WELDING PROCESSES

1. Arc Welding
2. Resistance Welding
3. Oxyfuel Gas Welding
4. Other Fusion Welding Processes
5. Solid State Welding
6. Weld Quality
7. Weldability
8. Design Considerations in Welding

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 Two Categories of
Welding Processes
▪ Fusion welding - coalescence is accomplished by
melting the two parts to be joined, in some cases
adding filler metal to the joint
▪ Examples: arc welding, resistance spot welding,
oxyfuel gas welding
▪ Solid state welding - heat and/or pressure are used to
achieve coalescence, but no melting of base metals
occurs and no filler metal is added
▪ Examples: forge welding, diffusion welding, friction
welding

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 Arc Welding (AW)

▪ A fusion welding process in which coalescence of the

metals is achieved by the heat from an electric arc
between an electrode and the work
▪ Electric energy from the arc produces
temperatures ~ 10,000 F (5500 C), hot enough to
melt any metal
▪ Most AW processes add filler metal to increase
volume and strength of weld joint

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 What is an Electric Arc?

▪ An electric arc is a discharge of electric current

across a gap in a circuit
▪ It is sustained by an ionized column of gas
(plasma) through which the current flows
▪ To initiate the arc in AW, electrode is brought into
contact with work and then quickly separated from
it by a short distance

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 Arc Welding

▪ A pool of molten metal is formed near electrode tip, and

as electrode is moved along joint, molten weld pool
solidifies in its wake

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 Manual Arc Welding
and Arc Time

▪ Problems with manual welding:

▪ Weld joint quality
▪ Productivity
▪ Arc Time = (time arc is on) divided by (hours
worked)
▪ Also called “arc-on time”
▪ Manual welding arc time = 20%
▪ Machine welding arc time ~ 50%

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 Two Basic Types of
Arc Welding Electrodes

▪ Consumable – consumed during welding process

▪ Source of filler metal in arc welding
▪ Nonconsumable – not consumed during welding
process
▪ Filler metal must be added separately if it is
added

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 Consumable Electrodes

▪ Forms of consumable electrodes

▪ Welding rods (a.k.a. sticks) are 9 to 18 inches and
3/8 inch or less in diameter and must be changed
frequently
▪ Weld wire can be continuously fed from spools
with long lengths of wire, avoiding frequent
interruptions
▪ In both rod and wire forms, electrode is consumed by
the arc and added to weld joint as filler metal

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 Nonconsumable Electrodes

▪ Made of tungsten which resists melting

▪ Gradually depleted during welding (vaporization is
principal mechanism)
▪ Any filler metal must be supplied by a separate wire
fed into weld pool

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 Arc Shielding

▪ At high temperatures in AW, metals are chemically

reactive to oxygen, nitrogen, and hydrogen in air
▪ Mechanical properties of joint can be degraded by
these reactions
▪ To protect operation, arc must be shielded from
surrounding air in AW processes
▪ Arc shielding is accomplished by:
▪ Shielding gases, e.g., argon, helium, CO2
▪ Flux

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 Flux

▪ A substance that prevents formation of oxides and

other contaminants in welding, or dissolves them and
facilitates removal
▪ Provides protective atmosphere for welding
▪ Stabilizes arc
▪ Reduces spattering

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 Various Flux Application
Methods

▪ Pouring granular flux onto welding operation

▪ Stick electrode coated with flux material that melts
during welding to cover operation
▪ Tubular electrodes in which flux is contained in the
core and released as electrode is consumed

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 Power Source in Arc Welding

▪ Direct current (DC) vs. Alternating current (AC)

▪ AC machines less expensive to purchase and
operate, but generally restricted to ferrous metals
▪ DC equipment can be used on all metals and is
generally noted for better arc control

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 Consumable Electrode
AW Processes

▪ Shielded Metal Arc Welding

▪ Gas Metal Arc Welding
▪ Flux-Cored Arc Welding
▪ Electrogas Welding
▪ Submerged Arc Welding

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)

▪ Consumable electrode - filler metal rod coated with

chemicals that provide flux and shielding
▪ Sometimes called "stick welding"
▪ Power supply, connecting cables, and electrode
holder available for a few thousand dollars

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 Shielded Metal Arc Welding
(SMAW)

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 SMAW Applications

▪ Used for steels, stainless steels, cast irons,

and certain nonferrous alloys
▪ Not used or rarely used for aluminum and its
alloys, copper alloys, and titanium

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 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

▪ Consumable bare metal wire as electrode with

shielding by flooding arc with a gas
▪ Wire is fed continuously and automatically from a
spool through the welding gun
▪ Shielding gases include argon and helium for
aluminum welding, and CO2 for steel welding
▪ Bare electrode wire plus shielding gases eliminate
slag on weld bead
▪ No need for grinding and cleaning of slag

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 Gas Metal Arc Welding

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 GMAW Advantages over SMAW

▪ Better arc time because of continuous wire electrode

▪ Sticks must be periodically changed in SMAW
▪ Better use of electrode filler metal than SMAW
▪ End of stick cannot be used in SMAW
▪ Higher deposition rates
▪ Eliminates problem of slag removal
▪ Can be readily automated

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 Flux-Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

▪ Adaptation of shielded metal arc welding, to overcome

limitations of stick electrodes - two versions
▪ Self-shielded FCAW - core includes compounds
that produce shielding gases
▪ Gas-shielded FCAW - uses externally applied
shielding gases
▪ Electrode is a continuous consumable tubing (in coils)
containing flux and other ingredients (e.g., alloying
elements) in its core

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 Flux-Cored Arc Welding

▪ Presence or absence of externally supplied shielding gas

distinguishes: (1) self-shielded - core provides ingredients for
shielding, (2) gas-shielded - uses external shielding gases

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 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

▪ Uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode,

with arc shielding by a cover of granular flux
▪ Electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil
▪ Flux introduced into joint slightly ahead of arc by
gravity from a hopper
▪ Completely submerges operation, preventing
sparks, spatter, and radiation

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 Submerged Arc Welding

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 SAW Applications and Products

▪ Steel fabrication of structural shapes (e.g., I-beams)

▪ Seams for large diameter pipes, tanks, and pressure
vessels
▪ Welded components for heavy machinery
▪ Most steels (except hi C steel)
▪ Not good for nonferrous metals

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 Nonconsumable Electrode
Processes
▪ Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
▪ Plasma Arc Welding
▪ Carbon Arc Welding
▪ Stud Welding

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 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding
(GTAW)
▪ Uses a nonconsumable tungsten electrode and an
inert gas for arc shielding
▪ Melting point of tungsten = 3410C (6170F)
▪ A.k.a. Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) welding
▪ In Europe, called "WIG welding"
▪ Used with or without a filler metal
▪ When filler metal used, it is added to weld pool
from separate rod or wire
▪ Applications: aluminum and stainless steel mostly

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 Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of GTAW

▪ Advantages:
▪ High quality welds for suitable applications
▪ No spatter because no filler metal through arc
▪ Little or no post-weld cleaning because no flux
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ Generally slower and more costly than
consumable electrode AW processes

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 Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

▪ Special form of GTAW in which a constricted plasma

arc is directed at weld area
▪ Tungsten electrode is contained in a nozzle that
focuses a high velocity stream of inert gas (argon)
into arc region to form a high velocity, intensely
hot plasma arc stream
▪ Temperatures in PAW reach 28,000C (50,000F),
due to constriction of arc, producing a plasma jet
of small diameter and very high energy density

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 Plasma Arc Welding

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of PAW
▪ Advantages:
▪ Good arc stability and excellent weld quality
▪ Better penetration control than other AW processes
▪ High travel speeds
▪ Can be used to weld almost any metals
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ High equipment cost
▪ Larger torch size than other AW processes
▪ Tends to restrict access in some joints

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 Resistance Welding (RW)

▪ A group of fusion welding processes that use a

combination of heat and pressure to accomplish
coalescence
▪ Heat generated by electrical resistance to current
flow at junction to be welded
▪ Principal RW process is resistance spot welding
(RSW)

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 Resistance Welding

▪ Resistance welding,
showing components
in spot welding, the
main process in the
RW group

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 Components in
Resistance Spot Welding

▪ Parts to be welded (usually sheet metal)

▪ Two opposing electrodes
▪ Means of applying pressure to squeeze parts
between electrodes
▪ Power supply from which a controlled current can be
applied for a specified time duration

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 Advantages and Drawbacks
of Resistance Welding
▪ Advantages:
▪ No filler metal required
▪ High production rates possible
▪ Lends itself to mechanization and automation
▪ Lower operator skill level than for arc welding
▪ Good repeatability and reliability
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ High initial equipment cost
▪ Limited to lap joints for most RW processes

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 Resistance Spot Welding (RSW)

▪ Resistance welding process in which fusion of faying

surfaces of a lap joint is achieved at one location by
opposing electrodes
▪ Used to join sheet metal parts
▪ Widely used in mass production of automobiles,
metal furniture, appliances, and other products
▪ Typical car body has ~ 10,000 spot welds
▪ Annual production of automobiles in the world is
measured in tens of millions of units

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 Spot Welding Cycle

▪ (a) Spot welding

cycle, (b) plot of
force and current
▪ Cycle: (1) parts
inserted between
electrodes, (2)
electrodes close,
(3) current on, (4)
current off, (5)
electrodes opened

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 Resistance Seam Welding
(RSEW)

▪ Uses rotating wheel electrodes to produce a

series of overlapping spot welds along lap joint
▪ Can produce air-tight joints
▪ Applications:
▪ Gasoline tanks
▪ Automobile mufflers
▪ Various sheet metal containers

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 Resistance Seam Welding

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 Oxyfuel Gas Welding (OFW)

▪ Group of fusion welding operations that burn various

fuels mixed with oxygen
▪ OFW employs several types of gases, which is the
primary distinction among the members of this
group
▪ Oxyfuel gas is also used in flame cutting torches
to cut and separate metal plates and other parts
▪ Most important OFW process is oxyacetylene
welding

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 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW)

▪ Fusion welding performed by a high temperature

flame from combustion of acetylene and oxygen
▪ Flame is directed by a welding torch
▪ Filler metal is sometimes added
▪ Composition must be similar to base metal
▪ Filler rod often coated with flux to clean
surfaces and prevent oxidation

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 Oxyacetylene Welding

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 Acetylene (C2H2)

▪ Most popular fuel among OFW group because it is

capable of higher temperatures than any other
▪ Up to 3480C (6300F)
▪ Two stage reaction of acetylene and oxygen:
▪ First stage reaction (inner cone of flame)
C2H2 + O2 → 2CO + H2 + heat
▪ Second stage reaction (outer envelope)
2CO + H2 + 1.5O2 → 2CO2 + H2O + heat

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 Oxyacetylene Torch

▪ Maximum temperature reached at tip of inner cone, while

outer envelope spreads out and shields work surface from
atmosphere
▪ Shown below is neutral flame of oxyacetylene torch
indicating temperatures achieved

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 Safety Issue in OAW

▪ Together, acetylene and oxygen are highly

flammable
▪ C2H2 is colorless and odorless
▪ It is therefore processed to have characteristic
garlic odor

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 OAW Safety Issue

▪ C2H2 is physically unstable at pressures much above 15

lb/in2 (about 1 atm)
▪ Storage cylinders are packed with porous filler
material saturated with acetone (CH3COCH3)
▪ Acetone dissolves about 25 times its own volume of
acetylene
▪ Different screw threads are standard on C2H2 and O2
cylinders and hoses to avoid accidental connection of
wrong gases

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 Alternative Gases for OFW

▪ Methylacetylene-Propadiene (MAPP)
▪ Hydrogen
▪ Propylene
▪ Propane
▪ Natural Gas

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 Other Fusion Welding Processes
(slides from 50-58 will be
skipped)
▪ FW processes that cannot be classified as arc,
resistance, or oxyfuel welding
▪ Use unique technologies to develop heat for melting
▪ Applications are typically unique
▪ Processes include:
▪ Electron beam welding
▪ Laser beam welding
▪ Electroslag welding
▪ Thermit welding

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 Electron Beam Welding (EBW)

▪ Fusion welding process in which heat for welding is

provided by a highly-focused, high-intensity stream of
electrons striking work surface
▪ Electron beam gun operates at:
▪ High voltage (e.g., 10 to 150 kV typical) to
accelerate electrons
▪ Beam currents are low (milliamps)
▪ Power in EBW not exceptional, but power density
is very high

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 EBW Vacuum Chamber

▪ When first developed, EBW had to be carried out in a

vacuum chamber to minimize disruption of electron
beam by air molecules
▪ Serious inconvenience in production
▪ Pumpdown time can take as long as an hour

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 Three Vacuum Levels in EBW

1. High-vacuum welding – welding in same vacuum

chamber as beam generation to produce highest
quality weld
2. Medium-vacuum welding – welding in separate
chamber but partial vacuum reduces pump-down time
3. Non-vacuum welding – welding done at or near
atmospheric pressure, with work positioned close to
electron beam generator - requires vacuum divider to
separate work from beam generator

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of EBW

▪ Advantages:
▪ High-quality welds, deep and narrow profiles
▪ Limited heat affected zone, low thermal distortion
▪ No flux or shielding gases needed
▪ Disadvantages:
▪ High equipment cost
▪ Precise joint preparation & alignment required
▪ Vacuum chamber required
▪ Safety concern: EBW generates x-rays

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 Laser Beam Welding (LBW)

▪ Fusion welding process in which coalescence is

achieved by energy of a highly concentrated,
coherent light beam focused on joint
▪ LBW normally performed with shielding gases to
prevent oxidation
▪ Filler metal not usually added
▪ High power density in small area
▪ So LBW often used for small parts

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 Comparison: LBW vs. EBW

▪ No vacuum chamber required for LBW

▪ No x-rays emitted in LBW
▪ Laser beams can be focused and directed by optical
lenses and mirrors
▪ LBW not capable of the deep welds and high
depth-to-width ratios of EBW
▪ Maximum LBW depth = ~ 19 mm (3/4 in), whereas
EBW depths = 50 mm (2 in)

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 Thermit Welding (TW)

▪ FW process in which heat for coalescence is

produced by superheated molten metal from the
chemical reaction of thermite
▪ Thermite = mixture of Al and Fe3O4 fine powders
that produce an exothermic reaction when ignited
▪ Also used for incendiary bombs
▪ Filler metal obtained from liquid metal
▪ Process used for joining, but has more in common
with casting than welding

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 Thermit Welding

▪ (1) Thermit ignited; (2) crucible tapped, superheated metal

flows into mold; (3) metal solidifies to produce weld joint

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 TW Applications

▪ Joining of railroad rails

▪ Repair of cracks in large steel castings and forgings
▪ Weld surface is often smooth enough that no
finishing is required

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 Solid State Welding (SSW)

▪ Coalescence of part surfaces is achieved by:

▪ Pressure alone, or
▪ Heat and pressure
▪ If both heat and pressure are used, heat is not
enough to melt work surfaces
▪ For some SSW processes, time is also a factor
▪ No filler metal is added
▪ Each SSW process has its own way of creating a
bond at the faying surfaces
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 Success Factors in SSW

▪ Essential factors for a successful solid state weld are

that the two faying surfaces must be:
▪ Very clean
▪ In very close physical contact with each other to
permit atomic bonding

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 SSW Advantages over FW
Processes

▪ No heat affected zone - joint retains original

properties
▪ Joints that bond the entire contact interface - rather
than spots or seams
▪ Joining dissimilar metals – no concerns about relative
melting points, or thermal expansions

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 Solid State Welding Processes

▪ Forge welding (heat to hot working Temperature then

forging)
▪ Cold welding (only cold working – slight rise of
temperature)
▪ Roll welding (hot or cold rolled together)
▪ Diffusion welding (heating to  0.5 Tm and applied
high pressure- mechanism is solid state diffusion - it
is a time taking process)
▪ Friction welding (heat source is sliding friction)

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 Roll Welding

• Cladding stainless steel to mild or low alloy steel for corrosion

resistance
• Bimetallic strips for measuring temperature
• "Sandwich" coins for U.S mint

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 DFW Applications

▪ Joining of high-strength and refractory metals in

aerospace and nuclear industries
▪ Can be used to join either similar and dissimilar
metals
▪ For joining dissimilar metals, a filler layer of
different metal is often sandwiched between base
metals to promote diffusion

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 Friction Welding

▪ (1) Rotating part, no contact; (2) parts brought into contact

to generate friction heat; (3) rotation stopped and axial
pressure applied; and (4) weld created

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 Friction Welding

Cross section of butt

joint of two steel tubes
joined by friction
welding (courtesy
George E. Kane
Manufacturing
Technology
Laboratory, Lehigh
University)

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 Friction Stir Welding (FSW)

▪ SSW process in which a rotating tool is fed along a

joint line between two workpieces, generating friction
heat and mechanically stirring the metal to form the
weld seam
▪ Distinguished from FRW because heat is
generated by a separate wear-resistant tool rather
than the parts
▪ Applications: butt joints in large aluminum parts in
aerospace, automotive, and shipbuilding

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 Friction Stir Welding

▪ (1) Rotating tool just before entering work, and

(2) partially completed weld seam

Applications: butt joints

in large aluminum parts
in aerospace,
automotive, and
shipbuilding

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 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Friction Stir Welding

▪ Advantages
▪ Good mechanical properties of weld joint
▪ Avoids toxic fumes, warping, and shielding issues
▪ Little distortion or shrinkage
▪ Good weld appearance
▪ Disadvantages
▪ An exit hole is produce when tool is withdrawn
▪ Heavy duty clamping of parts is required

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 Weld Quality

▪ Acceptable weld: strong and absent of defects

▪ Inspecting and testing the joint to assure its quality
▪ Topics:
▪ Residual stresses and distortion
▪ Welding defects
▪ Inspection and testing methods

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 Residual Stresses and Distortion

▪ Rapid heating and cooling in localized regions during

FW result in thermal expansion and contraction that
cause residual stresses
▪ These stresses, in turn, cause distortion and warpage
▪ Situation in welding is complicated because:
▪ Heating is very localized
▪ Melting of base metals in these regions
▪ Location of heating and melting is in motion (at
least in AW)

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 Residual Stresses and Distortion

▪ (a) Butt welding

two plates
▪ (b) Shrinkage
▪ (c) Residual
stress patterns
▪ (d) Likely warping
of weldment

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 Techniques to Minimize
Warpage

▪ Welding fixtures to physically restrain parts

▪ Heat sinks to rapidly remove heat
▪ Tack welding at multiple points
▪ Stress relief heat treatment
▪ Proper design of weldment

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 Welding Defects

▪ Cracks
▪ Cavities
▪ Solid inclusions
▪ Imperfect shape or unacceptable contour
▪ Incomplete fusion
▪ Miscellaneous defects

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 Welding Cracks

▪ Various forms of welding cracks

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 Incomplete Fusion

▪ A weld bead in which fusion has not occurred throughout

entire cross section of joint
▪ Several forms of incomplete fusion

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 Inspection and Testing Methods

▪ Visual inspection
▪ Nondestructive evaluation
▪ Destructive testing

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 Nondestructive Evaluation (NDE)

▪ Ultrasonic testing - high frequency sound waves

through specimen to detect cracks and inclusions
▪ Radiographic testing - x-rays or gamma radiation
provide photograph of internal flaws
▪ Dye-penetrant and fluorescent-penetrant tests - to
detect small cracks and cavities at part surface
▪ Magnetic particle testing – iron filings sprinkled on
surface reveal subsurface defects by distorting
magnetic field in part

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 Destructive Testing

▪ Tests in which weld is destroyed either during testing

or to prepare test specimen
▪ Mechanical tests - purpose is similar to
conventional testing methods such as tensile tests,
shear tests, etc.
▪ Metallurgical tests - preparation of metallurgical
specimens (e.g., photomicrographs) of weldment to
examine metallic structure, defects, extent and
condition of heat affected zone, and similar
phenomena
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 Mechanical Tests in Welding

▪ (a) Tension-shear test, (b) fillet break test, (c) tension-

shear of spot weld, and (d) peel test for spot weld

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