝒌

Note that 𝜵
𝒌 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑬 are orthogonal to each other

Hence vector 𝑬 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑯 are both perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector 𝒌
EM wave are transverse in nature
Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space
(3) To find the direction of E and H vector with respect to each other
From 3rd equation of Maxwell
Since for a plane wave
Ԧ
Wave = 𝐴 𝑒 𝑖 𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡

Note that ഥ =𝒊⋅𝒌

𝜵

𝝏
=𝒊⋅𝝎
𝝏𝒕

Similarly,

Hence both indicates or prove that field vector 𝑬 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑯 mutually perpendicular to each
other and also they both perpendicular to the direction of propagation vector 𝒌 .
They all form a set of orthogonal vectors which forma Right handed system.
Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space
Now we can see some interesting relations
We can write
Since ෡
𝒌=𝒌𝒌

So

𝟐𝝅
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒌 =
𝝀
Therefore
𝟐𝝅 𝒄
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝝎 =
𝝀

➢ If we take modulus of above equation we will obtain

This telling us that strength of
B is lesser than strength of E
Contd…… Electromagnetic waves in free space

(4) Wave impedance

(5) Pointing vector

o I will discuss pointing theorem and vector later in detail in next class
Let us define pointing vector
Poynting vector, a quantity describing the magnitude and direction of the flow of energy
in electromagnetic waves.

(6) Ratio of electromagnetic and magnetic energy density

➢ Contribution of energy from electric and magnetic part is equal.
➢ i.e., electrostatic energy density is equal to the magnetostatic energy density
Maxwells equations and their empirical basis (Physical interpretation)
𝜌
I. 𝛻∙𝑬= ❖ Maxwell four equation
𝜖0
describes the electric and
II. 𝛻∙𝑩=0 magnetic fields arising from
𝜕𝑩 OR distributions of electric
III. 𝛻×𝑬= −
𝜕𝑡 charges and currents, and
𝜕𝑬
IV. 𝛻 × 𝑩 == 𝜇0 𝑱Ԧ + 𝜇0 𝜖0 how those fields change in
𝜕𝑡
time.
 1. Maxwell’s first equation is gauss’s law of electricity; it tells that the electric field charge of any shape
produces an electric field or we can say that the close integral of any outgoing electric field over an area
enclosing a volume equal the total charge inside, in appropriate units. It connects the concept of electric
charges and electric fields.
2. Maxwell’s second equation is known as gauss’s law of magnetism. As we know about steady current and
there is no charge accumulation in magnetostatic so never a single pole exists. i.e., magnetic lines have no
beginnings and no endings or we can say magnetic field lines are continuous and flow around in closed
curves. If we think magnetic force lines as representing a kind of fluid, the so called magnetic flux, we see that
for a closed surface, as much magnetic flux flows into the surface as flows out. Therfore net flux out of the
enclosed volume is zero.
3. Maxwell’s third equation is the Faraday’s law of magnetic induction; if a closed circuit has a changing
magnetic flux through it, a circulating current will arise, which means there is a nonzero voltage around the
circuit. That means that E induced electric field whenever and for whatever reason the magnetic flux through
a loop change and emf will appear in the loop. Hence it says that “changing magnetic field induces an
electric field”.
4. Maxwell’s fourth equation is the modified Ampere circuital law. It tells that magnetic field is produced by a
current or by a changing electric field.
Note that The first two equation of Maxwell’s are of integrals of the electric and magnetic fields over closed surfaces.
The other two (third and fourth) are the integrals of the electric and magnetic fields around closed curves
(taking the component of filed pointing along the curve.). These represents the work that would be
needed to take a charge around a closed curve in an electric field and a magnetic monopole around a
closed curve in a magnetic fields
Contd…. Propagation of EM wave in Isotropic Dielectric medium
We have
Maxwells equations: ❖ In dielectric medium : EM wave has same property in all direction
I. 𝛻∙𝑬=
𝜌 ❖ In dielectric medium there is no charge carrier density 𝑱Ԧ = 𝝈𝑬 = 𝟎
𝜖0 ❖ If dielectric medium is isotropic volume charge density 𝛒 = 𝟎
II. 𝛻∙𝑩=0 1. 𝛁 ∙ 𝑬 = 𝟎
𝜕𝑩
III. 𝛻×𝑬=− 2. 𝜵 ∙ 𝑯 = 𝟎 𝑫 = 𝝐𝑬
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑬 𝝏𝑯 𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯
IV. 𝛻 × 𝑩 == 𝜇0 𝑱Ԧ + 𝜇0 𝜖0 3. 𝜵 × 𝑬 = −𝝁
𝝏𝒕
𝜕𝑡
𝝏𝑬
4. 𝜵×𝑯= 𝝐
𝝏𝒕

Similarly taking curl of (3) and (4) separately and using all Maxwell relations we will obtain

𝜕 ത
2𝐸
𝜕 ഥ
2𝐻
2 ത
𝛻 𝐸 − 𝝁𝝐 2 = 0 (A)
2 ഥ
𝛻 𝐻 − 𝝁𝝐 2 = 0 (B)
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡
(1) Speed of electromagnetic wave in dielectric medium

1 𝑐 𝝁𝝐
𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 = = 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚.
𝑣= = 𝝁0 𝝐𝟎
𝝁𝝐 𝑛
𝝐
❖ for most material 𝝁 is very close to 𝝁0 So 𝒏 ≅ = 𝒌 So 𝒏𝟐 = 𝒌
𝝐𝟎
Contd…. Propagation of EM wave in Isotropic Dielectric medium
(2) EM wave solution of above equation
𝑫 = 𝝐𝑬
𝐸ത 𝑟,
Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐸0 𝑒 𝑖 Ԧ
𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡 ഥ 𝑟,
𝐻 Ԧ 𝑡 = 𝐻0 . 𝑒 𝑖 Ԧ
𝑘.𝑟−𝜔𝑡
𝑩 = 𝝁𝑯

(3) Direction of E and H vector

(4) Wave impedance

𝑬 𝝁
𝒛= =
𝑯 𝝐

(5) Pointing vector

❖ Total energy density

(6) Ratio of electromagnetic and magnetic

energy density
Contd….
❑ Pointing Theorem, Electromagnetic energy:
We know that energy is transferring from one place to another place with the help of electromagnetic waves.
Electromagnetic wave energy can be change in any medium.
We know that ➢ Work in electrostatic defined as; ➢ Work in Magnetostatic

➢ So Work in electromagnetic

Suppose we have some charge and current configuration, which at time t, produces field E and B. In the next
instant dt the charge moves around a bit, how much work, dW is done by the electromagnetic forces acting on
charge in interval dt?
❖ According to Lorentz force, work done on charge q

d
Since
Contd…. Pointing Theorem
So work done per unit time

➢ For all charges in volume

➢ This is the rate at which work is done on all the charges in a volume v. where (𝑬. 𝑱) is the work done per unit
time, per unit volume, i.e., power delivered per unit volume.
➢ We can express this quantity (𝑬. 𝑱) in terms of field alone using Amperes Maxwell’s law.
𝜕𝑬
𝛻 × 𝑩 = 𝜇0 𝑱Ԧ + 𝜇0 𝜖0 Taking dot product with 𝑬 on both side
𝜕𝑡

➢ Since we know that

➢ Now from equation (3) Using third maxwell

equation
𝜕𝑩
𝛻×𝑬=−
𝜕𝑡
Contd…. Pointing Theorem
➢ Now from equation (2)

L.H.S R.H.S Using volume to surface integral

*where S is the surface of boundary
This is equation (5) Poynting theorem of electrodynamics and also called work energy theorem of
electrodynamics.
➢ The L. H.S. for all charges the rate of doing work by electromagnetic field E and B . That means it represents
the power density that is transferred into electromagnetic field.
➢ The first term in R.H.S. is the total energy stored in the field. Second term evidently represents the rate at
which energy is carried out of volume across its boundary surface by electromagnetic field.
➢ Therefore Poynting theorem says, that the “work done on the charges by the electromagnetic force is equal
to the decrease in energy stored in the field, less the energy that flowed out through the surface”.
➢ OR we can say “the time rate of change of EM energy with a certain volume plus time rate of energy flowing
out through the boundary surface is equal to the power transferred into the electromagnetic field”.
Contd….
Poynting Vector:
(6)

𝑺 is called Poynting vector and defined as the power flux i.e., amount of energy per unit area placed
perpendicular to the vector, per unit time, transported by the em field. Specially 𝑺. 𝒅𝑨 is the energy per
unit time crossing the infinitesimal surface 𝒅𝑨 also called energy flux. Therefore S is called energy flux density.
Therefore equation (5) can be written as;
OR we can say

Now equation (7) becomes

Changing surface integral to volume integral in R.H.S.