50 Projects

Using IC CA3130

R A. PENFOLD
50 PROJECTS USING
I.C. CA3130
 ALSO BY THE SAME AUTHOR

No.222 Solid State Shortwave Receivers For Beginners

No.224 50 CMOS I.C. Projects

50 PROJECTS USING
I.C. CA3130

by

R. A. PENFOLD

BERhARDS (Publishers) LTD

The Grampians
Shepherds Bush Road
London W6 7NF
England
Although every care is taken with the preparation of this book, the
publishers or author will not be responsible in any way for any errors
that might occur.

©1977 BERNARDS (Publishers) LTD

I.S.B.N. 0 900162 65 1

First Published February 1977

Printed and Manufactured in Great Britain by

C. Nicholls & Co. Ltd.
 CONTENTS

Page
CHAPTER 1 - ABOUT THE I.C.
Operational Amplifiers 1

Performance Figures 3
Handling the Device 4
Offset Null 5

CHAPTER 2 - AUDIO PROJECTS

Inverting Amplifier 7
Non -Inverting Amplifier 9
A.F. Only Version 10
Buffer Amplifier 12
Bootstrapping 13
Magnetic Cartridge Preamp 14
Peak Level Indicator (P.L I ) 15
P.L.I. with Hysteresis 17
Stereo P.L.1. 18
Tone Control Circuit 21
Audio Mixer 21
500mW Audio Amplifier 24
Higher Output Power Version 25
Low Power Amplifier 25
Compression Amplifier 25
Hysteresis 29

CHAPTER 3 - R.F. PROJECTS

M.W. Radio 31
Crystal Calibrator 32
R.F. Generator 34
A.F./R.F. Signal Injector 35
A.F./R.F. Signal Tracer 38

CHAPTER 4 - TEST EQUIPMENT

High Impedance Voltmeter 41
Resistance Meter 43
Sinewave Generator 45
A.G.C. Sinewave Generator 47
Calibration 49
Sine to Squarewave Converter 49
Squarewave Generator 51
Low Current P S U 51
High Current Version 54
Continuity Tester 55

CHAPTER 5 - HOUSEHOLD PROJECTS

Metronome 57
Rain Alarm 58
Light Switches 59
 Latching Circuits 62
Sound Activated Switch 65
Latching Version 67
Christmas Tree Lights Flasher 69
Simple Organ 69

CHAPTER 6 - MISCELLANEOUS PROJECTS

Touch Switch 75
Flashing Pilot Light 77
Analogue Stopclock 78
Over Voltage Protection 80
Under Voltage Shutdown 82
Voltage Indicators 82
Morse Practise Oscillator 84
Electronic Heads or Tails 87
White Noise Generator 89
Current Limiter 91
High Current Version 93
Over Current Indicator 93

COMPONENTS 95
 Chapter 1
ABOUT THE I.C.

Operation amplifier integrated circuits have become increasingly popular

in circuits for the amateur electronics enthusiast. The reason for this is
not hard to discover, and is simply that these are probably the most
versatile type of semiconductor device currently available. They are also
among the least expensive of integrated circuits, and often have an
economic advantage over alternative circuit elements.

The CA3130 is manufactured by R.C.A., and at the time of writing it is

4 relatively new device. It is not as inexpensi+e as certain other popular
operational amplifiers, such as the 741C and 748C types, but it is a
more advanced in design than its less expensive rivals. This means that
it is often capable of a higher level of performance than other devices,
and that fewer discrete components are needed. This tends to offset its
cost disadvantage.

If past experience is anything to go by, the cost of the CA3130 is likely

to decrease with passing time anyway.

Operational Amplifiers

Many people may not know exactly what an operational amplifier is,
and so a brief description is provided here. Details of how an operational
amplifier can be used in practical amplifiers, and other circuits, will not
be given here, as this will be explained in the sections which come later.
These provide detailed information of many circuits for diverse
applications.

A theoretically perfect op. amp. has an infinite voltage gain, infinite

input impedance, zero output impedance, infinite bandwidth, and is
capable of giving a peak to peak output voltage swing which is equal
to the supply rail potentiaL The circuit has two inputs, and these are
termed the inverting input, and the non -inverting input. The circuit
symbol for an op. amp. is shown in Figure 1.

If the non -inverting input is made positive of the inverting one, the
output of the amplifier will swing positive. If the non -inverting input
is negative with respect to the inverting one, the output swings negative.
In a theoretically idealised op. amp. any difference in potentials between
the two inputs will be enough to send the output fully positive or fully
negative, but of course, no practical amplifier can achieve theoretical
perfection for this parameter. Neither can it achieve theoretical per-
fection in any of the other parameters listed earlier, but most mRdern
devices come close enough to be regarded as perfect in most respects.
For instance, most op. amps. have a voltage gain of something like
100,000 times, and the typical figure for the CA3130 is some 900,000
times.

1
In a few switching applications this full gain is required, but in all
circuits needing linear amplification, this gain is greatly reduced by the
application of negative feedback.

One parameter in which many well known devices fall short of

theoretical perfection is that of input impedance. Bipolar transistors
have relatively low input impedances, and since these form the basis of
the input circuitry of most op. amps., this shortcoming exists. An
example is the 741C I.C. which has a typical input impedance of 2Meg.
with a minimum figure of 300k. This is not high enough for many
applications, and even though the input impedance is increased to quite
a large extent by the utilisation of negative feedback, the input
impedance may still be too low.

Two chip op. amps have been available for some time, and these use a
f.e.t. input stage on one chip, and the remaining circuitry is contained
on a second chip. F.E.T.s have extremely high input impedances, and
these two chip devices achieve input impedances of thousands of Meg.
ohms. However, this is achieved at a price which puts them beyond the
use of most amateurs, the actual cost being something like ten times
that of a 741C I.C.

The CA3130 is manufactured using new techniques which enable the

f.e.t. input stage and the main bipolar circuitry to be contained on a
single chip. It is far less expensive than the two chip I.C.s, and is a very
practical proposition. It uses a CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) input stage which has a voltage gain of only about five
times. This is followed by two bipolar amplifying stages, the first having
a voltage gain of 6000 and providing most of the units gain. The second
is a Class A output stage which has a voltage gain of about 30 times.

Some operational amplifier I.C.s have internal compensation components,

but the CA3130 does not. The purpose of the compensation circuitry is
to reduce the upper frequency response of the device and so prevent it
from becoming unstable. When used at low gains quite a high degree of

2
high frequency roll -off must be used, but when used at high gains little
or no roll -off is needed. Thus, if internal compensation is used, this must
provide enough high frequency attenuation to prevent instability at low
gains. This limits the bandwidth of the device unnecessarily when it is
used at comparatively high gains.

Therefore using external compensation is not really a disadvantage even

if it does slightly increase the number of discrete components required.
It enables the bandwidth of the device to be optimised for any level of
voltage gain. In the case of the CA3130 only a single loss value capacitor
is used to provide the necessary frequency compensation.

Performance Figures

As will be seen from the main performance figures of the CA3130,

which are given below, this device has a high level of performance.

Input impedance 1.5 million Meg. ohms.

Open Loop Voltage Gain (the gain
without negative feedback) .. 900,000 times
Input Bias Current .. 5pA (1pA = I millionth of a
micro Amp.)
Gain -Bandwidth Product .. 15MHZ
Slew Rate .. 30V/micro sec.
Operating Temperature Range -55 to +125 degrees C
Supply Voltage Range .. 5V. to 16V., or a balanced
positive and negative
supply oft 2.7V. to :8V.
Current consumption from 9V supply
with output at half supply voltage 2.5mA

The above are all typical ratings.

The CA3130 is contained in a TO -5 8 lead metal encapsulation, and its

leadout diagram is shown in Figure 2. There arc several versions of the
I.C., and the CA3130T and CA3130S versions are the ones that are
required for the circuits described in this book. The CA3130T has a
standard TO -5 can and leadouts whereas the CA3130S has its leadouts
formed into an 8 pin dual in line configuration. These two devices arc
electrically identical.

Other versions of the CA3130 have a more rigid specification in some

respect or other, and these will work in these circuits. They are however,
more highly priced than the two basic versions.

One advantage over this device when compared to most other op. amps.
is that when lightly loaded, the output can swing to within a matter
of a few millivolts of either supply line. Most other devices can only
manage an output swing (peak to peak) of about 4 volts less than the
supply voltage. This enables the CA3130 to be used in simple circuit

3
 Tab
Comp.

Offset V+
null

Inv.
input Output

Non-inv. 4 Offset
input O null

V-- and
case

Viewed from top

FIG. 2

configurations which would not be possible using most other

op. amps.

Handling The Device

As many readers will be aware, CMOS devices can be damaged quite

easily if they arc subjected to high voltage static charges, and precautions
must be taken not to destroy them due to careless usage and handling.
The CA3130 is not as easily damaged as some CMOS devices. This is
partly due to the fact that only the input circuitry is of the CMOS
variety, but also there are zener protection diodes incorporated in the
I.C.

Even so it is adviseable to take reasonable care when using and handling

these I.C.s. Usually the devices are supplied with their leadout wires
pushed into a piece of conductive foam. They should be left in this until
it is time to connect the device into the rest of the circuit. The I.C.
should be the last component to be soldered into circuit.

Use a soldering iron with an earthed tip when connecting the device.
It is not a good idea to apply an input signal to any semiconductor
device when the power supply is not connected, and the CA3130 is no
exception to this.

4
Offset Null

Most op. amps. have an offset null facility, and the CA3130 is one of
these devices. The purpose of the two offset null leadouts is to enable
the output to be adjusted to zero (in the case of a dual supply), or to
half the supply voltage (in the case of a single supply) even though the
input terminals are not at quite the same voltage.

This is a useful feature, but it is not required in any of the circuits

described here.

5
 Chapter 2
AUDIO PROJECTS

Perhaps the most obvious use for an op. amp. is in audio amplifier
circuits, and they perform this function very well indeed, even though
they were not designed to perform this task. Op. amps. are actually
intended for use in analogue computers where they carry out mathe-
matical operations. Hence the name 'operational amplifier'.

"[twill be helpful to first consider how an op. amp. would normally be

connected, before considering its use in a number of audio amplifying
applications. An op. amp. is really intended to be used as a .D.C.
amplifier, and it is this fact that is largely responsible for its extreme
versatility. There are two basic amplifying modes in which an op. amp.
can be employed, the inverting amplifier and the non -inverting amplifier.
These two basic configurations are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4
respectively.

Note that these circuits are not run from the usual single supply, but
need dual supplies of equal voltage. One is negative of the central earth
point, and the other is positive of earth. Thus both the inputs and the
output can have either polarity with respect to earth.

Inverting Amplifier

The inverting amplifier is the most simple of the two arrangements, and
this requires only two external resistors plus the compensation capacitor
(C1). It is the values of the two discrete resistors which determines the
gain and'input impedance of the amplifier.

Designing a circuit for a given input impedance and voltage gain is very
simple, and even a complete beginner should have no.trouble with this.
The input impedance is equal to the value given in RI, and this is
multiplied by the required voltage gain to find the required value for
R2. Thus if an amplifier with an input impedance of 10k and a voltage
gain of 100 times (40dB.) is required, RI would have a value of 10k,
and R2 would have a value of 1Meg. (10,000 x 100 = 1000,000 ohms,
or 1Meg.). It is this simple relationship between resistor values and
voltage gain that enables the circuit to be used for mathematical
operations.

What is happening in this circuit is really quite simple to understand.

Assume that RI has a value of 10k and R2 has a value of ! Meg. If an
input signal of ImV. is applied to the circuit (and it is positive with
respect to earth), this will take the inverting input positive of the non -
inverting one. This will cause the output to swing negative as the inputs
have become unbalanced. The output will in fact swing 100mV. negative.
R2 has a value which is 100 times higher than that of R1, but it then

7
R
 has 100 times the voltage developed across it. Therefore the equal
positive and negative currents through RI and R2 respectively cancel
one another out, and the inverting input will be at the same potential
as non -inverting input. It is important to remember that the op. amp.
has an extremely high gain, and that only a minute difference is needed
between the two inputs in order to send the output fully positive or
negative. Virtually all circuits using operational amplifiers rely upon this
fact for their correct operation.

We have seen above that this circuit will always try to maintain the two
inputs at the same voltage, and how this enables the discrete resistors to
set the required voltage gain. It is also this that makes the input impedance
of the circuit equal to the value of RI. It will be seend from Figure 3 that
the non -inverting input of the I.C. is connected to earth. Therefore the
circuit is stabilising the inverting input at earth poential, and is creating
what is termed a 'virtual earth'. Thus the impedance between the input
and the virtual earth is equal to the impedance of RI, and so the value
of RI sets the input impedance of the circuit.

Non -Inverting Amplifier

As its name implies, an inverting amplifier has input and output signals
of opposite polarity, as we have just seen. This is not always convenient,
and it is sometimes necessary to use the non -inverting amplifier con-
figuration. This is again very simple with three discrete resistors being
used to set the required voltage gain and input impedance.

Here RI sets the required input impedance, and the voltage gain of the
circuit is determined by R2 and R3. The input impedance is equal to
the value of RI, and this is obviously so since this resistor is the only
path between the input and earth. Remember that the input impedances
at the inputs to the I.C. are theoretically infinite (and in the case of
the CA3130 they arc so high that for all practical purposes they can be
considered as infinite).

R2 and R3 set the voltage gain of this circuit in much the same way as
they did in the previous one. The non -inverting input is not directly
connected to the earth line, and so the voltage gain mathematics are not
quite the same as in the previous circuit.

Again the circuit will try to maintain the same potentials at the two
inputs. If R2 has a value of 10k and R3 has a value of 1Meg., and we
again assume there is a positive input of lmV., the output will swing
positive until the voltage on the inverting input is ImV. positive.
R3 and R2 act as a simple potential divider and 101mV. will be needed
at the output to produce ImV. at the inverting input. Thus the circuit
has a voltage gain of 101, and not of 100 as was the case in the previous
circuit.

The cquiation that gives the voltage gain of this circuit is R2 + R3

divided by R2. Inbidentally, RI and R2 of Figure 3, and R3 and R2 of

9
Figure 4 form what are usually termed a feedback loop, or sometimes it
is alternatively called a feedback network.

One point which anyone thinking of designing a simple amplifier of

either type should bear in mind is that although the resistor values can
be as high or as low as you like in theory, in practise this is not the case.
Theoretically the op. amp. has an output impedance of zero, but in a
practical circuit this is usually something in the order of a few hundred
ohms. Therefore, if the feedback resistors are very low in value the
output impedance of the device will upset the operation of the circuit.

Also there is an upper practical limit to the values which can be employed.
For one thing very high value resistors are simply not available. Also, the
higher these values are made, the greater the susceptibility of the circuit
to stray pick-up of mains hum and other sources of electrical interference.

In the case of the non -inverting amplifier there is also the problem of
feedback between the output and input of the circuit. This is coupled
through stray circuit capacities that inevitably exist in any circuit.
Any such feedback is usually very low unless a very careless component
kyout is used. However, if a non -inverting amplifier is used with a
combination of high gain and high input impedance, even an extremely
modest amount of stray feedback will be sufficient to cause the circuit
to break into oscillation.

If such a combination of gain and input impedance is required, it is

better to use a separate high input impedance buffer amplifier feeding
the main (low input impedance) voltage amplifier. This enables the input
and output to be physically well separated, and this reduces the stray
feedback to an insignificant level.

The above also applies to the following two variations on the basic
amplifiers.

A.F. Only Versions

Although primarily intended as D.C. amplifiers, the configurations of

Figures 3 and 4 can also be used as A.F. amplifiers. The use of a dual
supply is rather inconvenient though, and by using a few additional
discrete components it is possible to devise a circuit that only needs
the normal single supply.

These circuits are only suitable for A.C. applications, and they are shown
in Figures 5 and 6. They are inverting and non -inverting amplifiers
respectively.

If we consider Figure 5 first, the similarity between this and Figures 3.

should be quite apparent. There are only two real differences: Instead
of using a dual supply, the potential divider formed by R3 and R4 is
used to provide a sort of centre tap on the supply lines. C4 is a bypass

10
I 1
capacitor. D.C. blocking capacitors are needed at the input and output,
and these are Cl and C3 respectively.
The same modifications have been carried out on Figure 4 to produce
the circuit of Figure 6.
The gains and input impedances of these circuits are determined in
exactly the same way as the previous two designs. The value of the
input coupling capacitor (this is CI in both Figure 5 and Figure 6)
must be varied to suit the input impedance of the circuit.
With an input impedance of 1k a value of lOmfd. is suitable for Cl.
For higher input impedances the value of CI should be reduced pro-
portionately. For instance, it would be 2mfd. for an input impedance
of 5k, 0.lmfd. for an input impedance of 100k, and 5nf for an input
impedance of 2Mcg.

Buffer Amplifier

Apart from use in general purpose preamplification circuits, op. amps.

can be used very effectively in several more specialised applications.
The buffer amplifier shown in the circuit diagram of Figure 7 is a
good example of this.

+9 V

r R1
L222 M L C2
1 C5
1001.Lf
82 pf
R3
-41 1-2 M ci CA3I30 01-0 out
."100 C4
10
of

R2 In
22 M
ye

C3
1 p..f
FIG. 7

12
The idea of this type of circuit is to provide an input impedance which
is as high as possible. This type of circuit is often employed in items of
test equipment, such as A.C. millivoltmeters, where it is desirable for
the test gear to draw an absolute minimum of power from the circuit
under test. The circuit has a voltage gain of unity, its sole purpose being
to provide an ultra high input impedance, and to provide any voltage
gain that may be required. The input and output signals are in phase.

To obtain unity gain from an operational amplifier is very simple indeed.

It is just a matter of connecting the inverting input to the output. The
voltage at the output will then be identical to the input voltage at the
non -inverting input, provided the input signal does not go outside the
output voltage swing limits of the op. amp. When connected in this way
the circuit has what is termed a 100% negative feedback loop between its
inverting input and its output.

In this circuit the I.C. has such a feedback loop. RI and R2 provide a
bias voltage of half the supply potential at their common connecting
point, and this voltage is fed to the non -inverting input of the I.C. via
R3. Thus under quiescent conditions the input and output of the device
are at about half the supply voltage.

The input signal is coupled to the I.C. by way of D.C. blocking

capacitor Cl, and the low impedance output signal is obtained via
D.C. blocking capacitor C4.

Bootstrapping

C3 is a bootstrapping capacitor, and it is this that gives the circuit its

extremely high input impedance. If C3 is left out of circuit, RI, R2,
and R3 will shunt the very high input impedance of the I.C. and will
produce an input impedance to the amplifier as a whole of about
2.3Meg. This is adequate for many purposes, such as a preamplifier for
a crystal or ceramic cartridge, and in such cases C3 can be omitted.

Theoretically, including C3 boosts the input impedance of the amplifier

to the same input impedance as the I.C. possesses. In practice there are
losses in the circuit which result in less than 100% effectiveness, but the
input impedance of the test circuit was far too high for the author to be
able to measure it, and was at least some hundreds of Meg. ohms.

The operating principle of the bootstrapping technique is quite simple

to understand. Assume that there is a positive going input signal which
raises the input potential by one volt, the output will also increase by
one volt. This increase is coupled through C3 to the junction of RI to
R3. Therefore the rise in potential at the junction of Cl and R3 is
matched by a similar rise at the opposite end of R3, and the current flow
through the resistor will remain constant. None of the input signal can
flow through R3, which in consequence appears as an infinite impedance
to input signals. RI to R3 are in effect non-existant as far as input
signals are concerned.

13
 Magnetic Cartridge Preamp.

A magnetic cartridge preamplifier must have very precise characteristics.

It must provide an input impedance of 47k (occasionally a different
figure is required), high voltage gain, and a well defined level of bass
boost and treble cut. As the output from a magnetic cartridge is only a
few mV., it must also have a low noise level if satisfactory results are
to be obtained.

All these requirements are easily met by using a high performance op. amp.
such as the CA3130. The circuit diagram of such an amplifier is shown
in Figure 8.

+9 V
R6 R7
680 k 47k
-(=1--(=D-
n R2
U39 k c=1 C8
C6
82 pf 1100
C4 C5
5.6 nf 1.5 nf

R3
CA3130 3Out
R1 1.2 M
1k C=3 + C7
.I. C3 4/4
100 of

1 -II'7r
.1 ER4 = C2
100 (3. In

39 k Pi R5
47 k
ve
FIG. 8

This is basically a non -inverting amplifier with an input impedance of

1.2Meg.11.5 is shunted across the input in order to reduce the input
impedance to the required level. If a different impedance is required,
the value of R5 can be adjusted accordingly. It may at first appear to
be better simply to leave out R5 and reduce R3 to a value of 47k. This
would work, but it would then be necessary to use a higher value for C3
in order to maintain a good bass response. This is undesirable since when
the power is first applied to the circuit, C3 has to attain its normal
working charge. This causes a pulse of current to flow through the coil
of the cartridge, and over a period of time this can have detrimental
effect on the cartridge.

14
The input circuitry used here enables a low value input coupling capacitor
to be employed while still providing an excellent bass response. Some of
the charge current for C3 passes through R5, and not through the
cartridge, and there is no real risk of the cartridge being damaged when
using this circuit.

Capacitors C4 and C5 are included in the feedback loop of the circuit,

and these have an impedance which decreases with increasing frequency.
Thus there is more feedback at treble frequencies than there is at
middle ones. This provides the required treble cut. At bass frequencies
the feedback capacitors have a very high impedance, and this results in
a low level of feedback. This gives the necessary bass boost.

It is perhaps worth pointing out that a capacitor is shown connected

across the supply lines in all the circuits featured in this book. This is a
supply decoupling component and it should not be left out. It helps to
prevent the circuit from becoming unstable. For maximum effect it
should be mounted physically close to the I.C.s supply leadout wires,
but in practice the author has not found this to be at all essentiaL

At a frequency of 1kHZ the circuit has a gain of a little under 100 times,
and from most magnetic cartridges it will produce an output of around
300mV. This should be enough to drive most power amplifiers. If
necessary, the gain can be increased slightly by reducing the value of RI
to some extent. On the other hand, if the gain is found to be excessive,
a higher level of performance can be attained by slightly increasing the
value of RI.

It is probable that most constructors of the unit will require stereo

operation, and it is then merely necessary to build two of these circuits,
one to handle each channel.

Peak Level Indicator

So far we have only considered the use of an operational amplifier in a

linear mode. It can also be used very effectively as an electronic switch,
even in some audio applications. The circuit diagram of the peak level
indicator is shown in Figure 9, and in this the CA 3130 is used as a type
of electronic switch. It is used as a comparator.

The purpose of a peak level indicator is to show when a signal being

processed by a tape recorder (or some other piece of audio gear) has
exceeded some predetermined level. The usual method of indicating
the overload, and the method adopted here, is to have an indicator
light briefly come on.

This type of circuit has an advantage over the usual VU type of level
meter, although this unit is intended to supplement rather than replace
a VU meter. The main drawback of a VU meter is the comparative
slowness with which it responds to changes in input signal level. It

15
will simply miss any sudden crescendos which could be overloading
the equipment.

A VU meter is usually calibrated using a sinewave input signal. This has

a peak level of about 1.4 times the R.M.S. level, whereas most passages
of speech and music have a peak level of two to three times the R.M.S.
level. Even on signals of a fairly constant level an average reading VU
meter can produce misleading readings.

A peak level indicator can thus be a very useful adjunct to a VU meter

as it responds to peak rather than average or R.M.S. levels, and it is
virtually instantaneous in operation.

With reference to Figure 9, assume that the circuit is required to indicate

any peak over a level of 3 volts. VR1 would then be adjusted so that its
slider was one third of the way up its track, and there would be a
potential of three volts at the inverting input of the I.C.

The input signal is applied to the non -inverting input of the I.C. by way
of Cl. Under quiescent conditions this input is biased to earth potential
by RI, and so the input signal swings symmetrically either side of earth.
Provided the peak level of the input signal does not exceed a level of
three volts, the non -inverting input will obviously be at a lower
potential than the inverting one, and the output will be fully negative.
The light emitting diode indicator, DI, will therefore remain off.

If the input signal should ever exceed three volts in peak amplitude,
then the output will swing fully positive for the duration that this

16
threshold level is broken. Current will then be supplied to the L.E.D.
indicator from the output of the I.C. through R2, and a visual indication
of the overload will be produced. R2 is merely a current limiting
resistor and it is required to protect the L.E.D. against passing an ex-
cessive current.

The unit has a high input impedance and it can be fed from any con-
venient point on the main equipment without adding significantly to
the loading on the relevant stage. VR1 can be adjusted to produce an
indication from any peak level from a few mV. to several volts.

Setting the unit up is quite simple, but a sinewave generator (or some
other source of a sinewave signal) is really required. With the sinewave
signal coupled to the input of the tape deck (or whatever), adjust the
input level controls to produce a reading on the VU meter which is
equal to the level at which the peak level indicator is to operate.

Start with VR1 adjusted for maximum voltage at its slider, and there
should then be no indication from Dl. Gradually adjust VR1 for a
lower voltage at its slider, and eventually a faint but visible glow will
be produced from Dl. When this point is reached, VR1 has the correct
setting.

P.L.I. With Hysteresis

Most peak level indicators work on basically the same principle as the
circuit described above, but a few are a little more complex, and in-
corporate hysteresis. Many people may be unfamiliar with the term
'hysteresis', and all this means is that the circuit has a fast attack and
slow decay. In other words, if the threshold level of the unit is
exceeded the lamp will come on virtually instantaneously, but when
the signal falls below the threshold level again, the lamp will remain on
for a short time.

The reason for doing this is quite simple, and is that by doing so the
unit will give a more clear indication of an overload of very brief
duration. Some people therefore have a preference for this type of
circuit. The circuit diagram of a peak level indicator with hysteresis
appears in Figure 10.

The input circuitry is identical to that employed in the circuit of

Figure 9, but the output is not used to directly drive the L.E.D.
Instead it is coupled via C3 to a voltage doubling rectifier and smoothing
network using DI, D2, and C4. The I.C. has a low output impedance
and so C4 is very quickly charged to the peak level of the output
signal. This turns on Trl, which is used as an emitter follower. This has
the L.E.D. indicator (D3) and the series current limiting resistor (R2)
as its emitter load, and so the L.E.D. is illuminated when Trl turns on.

When the signal drops below the threshold level and there is no longer
an output from the I.C., D3 will not turn off immediately It must
17
remain on until C4 has almost fully discharged into the base of Trl, and
this takes about 0.25 seconds. The turn off of D3 is thus delayed slightly,
with even very brief overloads producing an output of 0.25 seconds
duration.

This circuit is connected and set up in exactly the same way as the
previous one.

a.
0)
t- 0
MN
Z C2 0 __I
~m C,1 -at
1-4
I-
CC .-

CC N

MS
00
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1

I,i-d
0
U -

Stereo

For stereo operation it would of course be possible to use two peak

level indicators, one to monitor each channel. Most commercial equip-
ment seems to use a single indicator lamp to indicate an overload on
either or both channels, however. There is quite a good case for doing
this, as with two indicator lamps and two meters to monitor, using

18
 separate lamps for each channel could make the equipment rather
demanding to use.

It is possible to convert two of the peak level indicators just described

(either type) to feed a single indicator lamp by using the simple circuit
shown in Figure 11. The two peak level indicator circuits have their
L.E.D.s and series current limiting resistors omitted. The outputs of the
I.C.s are fed instead to the inputs of this circuit.

The device operates in much the same way as the P.L.I.s themselves.
The inverting input of the I.C. is connected to the potential divider
formed by RI and R2, and so roughly one quarter of the supply potential
is present at this input. In order to obtain a positive output from the
I.C., and so get DI to light up, the non -inverting input must be taken
above the inverting one in potential.

If the outputs from both P.L.I. circuits are low, this will not be achieved
and the L.E.D. will be in the off state. If either P.L.1. circuit has a
output in the high state, R3 and R4 will form a potential divider with
one input at virtually the negative supply voltage, and the other at almost
the same voltage as the positive supply. This causes about half the supply
potential to appear at the non -inverting input of the I.C., and so DI is
switched on. It does not matter which output is high and which is low,
the effect is the same in either case.

If both inputs are high, the non -inverting input will be at virtually the
positive supply rail potential, and again DI will be illuminated. This

+9 V

R1 C1
8.2 k 82 pf

R1

R3
680 2
CA3I30 C
L.H. 100 k
-4-
R2
2.7 k / D1
TIL209
R.H R- 4i-
100 k
ye

FIG. 1 I

19
circuit thus provides the necessary action, as if either or both the P.L.I.
outputs are high, DI comes on.

The I.C. is in fact being used as a simple logic circuit. It is, in effect, a
positive two input OR gate, as the output is positive if either the L.H. OR
R.H. inputs arc positive.

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20
 Tone Control Circuit

We have already seen in the case of the magnetic cartridge preamplifier

how it is possible to alter the frequency response of an amplifier by the
use of frequency selective negative feedback. The same method can be
used to produce a high quality active tone control.

An active tone control has the advantage over a simple passive circuit
that it does not need to have large losses between the input and output.
When adjusted for a flat frequency response a passive tone control circuit
usually has an insertion loss of around 20dB. (10 times).

The circuit diagram of the active tone control is given in Figure 12, and
when adjusted for a flat frequency response this circuit has a voltage
gain of approximately unity. It offers the usual bass and treble boost
and cut, and it has a very low level of noise and distortion.

Audio Mixer

An op. amp. makes the ideal basis for a multichannel audio mixer, and
the circuit of such a unit is shown in Figure 13. This is basically an
inverting amplifier, but as will be seen from the circuit diagram, each
input channel has its own input resistor.

If we only consider input 1 for the moment, then the circuit operates as
a straight forward inverting amplifier with RI and R6 setting the voltage
gain at unity. CI is the D.C. blocking capacitor at the input and VR1
is the fader control for channel 1.

When two or more inputs are being used the circuit acts as a sort of
current adding circuit. For the sake of this explanation we will assume
that there is an input voltage of 10mV. at each of the three inputs.
In order for the output to balance the combined currents through RI,
R2, and R3, and maintain the I.C.s inputs at the same levels, it must
swing 30mV. negative. It will be apparent from this that the voltage at
the output is the sum of the input signals, and in this way the circuit
operates as a high quality mixer.

It is a simple matter to construct a stereoversion of this circuit, and all

that is required is two separate circuits, one for each channel. The
circuit is shown with three inputs, but it will work with as many inputs
as one wishes, simply by adding extra fader controls with the appropriate
input resistors and D.C. blocking capacitors. The unit is intended to be
connected in a fairly high level part of the overall set up, with any pre-
amplification that is needed being added ahead of each input. However,
if required, the gain of the unit can be increased by increasing the value
of R6. The voltage gain is equal to the value given to R6 divided by
100k.

21
 +9 V
R1
100 k

R2 R4
5.6 t=1 C5
100 k C6
82 pf
®100µf
R3
[ R6
100k
100 k

CA
C7
C2 MISB C3 I0 µf
470 nf mo= 470 nf "=" 470 nf

In I In 3
In2C)
VR1 VR2 -- vR3 R5 C4
100 k 100 k 100k 56k 100/uf
og. log.
ye

FIG. 13
In common with most other op. amps., the CA3130 is capable of pro-
viding extremely low levels of noise and distortion, and this circuit
provides really excellent results.

500mW. Audio Amplifier

The CA3130, like most other op. amp. I.C.s, does not have sufficient
output drive to obtain adequate volume if it is used as an audio power
amplifier. The device can be used to drive a speaker if only very low
volume levels are required, but for most purposes it is necessary to add
a discrete output stage in order to increase the output drive capability.

The circuit diagram of a 500mW. audio power amplifier which employs

a CA3130 in the preamplifier section is shown in Figure 14. TR1 is a
conventional emitter follower driver stage having R6 as its main emitter
load. R5 is connected in this emitter circuit, and it is required in order
to produce a small standing bias across the bases of the output transistors,
Tr2 and Tr3. These are directly driven from the output of Trl, and they
are used in the emitter follower mode also.

The purpose of R5 is to help reduce cross -over distortion to an insignifi-

cant level. Cross -over distortion occurs at the point where the output
signal changes polarity, and it is a particularly annoying form of distortion
since it is at its highest level at low output powers. Distortion tends to
be more noticeable at low volumes than at high ones.

Normally R5 would need to be much higher in value in order to

sufficiently reduce the cross -over distortion level, but in this circuit a
large bias current through the output transistors is unnecessary. This
results from the use of large amounts of overall negative feedback.

The voltage gain between the base of Trl and the emitter of Trs2 and 3
is almost exactly unity. It is therefore possible to use an op. amp. pre-
amplifier to drive the base of Trl, with the negative feedback being
taken from the output of the amplifier, rather than from the output of
the op. amp. By using negative feedback over the entire circuit in this
way, the unit achieves a very high level of performance, and is superior
to most simple battery powered audio amplifiers.

The I.C. is used in the inverting amplifier configuration, and the values
of R3 and R4 have been chosen to produce an input impedance of 50k
and an input sensitivity of a little under 100mV. This input sensitivity
is for an output of 500mW. into an 8 ohm impedance speaker. If required,
the gain and input impedance of the circuit can be altered by modifying
the values of VR1, R3, and R4.
The required gain for a given input sensitivity can be calculated by
dividing 2,000 by the required input sensitivity in milli -volts. R3 and
VR1 should have about the same value, and the input impedance of the
unit is then approximately equal to R3 divided by two.

24
It is not a good idea to use a speaker of less than 8 ohms impedance as
this will result in the circuit being rather inefficient with regard to
current consumption, and will also result in some loss of output quality.
It is quite safe to do so however, and no damage to the circuit is likely
to result from this. Higher impedance speakers can be used, but there
will be a lower maximum output power available if this is done. For
example, an output power of only about 100mW. will be possible if an
80 ohm speaker is used.

Higher Output Power Version

By using a higher voltage power supply it is possible to obtain a sub-

stantially higher output from this circuit. It will give almost 2 watts
from a 12 volt supply and about 3 watts from a 15 volt supply. A supply
of significantly more than 15 volts should not be used. The only
circuit value that needs any adjustment is R5. This must be reduced to
18 ohms for a 12 volt supply, and 12 ohms for a 15 volt supply.

It will also be necessary to fit the output transistors with clip on heat -
sinks, and the heatsinks should be bolted to an area of about 100 sq.
c.m.s of 16 s.w.g. aluminium. This ara should be regarded as a minimum,
and more substantial heatsinking should be provided if space permits
this. Inadequate heatsinking will almost certainly result in the
destruction of the output transistors due to overheating.

The higher power versions of the circuit should be used with 8 ohm
speakers, and definitely not with speakers having an impedance of less
than 8 ohms.

Low Power Amplifier

In applications where only a very low output power is satisfactory, the

CA3130 can be used to drive a speaker without using a discrete output
stage. The circuit of Figure 15, for instance, has an output power of only
a few milli -watts, but it will produce sufficient volume for use in the
audio stages of a bedside receiver, of any similar application.

This is really just an inverting amplifier driving a high impedance speaker.

Compression Amplifier

An audio compression amplifier is a circuit that does not have a fixed

voltage gain, but instead has a gain that varies with level of the input
signal. On low level signals the amplifier develops its full voltage gain,
but when a certain input level is exceeded the gain of the amplifier
begins to decrease. The higher the input is taken above the threshold
level, the lower the gain of the amplifier becomes.

25
 +9V
C3
[ R1
5-6 k 100 pf
C4
100/./..f
R3 CA3I30 =1 C5
10k °".1004f
R4
1=7:1
VR1
C2 470 k J L.S.
Cl R2 47i.tf
100 4f 56k 10 k I Q2
log.
ye
FIG 15
 +9 V

R1
_5.6 k C7
82 pf R5
R3 39k
100k C5
m= C2 "' Trl
9 2N3819 10 p.f
100p_f CA 3130 Out
I 1 + Tr2
R4 jo BC109
mo D2oA91
82k C3
R2 Cl 10,uf
56k ,00,.if o C6
0A91.
ye

FIG. 16
The result of this is that the output level of the amplifier does not go
above a certain amplitude, and signals above'the input threshold level
generate an output level at or slightly below this output amplitude.
Thus a wide range of input signal levels will produce a virtually con-
stant output level. For this reason circuits of this type are sometimes
referred to as constant volume amplifiers. They are also called com-
pression amplifiers as they reduce or compress the dynamic range of
the input signal.

This type of circuit is used in many fields of electronics. In radio

communications for instance, a compression amplifier can be used in
the audio stages of a transmitter. Here it has the effect of ensuring
that the modulation level of the transmitter is always close to 100%,
and that maximum use of the transmitters output power is achieved.

Circuits of this type are often used in tape recording in the form of an
automatic recording level facility, or a peak recording level limiter.
A compression amplifier is a sort of audio automatic volumes control
circuit, and it is possible to use such a circuit in the audio stages of a
simple receiver that has no other form of A.V.C. circuit.

Figure 16 shows the complete circuit diagram of the audio compression

amplifier. The I.C. is used as a non -inverting amplifier, and its gain is
determined by the feedback network consisting of the drain to source
resistance of Trl, and R5.
Trl is a field effect transistor, and this type of transistor acts as a simple
resistor between its drain and source terminals when a fairly low voltage
is applied to them. Under quiescent conditions the gate and source
terminals of Trl are held at the same potential by R3. When a f.e.t. is
connected in this fashion it has a drain to source resistance of only
about 100 ohms. The circuit thus achieves a voltage gain of a few
hundred times.

Any input signal fed to C3 thus appears greatly amplified at the output
of the I.C. Some of the output signal is taken to the output socket via
D.C. blocking capacitor, CS, but a proportion of it is coupled to a
rectifier network by way of C4. D1 and D2 form the rectifier circuit,
and their output is developed across C6 which smooths the rough D.C.
output of the rectifiers to a D.C. bias voltage.

This voltage.is proportional to the level of the output signal. If it is

about 0.6V. or less it will not have any effect on the circuit, but if it
exceeds this level it will begin to turn on Tr2. As Tr2 begins to conduct,
it takes the gate potential of Trl down towards the negative supply
rail, and this gives Trl a reverse bias. This greatly increases its drain to
source resistance, and in consequence it reduces the gain of the
amplifier. The higher the amplitude of the output signal, the more the
gain of the circuit is reduced.

En this way the output tends to be stabilised at a certain level. Measure-

ments made on the prototype show that this circuit has a very effective

28
compression effect. On input signals up to about lmV. the gain of the
amplifier is constant at about 260 times. Thus an input of lmV. R.M.S.
produces an output of 260mV. R.M.S. As the input signal level is
increased about lmV., the gain of the circuit rapidly diminishes. With
an input of 70mV. an output level of approximately 310mV. is obtained.
Therefore increasing the input signal above the lmV. threshold level by
a factor of 70 only increases the output level by about 20%!

At an input of around 70mV. the compression effect becomes saturated

with Tr2 being turned on as far as it can be. Increasing the output above
this level therefore results in a rapid rise in the output level, and also the
output signal will be found to be very distorted. The input signal level
must therefore be limited to 70mV. or less, and if necessary an
attenuator must be added at the input to accomplish this. Provided the
input signal is kept below the saturation level, an extremely low
distortion level is obtained. .

Hysteresis

Like the second of the two peak level indicator circuits that were
described earlier, this circuit has hysteresis. This is aimost essential, as
the circuit would obviously be of little use if it only responded very
slowly to increases in input level. The slow decay time of the unit is
also an important feature, as this prevents the gain from rising during
brief pauses between words, or during brief lulls in music.

The circuit has a decay time of about 1 to 2 seconds, but this can be
varied if necessary by altering the value of C6. Reducing its value reduces
the decay time proportionally, and increasing its value lengthens the
decay time accordingly.

Care must be taken when using this circuit as its has quite a high voltage
gain, and the input and output are in phase. A careless component
layout could easily lead to instability. For the same reason, and to
avoid stray pick up of mains hum etc., all leads at the input should
be screened.

29
 Cr?. 0- +9 V
S1
C9 On/of f
41 100 p.f
R1
T1 56k R6
Ns C2 56k
r 82 pf R3
10 M R4 R5
68052 22M
C1 CA3130 FQ) Out
82 pf C8
C4 D1 C7
10 of 0A91 100 of 100 of
C5 C6
VC1
R2 C3 22 of 15 of Tr1
Tuning 56k ."11100 nf 6C109

01- ye

TC1
10 pf
FIG. 17
 Chapter 3
R.F. PROJECTS

Operational amplifiers are not generally associated with R.F. applications,

and apart from a few special types, they are not really intended for this
type of use. However, the CA3130 has quite a wide bandwidth and it has
been found to be possible to use it in a few R.F. circuits.

M.W. Radio

This is rather a novel application for an operational amplifier, and is

one that the author has not come across before. The circuit diagram of
the 'M.W. Radio' appears in Figure 17.

The I.C. is used as a sort of inverting amplifier, with the signals from the
ferrite aerial being fed to the inverting input of the I.C. via D.C. blocking
capacitor Cl. In order to obtain a reasonable level of gain and selectivity
from the circuit it is necessary to use regeneration. This is applied from
the output of the I.C. to the smaller (untuned) winding on the ferrite
aerial by way of TCI. The level of regeneration is adjusted using TCI.

VC1 is an ordinary tuning control.

Although regeneration is used over the R.F. stage of the receiver, this
is not used as a regenerative detector, and the main output of the I.C. is
coupled via C4 to the diode detector, DI. C5, R4, and C6 are an R.F.
filter. The audio output from this filter is fed to a single transistor audio
amplifier stage using Trl. This is a common emitter amplifier, and it
provides a low noise level and a high voltage gain.

The output can be used to drive a crystal earphone, high impedance

magnetic headphones, or any other medium to high impedance load.

Most of the circuits in this book can be constructed quite satisfactorily

using Veroboard as a very convenient constructional basis. It would be
advisable to use a different technique for this circuit, and for the two
which follow, as stray capacitances must be kept to a minimum. They
could otherwise be of sufficient level to upset the operation of these
circuits causing either instability of loss of performance. P.C.13. or plain
matrix boards are suitable constructional forms for these three circuits.

T1 can be any ferrite rod for use in transistorised circuits, and the value
of VC1 must be chosen to suit the particular ferrite rod aerial used.
Suitable components for use in these positions are a Denco MW/5FR
for Ti and a Jackson type 01 208pf variable capacitor for VC1.

For optium results to be obtained from the set it is necessary to adjust

TC1 very precisely. With this initially set for about minimum capacitance

31
it should be found that a few Stations can be received, although they will
probably be rather weak at present. Adjusting TC1 for increased capaci-
tance will increase the regeneration level and should produce improved
results. If no signals can be received, or this adjustment is found to have
the opposite effect to that just described, it probably means that the
phasing of T1 is incorrect. This can be rectified by reversing the
connections into the feedback winding (i.e. the smaller of the two coils)

There is a limit to the amount of regeneration that can be effectively

applied to the circuit, and if this limit is exceeded the set will break into
oscillation at some point on the tuning dial (probably at the high fre-
quency end). This will be hears as a tone of varying pitch as the set is
tuned over a station, and proper reception will not be possible.

Adjust TC1 to insert as much capacitance into circuit as possible, without

the set starting to oscillate at any setting of the tuning control. The
unit will then have optium sensitivity and selectivity.

With most makes of ferrite aerial it is necessary to slide the coil assembly
up and down the ferrite rod in order to find the position that gives the
correct frequency coverage. The coil is then taped in that position.

Crystal Calibrator

A crystal calibrator is very useful for checking the calibration of a

communications receiver, or for calibrating a home made S.W. receiver.
Basically all it consists of is a crystal oscillator having an ouput which is
rich in harmonics. The harmonics arc the multiples of the fundamental
frequency, and so alMHZ crystal calibrator will provide harmonics at
2MHz, 3MHz, 4MHz, etc. It is these harmonics that are used for cali-
bration purposes, the fundamental frequency not being with the S.W.
frequency spectrum.

The circuit diagram of the crystal calibrator is shown in Figure 18.

This will work with virtually any crystal having a frequency between a
few tens of kHz and several MHZ. It can thus be used with the usual
100kHZ and 1MHZ calibration crystals. The prototype circuit provided
strong harmonics throughout the S.W. bands to beyond 30MHZ, and
the circuit is therefore suitable for use with any S.W. receiver, regardless
of frequency coverage or sophistication. Some crystal oscillators are
reluctant to oscillate unless a high activity crystal is employed, or have
a poor harmonic output unless such a crystal is used, but this circuit
seems to give a strong output from any crystal that is in reasonable
condition.

The op. amp. is used as a form of non -inverting amplifier, with the
crystal and TCI providing a positive feedback loop between the output
and non -inverting input of the I.C. A crystal has two resonant fre-
quencies, and these are called the series resonant frequency and the
parallel resonant frequency. These are usually only a few hundred HZ

32
 +9 V
XI

576k0
TC1
500 pf C3
22 pf
CA3130 U-cOut
Cl nes
100 nf Now
1.2 M

R2
5.6 k
100 k

C2
47 of
ye

FIG. 18

apart, with the series resonant one being the lower of the two. At the
parallel resonant frequency the crystal exhibits a very high impedance
and at series resonance it has a very low impedance. At other frequencies
a crystal has a fairly high impedance.

Thus in this circuit there will be a high level of feedback at series

resonance, and very little feedback at other frequencies. The unit
therefore oscillates at the series resonant frequency of Xl.

A tight coupling will probably not be needed between the receiver and
the calibrator as the output of the unit is quite strong. It will probably
be sufficient to connect a lead to the output of the unit and then place
this near the aerial socket of the receiver.

TC1 can be used to accurately set the unit up against a standard fre-
quency transmission, such as the one to be found at 5MHZ. With the
receiver adjusted to receive this transmission the output of the calibrator
is coupled to the set. This should generate an audible beat note from the
receiver's headphones or speaker, and TCI is adjusted to produce the
lowest possible beat note. It is not essential to do this, and a more than
adequate accuracy will almost certainly be obtained if TCI is left out,
and the crystal is connected between the output and non -inverting
input of the I.C.

33
It can sometimes be difficult to identify one harmonic from another,
and using a crystal of a few MHZ in operating frequency will provide a
S.W. signal of known frequency that will be of help here. Any signal of
approximately known frequency can be used, however.

R.F. Generator

An R.F. signal generator covering the M.W. band can be a very useful
aid to have in the workshop when aligning or servicing domestic radio
equipment. The circuit of such a unit is shown in Figure 19, and this
has a frequency coverage of approximately 1.6MHZ to 550kHZ.
It can also be used as a 470kHZ to 450kHZ I.F. alignment generator,
as will be explained later.

+9V

RI
5.6 k
R3 C5
39 k R4 100 of
C4
100 k
11" 22 Pf
CA3130 0 Out
Ll
.A.JAJ
C3 :71.

C1
R2
5.6
po VC1
2.2 pf

470 of 11.365pf
C2
1330 pf
Ve

FIG.19

Tis circuit is in some ways similar to the calibration generator, and

like this previous circuit it is based on a non -inverting amplifier. An
ordinary L -C tuned circuit is connected to the input circuit of the
amplifier, and this consists of LI and VCI. The latter is the tuning
capacitor. A small amount of positive feedback is applied to the circuit
by the inclusion of C3. This will only provide sufficient feedback for
oscillation if there is a relatively high input impedance to the amplifier.
The tuned circuit at the input has a high impedance at resonance, and a
low impedance at other frequencies. Therefore the circuit oscillates at
the resonant frequency of LI and VC1.

34
 When Si is closed, the frequency range of the unit is reduced and
lowered. It becomes approx. 600 to 400 kHZ, and then includes the
usual broadcast receiver I.F.s of around 450 to 470kHZ.

Again, only a loose coupling between the oscillator and the radio is
normally required. It is necessary to provide the unit with a reasonably
accurate tuning dial if it is to be of maximum usefulness. It is an easy
matter to calibrate the unit against the dial of any good quality M.W.
radio of recent origin (the calibration of a receiver often deteriorates
with age unless it is occasionally realigned).

When using the unit for I.F. alignment, close Si and loosely couple the
output of the oscillator to the primary of the first I.F. transformer.
VC1 is then adjusted to produce maximum output at the receivers
detector, after which the cores of the I.F.T.s are peaked.

It is not possible to make adjustments for maximum audio output, and

since most receivers incorporate an A.G.C. circuit, this is not a very
practical method anyway. If a multimeter is available this can be
connected across the volume control of the receiver, positive test lead
to earth for a positive earth receiver, and negative test lead to chassis in
the case of a negative earth one. With the multimeter switched to any
low volts range, the adjustments are then made for minimum output
of the meter.

Another and even more simple method is to make adjustments for

minimum background noise from the set. The volume must be turned
well up so that there is plenty of background hiss.

The unit should work using M.W. tuned winding with the appropriate
tuning capacitance, but the circuit has only been checked using a Denco
Yellow Range 2T coil and a Jackson Type 0 365pf tuning capacitor.
The necessary connection data for the coil is supplied with each one.
Note that there are actually three windings on the coil, but only the one
between pins 1 and 6 is used in this particular application. The other two
are simply ignored.

A.F./R.F. Signal Injector

This really just consists of an A.F. squarewave generator which operates

at about 1KHZ. The output is rich in harmonics extending well into the
R.F. spectrum, and so this type of oscillator can be used for A.F., I.F.,
and R.F. tests.

The circuit diagram of this device is shown in Figure 20. The CA3130 is
used as a non -inverting amplifier having a gain of about 12 times.
Positive feedback is provided between the output and non -inverting
input by C2. In order to obtain oscillation a gain of only unity is
required, and so the circuit oscillates violently generating a squarewave
output. Such a waveshape is rich in the desired harmonics. The values of

35
C2 and R3 are chosen to obtain a fundamental frequency in the middle
of the audio frequency range.

As the peak to peak output of the oscillator is virtually equal to the

supply voltage, the output of the circuit is excessive for many purposes.
Therefore two outputs are provided, a high level one which is taken
from the output of the I.C. via C3, and a low level one which is derived
from the first output. This has series resistor R6 to reduce the output
level, and capacitor C4 provides frequency compensation.

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ra
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(...) 03
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=
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11 1

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ro

CC N

O L_____) il °D i 1

,- - ..-
cc cs) x,0
ki) lh 0
N
11
zt
U0 U.
0

36
Devices of this type are often built into large test probes as self contained
units, complete with integral battery supply. Suitable containers are
available for this purpose. This circuit could easily be miniaturised in
this way, but it will be necessary to have a switch to enable the desired
output to be selected, or to settle for a version having only a high level
output.

This method is convenient to use, but it is not the only possible approach.
It is quite in order to use a more conventional form of construction.

With this type of tester the first check is made at the speaker, and then
one works back through the equipment injecting a signal at the input
and output of each stage. In the case of transistorised designs this is
usually at bases and collectors of the transistors.

When the audio signal is not heard at the output and a test is being
carried out, the area in which the fault lies has been found. It is some-
where between the parts of the circuit to which the last test and the
penultimate one were made. It is also possible that the fault is in the last
stage to be tested, but this is not likely.

Thus if one injects a signal at the base of the driver transistor of an audio
amplifier, and then at the collector of the preamplifier transistor, if the
first test produces an audio output and the second one does not, then
the fault probably lies in the coupling between the two stages. This
suggests that the coupling capacitor between the two stages is faulty,
or is not connected into circuit reliably. It is also possible that a fault
in the preamplifier is causing the output of the injector to be short
circuited, and is therefore preventing an output from being produced.
This is less likely to be the trouble though, and should only be investi-
gated if the coupling capacitor provides to be alright.

It is not practical to give a more detailed account of how this unit is

used, but the above should give a fairly good idea of the way in which
It is employed. It is really just a matter of using common sense and
a logical approach.

It must be pointed out that it is not safe to use this tester on equipment
which is mains operated and does not incorporate a mains isolating
transformer. A lot of commercially produced domestic equipment falls
into this category, and equipment of this type has its chassis connected
to one side of the mains. Using this tester or any other piece of test gear
(including other items described in this book) on this sort of equipment
could easily lead to the user getting a powerful electric shock.

If in any doubt about this at all, do not try to fault find on mains
powered equipment, and restrict such activities to battery power circuits
until more experience and know how has been obtained.

37
A.F./R.F. Signal Tracer

In use this is rather like the opposite of a signal injector. When fault
finding on a record player, for example, the first test would be made at
the leads from the pickup. From here one would progress forwards
through the amplifier until a signal can no longer be traced. Then, as
before, the fault lies between the parts of the circuit which were
subjected to the last two tests, or it could possibly be in the last stage
that was tested.

Figure 21 shows the circuit diagram of the signal trace. This consists of
a high gain audio amplifier preceeded by a demodulator circuit. The
output of the unit is fed to a crystal aerpiece.

The CA3130 is used as an inverting amplifier having a voltage gain of

1000 times (60 dB.), and such a high gain is needed as the unit must
provide a reasonable output from very weak signals, such as those found
in the early stages of a radio receiver. DI, R3 and C5 are the demodula-
tion circuit, and C3 provides D.C. blocking at the input.

From a look at the circuit diagram one would probably think that this
circuit would not respond properly to an audio input, but in fact, this
is not the case. An audio input signal will undergo a degree of distortion,
and will be considerably attenuated, but this is not severe enough in
either case to preclude the unit from A.F. testing. The level of dis-
tortion introduced by the demodulator is quite small, and the gain for
audio tests needs to be reduced anyway as higher signal levels are
found in audio stages than in R.F. and I.F. ones.

This type of equipment is another example of a kind of circuit that is

often constructed as a self contained unit in a large test probe. Again it
is not essential to do this, but if the unit is built into a normal case, the
demodulator circuitry (C3, D1, R3, and C5) must be built into a probe.

The reason for this is quite simple. In order to avoid excessive stay
pick up it is necessary to use a screened input lead. By having the
demodulator in the test probe, the signal in the screened lead is at A.F.
If the demodulator were to be constructed in the main unit, when
R.F. were being carried out the screened lead would be carrying an
R.F. signal. This is not a good idea as the capacity of the lead will
heavily load an R.F. circuit to which it is connected, and it will also
tend to have a detuning effect on any tuned circuit to which it is
coupled.

38
 +9V
R1
5.6 k C6
2.2 of
C7
C3 C4
1 of 47 of CA3130 Fc3 Out
D1
I R4
R5
10 M
0A91 10 k
R2
k
R3 nom C5
100 k '1'410 nf
ye
FIG. 21
 Chapter 4
TEST EQUIPMENT

High Impedance Voltmeter

Test equipment is perhaps the area of electronics in which op. amps. are
of most use to the amateur user. An operational amplifier is designed for
use in D.C. amplifiers, and the most obvious use for one in this branch of
electronics is in a high impedance voltmeter circuit.

A high impedance voltmeter is a multi -range voltmeter that is designed

to overcome the main shortcoming of an ordinary multimeter. This is
its relatively low input resistance, this usually being something in the
order of 20k/V. for a good quality instrument. The current to move the
needle of the meter must be provided by the circuit being tested, and
this limits the input impedance of an ordinary multimeter if a reason-
ably robust meter movement is to be used.

Some electronic circuits operate at quite high impedances, and simply

cannot provide the necessary current to operate the meter. For instance,
the current in the base circuit of typical low level transistor stage is only
a couple of micro -amps. The current needed to provide f.s.d. of a good
quality multimeter is some 50 micro -amps. Trying to accurately measure
the base potential of a low level transistor stage using an ordinary multi -
meter would obviously be pointless.

Most multimeters do not have very low voltage ranges, as the input
resistance on such ranges would be unsatisfactory for almost all low
voltage measurements.

By using an amplifier to drive the meter it is possible to produce a

voltmeter requiring only a very small input current. Such an instrument
can be used for virtually any voltage measurements without misleading
readings being obtained. Low voltage ranges also become a practical
proposition.

Figure 22 shows the circuit diagram of a simple high impedance volt-

meter using a CA3130 1.C. The I.C. is used as a non -inverting D.C.
amplifier having a voltage gain of eleven times. The output of the I.C.
is used to drive a voltmeter circuit using R7 and a 100 micro -amp.
meter. R7 is adjusted so that an input potential of 100mV. is required
to produce f.s.d. of the meter.
Rather than use a single resistor to bias the non -inverting input of the
I.C., a series of resistors in the form of a simple attenuator are used.
This provides two additional input sensitivities of 1V.and 10V. f.s.d.
It is necessary to use close tolerance resistors in the attenuator if high
accuracy on all ranges is to be attained. In the case of R2, R3 and R4
this does not pose any problems, since 1 and 2% tolerance resistors are

41
readily available in these values. Unfortunately, this is not the case when
it comes to RI, as 10Meg. resistors would only seem to be readily avail-
able with a tolerance of 10%, which is too high. This will probably,
therefore, have to be made up by adding a number of resistors in series.
Ten 1 Meg. 5% tolerance resistors should provide adequate accuracy.

a)

O
O

Ink2
U0 am 0
0 M_

cc 0
I I-it

E
00

OMB 1111111111

Co

IL

42
It is an interesting feature of this circuit that it does not need to be
powered from a dual balanced power supply. It operates perfectly well
from a single supply of 9 volts. The reason for this is that the CA3130
will provide an output that can swing to within a few millivolts of
either supply rail, provided the output is only lightly loaded, as it is
here. Thus under quiescent conditions the voltage across the meter is
insignificant, and it will read zero.

If most other op. amp. I.C.s were to be used in this circuit the meter
would read beyond f.s.d. under quiescent conditions, as their outputs
are incapable of swinging within a couple of volts of either supply line.

This circuit is rather vulnerable to pick up of mains hum and similar

sources of interference, and it is necessary to house the instrument in a
metal case to provide screening for the circuit. Screened test leads should
also be used.

Adjusting R7 is quite a simple task. The only items needed for cali-
bration are a multimeter and a 9 volt battery. Use the multimeter to
measure the exact voltage of the battery, and then turn on the high
impedance voltmeter and switch it to the 10V. range. Set R7 for maxi-
mum resistance, and then connect the test prods to the battery. Adjust
R7 to produce the same voltage reading on the high impedance volt-
meter as that just obtained on the multimeter. The unit is then ready
to be used.

Resistance Meter

Most multimeters incorporate at least a couple of resistance ranges, but

they are not usually as accurate as these ranges as they are on the voltage
and current ones. This is mainly due to the fact that a very wide range
of values are covered on each range, and that the resistance scale is
logarithmic. This tends to make it extremely cramped at the high value
end, and a small pointer error can produce wildly inaccurate readings.
Another drawback is that the resistance scale reads in reverse, with the
zero on the right hand side.

It is quite simple to produce a resistance meter having a linear forward

reading scale by using the CA3130 as a high impedance voltmeter, to
measure the voltage produced across the test resistor which is fed from
a constant current generator. The circuit diagram of such a circuit is
shown in Figure 23.

The theory behind the operation of this circuit is quite straight forward.
Assume for example, that the constant current generator has an output
of 1MA. and the voltmeter reads 0 to 10V. If a 10k resistor is connected
into circuit, the meter will read f.s.d., as from Ohms Law it will be
apparent that 10V. will be developed across the test resistor. If a 4.7k
is placed in circuit a reading of 4.7V. will be obtained. For a 1k test
resistor a reading of IV. will be obtained. Thus, by calibrating the meter

43
 0******o--- +9 V
VR15 M S2
On/off

rAl D1 VR2 500 k

T39V 1M 1-
0100 k T

S1 10 k

Tr1 range 1k -4 I-
VR3 50 k
2N3702 C1
VR4 5k 100 pf .121 1 0 0 p.f
-IF
P2
R1
15 k
_82k CA3130
push Test
to break 100
prods

-ye
FIG 23
in k ohms rather than in volts, a linear forward reading resistance peter
is produced.

In the practical circuit a 2N3702 transistor (Tr1) is used as the basis of

the constant current generator, and this can actually produce four
different currents, the desired current being selected by SI. The use of
four currents provides four resistance ranges, and these are I k, 10k,
100k, and 1M f.s.d.

The I.C. is used as a unity gain amplifier and it drives a conventional

voltmeter circuit using R2 and a 100 micro -amp. meter. It is necessary to
use a high impedance voltmeter, as it is obviously important that o
significant current is drained from the constant current generator. On
the higher ranges there is insufficient current in the test resistor to
operate a moving coil meter anyway.

With no test resistance in circuit the meter would be taken beyond

f.s.d. if the push button switch was not included in the circuit. This
short circuits the test leads and keeps the meter at zero until the test
resistor has been connected. Then this switch is operated so that a
reading may be taken..

The unit is calibrated against four close tolerance (1 or 2%) resistors.

One is needed for each range, and each resistor should have a value equal
to, or a little less than the f.s.d. value of the range is to be used to
calibrate. For instance, an 820 ohm resistor could be used to calibrate
the 0 to lk range.

With the unit switched on and set to the lk range, the test resistor is
connected across the test leads. Set all the presets for maximum
resistance and operate the push button switch. Adjust VR4 for a reading
of 82 on the meter, so what ever value is appropriate for the test
resistance used.

A similar process is then used for the calibration of the other three
ranges.

Sinewave Generator

Operational amplifiers make the ideal basis for a number of types of

waveform generators. This simple sinewave generator can be used as a
very simple A.F. signal generator and it provides an output of 7.5HZ to
75kHZ in four ranges. The coverage of each range is as follows: -
7.5 to 75HZ, 75 to 750HZ, 750HZ to 7.5kHZ, and 7.5 to 75kHZ.
The circuit diagram of the unit is shown in Figure 24.

This is based on the well known Wien Bridge type of oscillator. The
resistive parts of the R -C network are R3, R5, and VR I , VR1 is a dual
gang linear carbon potentiometer, and this enables the time constant
of the Wien network to be varied, and it acts as the frequency control.

45'
 +9 V
C3 2.2 S2
VR1b On/off
10 k
R1 R5 lin.
47k C4 220 nf 1k

C5 22 nf S1b
2

= C1 -4-111-3°.*:S10 C7
C6 2 2 nf range 100 pf
°""100/.tf
I VR1a 10 k lin. ommi C8 um C9 =CIO sim CI I
221.Lf 220 nf 22 nf 22 nf
R3 1 k
CA3130
VR2-1, Cl2
R4 50 k
12 k lin.
33µf
R2 VR4 _ Out
C? 5k
4.7 k
I00 µf -4 1-
VR3 1 k lin.

ye
FIG. 24
The capacitive elements of the Wien network are formed by the two
capacitors that are switched into circuit by Si. This provides four sets
of capacitors, and it is this that gives the unit its four frequency ranges.

The role of the CA3130 in this circuit is quite simple. It must provide a
non -inverting amplifier having a very high input impedance and a voltage
gain of only approx. three times. It may at first appear that the voltage
gain could be set at three by using fixed resistors in the feedback loop,
but in practice this would net be satisfactory. The gain of the circuit
must be very accurately adjusted, as if it is only fractionally low the
circuit will not oscillate, and if it is a little on the high side the output
waveform will be seriously distorted. The Wien network provides the
frequency selective positive feedback path between the output and
the non -inverting input of the I.C., which is necessary to cause the
circuit to oscillate. The voltage gain of the circuit is manually adjusted
to the appropriate level using VR3.

Before the unit is ready for use it is necessary to adjust VR2. Connect
the output of the unit to a crystal earpiece, or an amplifier and speaker
combination. Set VR1 and VR2 for about half maximum resistance,
and then turn the unit on. Switch Si to range 2 and set VR2 for almost
maximum resistance. This should cause a tone to be heard from the
earpiece or speaker. If VR2 is now adjusted for a lower resistance, the
tone will rise in pitch, and should have a more pure sound. Adjusting it
for an even lower resistance will cause oscillation to cease.

VR1 is adjusted to the position that corresponds to the lowest

resistance that produces oscillation. In use, VR3 is similarly adjusted,
and it will need slight readjustment each time the setting of VR1 and
SI altered.
VR4 is the output level control.

A.G.C. Sinewave Generator

It is obviously rather time consuming having to manually adjust the gain

of the amplifier to the sinewave generator just described. Most signal
generators of this type incorporate an A.G.C. circuit which automatically
adjusts the circuit gain to the proper level. Figure 25 shows the circuit
diagram of such a unit.

This is identical to the previous circuit except for the inclusion of the
A.G.C. circuitry. The A.G.C. action is provided by Trl which is a field
effect transistor. When the unit is initially switched on, the gate of TRI
is connected to the negative supply by way of R7. This strongly reverse
biases the f.e.t. which in consequence exhibits a very high d. to s.
resistance. This gives the amplifier a high gain and the circuit starts to
oscillate.

47
 VR2 50k S20-+9 V
On/off
R1 Tr1
56k CI I 2N38I9
100 pf g
R3
12 k R7
100 k CI3
VR1a 33 Atf
10 k lin. CA3130
1== C1 R4
"Pm100.L.f 4-
1k
R6 VR3
1k 5k Out
Ito.

Sib 02
Slo IIC 711 10C/212f ==.1.
" range 0A91
C2
(5IC4 C611 :
R2 ifI s VRlb
cif 10 k D1
56k
1c6 lin. 0A91 Ma
00/1.1
C4 and C7 = 2 2p.f C5 and C8 = 220 of ye
FIG.25 C6 and C9= 22 of C3 and CIO = 2.2 of
The output of the oscillator is fed to a rectifier network via R6 and
C12. The positive output pulses of DI and D2 are fed to the gate of Trl
where they have the effect of decreasing its reverse bias and, therefore,
also the gain of the amplifier. The greater the amplitude of the
oscillations, the greater the decrease in the amplifiers gain. This circuit
action thus stabilises the gain of the circuit at the correct level. VR2
enables the circuit to be adjusted so that the A.G.C. action provides
optium results.

To enable VR2 to be adjusted the unit must be coupled to a crystal

earpiece or an amplifier and speaker combination. Switch the unit to
range 2 and set VRI for maximum frequency. With VR2 set at or
towards either extreme, the output note of the unit will sound rather
harsh. Somewhere towards the centre of its adjustment range it should
be possible to find a range of settings that give a very pure sounding
note. VR2 is set at the centre of this range of settings.

An alternative method is to connect the unit to an A.C. millivoltmeter

or a multimeter that has a low A.C. voltage range. VR2 is then adjusted
to produce an output level of 500mV. R.M.S.

Calibration

It is usual to calibrate an audio generator in terms of output frequency,

and it is a simple matter to mark a suitable dial around the control knob
of VRI. If a calibrated audio generator can beborrowed, it is possible
to calibrate these units against this. This can either be done using
oscilloscope techniques (if a suitable scope is available), or it can be
done using an aural technique. The aural technique is the one most
constructors will have to use, and this is really very simple.

The output of each generator must be connected to an earpiece, or

something of this nature, that enables the output notes of the
generators to be heard. The calibrated generator is then set to, say,
100HZ, and the other generator is then adjusted to produce the same
note. It is then operating at 100HZ and its dial can be marked
accordingly at the appropriate point. The same procedure is then used
to calibrate the dial at other points, until a fully calibrated dial is
produced.

If a suitable signal generator is not available, an alternative is to use a

musical instrument and a piano scale frequency chart to provide the
calibration frequencies.

Sine To Squarewave Converter

For some audio tests a squarewave rather than a sinewave is required.

Many signal generators are therefore designed to provide both types of
output. The usual way of achieving this is to use a sinewave generator

49
to produce the sine output, and then use this to drive a squaring circuit
to provide a square output.

A suitable squaring circuit for use with the sinewave generators just
described is shown in Figure 26. This is also suitable for use with any
other sinewave generator having an output amplitude in the range
100mV. to 3V R.M.S.

50
 The CA3130 is used as a non -inverting amplifier with a voltage gain of
about 1000 times. Obviously this will not produce an output of 1000V.
from an input of 1 V., but will clip the signarat the output to produce a
squarcwave of reasonable quality.

The output of the I.C. will have a peak to peak voltage swing of about
9V., which is more than is normally required. R6. DI, and D2 are used to
clip the output of the I.C. at about 1 V. peak to peak. Apart from
decreasing the output, this also improves the output waveform slightly.

The.unit is suitable for use with input frequencies from a few HZ to a

few tens of KHZ. Outside these limits the output waveform will greatly
deteriorate.

Squarewave Generator

If separate sine and squarewave generators arc preferred, or only a square -

wave generator is required, the circuit shown in Figure 27 can be used.
This has a frequency coverage of 5HZ to 50kHZ in four ranges. There
coverage of each range is as follows:- Range 1, 5 to 50HZ: Range 2,
50HZ to 500HZ; Range 3, 500HZ to 5kHZ; Range 4, 5 to 50kHZ.

Here, once again, the CA3130 is used as a high gain non -inverting
amplifier. Positive feedback is provided between the output and non -
inverting input of the I.C. by VR1 and whichever of the set of four
capacitors is switched into circuit by SI. VRI varies the time constant
of the feedback network, and is the frequency control. SI is the range
switch, with a different feedback capacitor being used for each range.
As in the case of the previous circuit, a simple clipping circuit is included
at the output to reduce the output to about I V. peak to peak, and to
provide an improved waveform.

Low Current P.S.U.

Often in electronics it is necessary to power a piece of equipment from

a well stabilised supply. Whether the equipment is battery powered or
uses a mains power pack, a high quality voltage regulator circuit is
needed. The circuit shown in Figure 28 can be used to provide a well
regulated output of between about 4 volts and 9 volts. It is only
intended for low output current applications, and the maximum output
current that should be draw from a CA3130 is 20mA. The input
voltage should be at least one volt higher than the required output
voltage, and the input potential should never be in excess of 16 volts.

The circuit operates in the following manner. Assume that the slider
of VRI is at the top of its track, the I.C. then has 100% negative feed-
back, and the output voltage will be equal to that at the non -inverting
input of the device, or about 3.9V. in other words.

51
 pf
C311470
of 3 L4 S
C4114.7 range
--
C5I147nf
C6 470 nf
H

</o--
5
+9 V
On/off

fi Out
C7 R3
ci 680 SZ
100/.0 15 i.Lf

R1 E D2
10k 1N4002 1N4002
C2
T470 of ye
FIG. 27
If the slider of VR1 is taken down towards the bottom of its track.
about half the output voltage will appear at the inverting input of the
I.C. The circuit will try to maintain the two inputs of the I.C. at the
same potential, and so the output will go to about double the voltage
at the non -inverting input, or about 8 volts in actual fact. With the
slider of VR I at the very bottom of its track, a little over 9 volts is
required at the output to maintain the balance of the two inputs.

Thus VR I can be used to vary the output voltage over a range of about
3.9 to 9 volts.

If for some reason the output voltage of the I.C. should fall, because of
increased loading on the output for example, the inputs will be un-
balanced with the non -inverting input being higher in potential than the
inverting one. This causes the output to go more positive in order to
restore the balance of the inputs, and in doing so it returns the output
potential to its original leveL The output voltage of the circuit is thus
very well stabilised, and any significant variations in the output voltage
are due to the limitations of the zener reference voltage, and not those
of the CA3130.

+ ye

R1 C3
5.6 k 100 pf

CA3130 +ye
In
100p.f

Out
VR1 50 k
lin
D151E
= C2 R2
3.9 V 47 k
-ve-- - ye

FIG. 28

53
High Current Version

It is a simple matter to modify this circuit to provide a higher output

current, and all that is needed is an emitter follower buffer stage at the
output. The circuit diagram of the high current version of the regulator
is shown in Figure 29. This is capable of handling output currents of up
to about 500mA.

The circuit operates in exactly the same manner as the original circuit.
The feedback loop h connected in the emitter circuit of Trl rather than
in the output circuit of the I.C., as in this way the feedback com-
pensates for any variations in the voltage dropped across Trl. This gives
improved regulation over the alternative method.

In both these regulator circuits, VR1 can be a preset resistor if the unit
is only going to be used to supply a single output voltage.

Trl must be fitted with an adequate heatsink as otherwise it will over-

heat and be destroyed. An area of about 200 sq. c.m. of 16 s.w.g.
aluminium should be sufficient provided the unit is not used beyond
its specified maximum limits.

54
Continuity Tester

Although a continuity tester is one of the most simple items of test

gear, it is nevertheless of the most useful to have around the workshop.
This unit consists of a simple audio oscillator which feeds a loudspeaker.
The two test prods are connected in the supply lines, and when they are
short circuited, or connected together through a fairly low impedance,
power is applied to the circuit and an audio tone is produced.

This is more convenient than using the common alternative of a multi -

meter switched to an ohms range. Continuity testing with devices of this
nature, where there is a visual indication of continuity, is often incon-
venient as it is necessary to take ones eyes off the test prods in order to
ascertain whether or not there is continuity. This circuit provides an
audible indication, and there is therefore no need to remove ones
attention from the test prods.
The circuit diagram of the unit appears in Figure 30. This consists of a
D.C. amplifier which directly drives a high impedance loudspeaker.
The speaker must have an impedance of 75 or 80 ohms if the units is to
function well. Positive feedback is needed in order to make the circuit
oscillate, and this is provided by C3.

The output across the speaker is a rapid stream of brief pulses, and
this produces a rather rough but clearly noticeable output tone of
about 500HZ in frequency.

+9 V-I.-
Test
prods

C2
C1
82 pf
"1'150 /If 1 C3
nf

CA3130

/L.S
R3 -I 75
R1 560k or
150 k 80
R2
47 k
ye

FIG. 30

55
 Chapter 5
HOUSEHOLD PROJECTS

Metronome

A conventional metronome uses a purely mechanical mechanism to

produce a series of clicks at regular intervals. It is quite easy to simulate
this electronically, and the simple circuit shown in Figure 31 performs
this task.

This circuit is based on the continuity tester circuit just described.

However, the circuit values have been adjusted to provide a much
slower rate of oscillation, and by enabling the time constant of the
feedback circuitry to be varied, the oscillation frequency is made
variable. VR1 can be adjusted to produce any beat rate from about
50 beats per minute to over 200 beats per minute.

In this particular application the output drive of the CA3130 is not

sufficient to produce an adequate volume from the speaker without
some additional amplification at the output. An emitter follower buffer
stage has therefore been included at the output, and this uses only two
components (Trl and R4).

57
It is necessary to mark a dial around the control knob of VR1 so that
the unit can be quickly set to any desired beat rate. This is quite easily
done as the relatively low frequency range of the unit means that it is
quite possible to count the number of pulses produced per minute.
It will be quicker if one counts the number of pulses emitted during a
fifteen second period, and then multiplies this by four to find the
number produced per minute.

Rain Alarm

It is quite a well known fact that pure water is a very poor conductor,
and it would probably be more accurate to call it an insulator.
Fortunately, rain drops do not consist of pure water, and contain
relatively high levels of impurities which are picked up from the
atmosphere. These dissolve in the rain drops to produce very weak
solutions which have fairly low resistances.

The circuit of a simple rain alarm using a CA3130 is shown in Figure 32.
This consists of three basic parts, the sensor, an electronic switch, and
an audio alarm circuit.

There is more than one way of arranging a suitable sensor, but

probably the most simple method is to use a piece of stripboard.
0.1 in. matrix is best for this purpose as it has the most strips for any
given area. A piece having 24 strips by 50 holes should be adequate.
1 to 24, all the even numbered strips are
connected together by link wires on the non-coppered side of the
board. All the odd numbered strips are then similarly connected
together. One set of strips then connects to the positive supply line of
the rain alarm circuit, and the other connects to R6.

The sensor is positioned at any convenient spot outside the house where
it is not shielded from rainfall. It is connected to the rest of the circuit
via twin insulated cable, and this cable can be several yards long if
necessary. The sensor is positioned copper side up so that any raindrops
that fall on it form an electrical bridge between two adjacent strips.

With no raindrops on the sensor, Trl is cut off and only minute
leakage currents will flow in the circuit. This is very important as it
ensures that the battery has a very long life, and is not run down even
when the alarm is not sounding.

When water is present on the sensor, a base current is supplied to the

unit through R6 and the senor. R6 is a current limiting resistor, and is
needed to ensure that Trl does not pass an excessive base current.
Trl is used as the electronic switch, and when it is biased into con-
duction it supplies power to a simple audio oscillator utilising a
CA3130 I.C. This causes an audio tone to be emitted from the unit
which is, of course, situated inside the house where it will alert the
user.

58
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Light Switches

Switches that are operated automatically by changes in light intensity

are among the most useful and popular of electronic projects. They can
be used as the basis of many gadgets, such as porch lights that auto-
matically turn on at night, and off at daybreak. Burglar alarm systems
can also incorporate this type of switch. They can also be used in
applications outside the home, such as in automatic parking lights on cars.

59
When used as a comparator, an operational amplifier makes an ideal
basis for a photo sensitive switch. The circuit diagram of a simple
photo switch incorporating a CA3130 I.C. is shown in Figure 33. This
is designed to close the relay contacts when the light falling on the
photocell drops below a certain preset level.

VR I is adjusted so that under normal conditions there is a higher

voltage at the inverting input than there is at the non -inverting input.
This causes the output of the I.C. to be normally low, with Trl cut off
and no significant current flowing through the relay coil.

If the level of light falling upon PCC1 should now drop for some
reason, the resistance of PCCI will increase and the voltage at the
inverting input will fall. If it falls below the voltage at the non -inverting
input, the output of the I.C. will swing high and will turn Trl hard
on. This will cause the relay to be activated.

60
When the light level on PCC1 returns to normal, the relay will turn off
once again. By adjusting VR1, this circuit can be adjusted to switch over
at virtually any light intensity one desires.

If the relay has change over contacts, it can be connected so that it

either switches the ancillary equipment on when the light level falls
below the threshold level, or so that it switches it on when the light
level rises above the threshold level. If the relay only has make contacts,
it can only be used to perform the former.
The circuit can be modified very easily to enable a relay having only
make contacts to turn the ancillary equipment on when the light
intensity rises above the threshold level. The modified circuit is shown
in Figure 34.

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61
All that has been done here is that the inputs of the I.C. have been
swopped over. Now, under normal conditions VR1 is adjusted so that
the voltage at the inverting input is more than that at the non -inverting
input, just as before. However, when the light intensity on the photo
conductive cell increases, the voltage at the non -inverting input increases,
and the output of the I.C. goes high. This operates the relay, and also
the ancillary equipment. This circuit thus operates in the reverse
manner to that of the previous design.

Latching Circuits

For certain applications a photo switch that latches is required. This

type of switch differs from those just covered in that once the relay
comes on, it remains on, regardless of any further changes in the light
intensity falling on the photocell.

Circuits such as this can be used in burglar alarms, for example. A photo
cell can be positioned so that when light from an intruders torch falls
upon it, the circuit operates an alarm circuit. Obviously this arrangement
is of little use if the alarm only sounds while the light from the intruders
torch is actually on the photocell. What is required is a circuit where
once triggered, the alarm remains on until it is turned off.

A latching version of the circuit of Figure 33 appears in Figure 35.

This works in much the same manner as the original circuit, except that
when the output of the I.C. goes high, an additional transistor (Tr1)
is turned on by the current flowing from the output of the I.C. and
through current limiting resistor R2. Trl is turned hard on, and the
voltage at the inverting input becomes almost equal to that of the
negative supply rail. Changes in the resistance of PCC1 will not greatly
affect this voltage, and so the circuit latches in this state until it is
switched off. Upon turning the circuit on, it will function normally
until it is triggered, whereupon it will latch again.

A latching version of the circuit of Figure 34 is shown in Figure 36.

Once again, this operates exactly in the same manner as the original
until the output of the 1.C. goes high. Then Trl is turned on and the
potential at the inverting input of the I.C. falls to virtually zero.

Even when the photo cell is in almost total darkness, the voltage at the
non -inverting input is more than that at the inverting one, and the relay
contacts remain closed.

The relay used in these circuits can be any type having a coil
resistance of 185 ohms or more and an operating voltage of 6 to 9 volts.
The contacts must be chosen to suit the particular application which
the circuits are employed.

It is not very economical to power these circuits from ordinary batteries

as this type of device is normally left turned on for prolonged periods

62
Also, the current consumption is quite high when the relay is closed,
being something like 10 to 30mA., depending upon the type of relay
used. It is therefore advisable to either power these circuits from a mains
supply or rechargeable batteries, whichever is most appropriate to their
application.

The latching circuits can be reset by simply turning the units off, and the
then switching them on again. If a separate reset switch is preferred, this
can be provided by connecting a push to make nun -locking push button
switch between the negative supply rail and the base of Trl. This
modification is suitable for use with either circuit.

co

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45

1coE 0
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CO

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1

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I I-
58
63
 On/off
e, -15.0-- +9-12V
D1 .-fc 185 n, or more
6 -9 V working
PCC1 fr/
C2
ORPI2
82 pf
VR1 11-
50 k R3
lin. 27 k
mim Tr2
1 1
CA3130 BC109
100 of
R2
39 k
-I 1

680 Si, Tr1©

BC109

ye

FIG. 36
Sound Activated Switch

Sound activated switches have a multitude of uses. In the home, the

most obvious use for one is as a baby alarm. They can also be used in
burglar alarm systems. They also find uses in the field of amateur radio
(In VOX, or voice operated switch systems), and can be used to auto-
matically operate a tape recorder, when dictating something for example.

Operational amplifiers can easily achieve the high voltage gains required
in this type of equipment, and can be used as the basis of a very simple
but effective sound activated switch. Figure 37 shows the circuit
diagram of such a unit.

The purpose of the I.C. is to amplify the very low level microphone
signals to bring them up to a level which can be used to operate a
switching transistor. In this design the microphone is actually a
miniature high impedance loudspeaker which is used as a sort of moving
coil microphone. The I.C. is used in the inverting mode and it has a
voltage gain of more than 10,00 times. Even an input signal of less
than a millivolt generates an output of a few volts peak to peak at the
output of the I.C.

The output of the I.C. is fed via C5 to a rectifier and smoothing network
using Dl, D2, and C6. The output of this network is a positive D.C.
bias. Provided a reasonably high sound ]cruel is received at the micro-
phone, this bias will be strong enough to bias Trl virtually into saturation.
This operates the relay which, in turn, switches on the controlled
equipment.

This circuit has hysteresis, which is desirable in most applications. The

hold on time of the circuit with the values specified is about 1 to 2
seconds. If required, this can be altered by changing the value of C6.

In order to obtain good sensitivity and battery economy it is necessary

to use a relayhaving a fairly high coil resistance. This should preferably
be 400 ohms or more. The author used an RS open P.C. relay on the
prototype. This has a coil resistance of 410 ohms and an operating
voltage (nominal) of 6 volts. The relay should not have an operating
voltage of less than 6 volts. If high speed operation is required, a reed
relay should be used.

The prototype is quite sensitive, and talking at normal volume levels

causes the unit to operate even at a distance of several feet. The exact
sensitivity of each unit will vary according to the type and make of
speaker/microphone used, current gain of Trl, and similar parameters.
The sensitivity obtained should always be high enough for the majority
of applications though.

One point must be borne in mind when constructing this equipment.

The relay and the microphone should not be housed in the same case,
and should not even be in close proximity to one another. If they are,

65
 On/off
Ce"...o-- +9 V
03 410 S2 (approx.)
IN4002 6V
RI
56k C4
100 pf
Ti

C5 02
C3 1°1-1-i 0491
R3 9 Trl
C1 1202 1 i-Lf CA3130 0I 01
150 D, BC109C
100 la -f I
Ft 1-e- R4
22 M

C2 um MIC 01a C6
15 /If R2 75 or 80 S2 0A91 100W
56k

ye

FIG. 37
then as the relay turns off, the sound it produces will activate the unit.
After a second or so the unit will turn off again, and the noise generated
by the relay will again activate the unit. The circuit will continue to
oscillate in this manner for as long as power is applied to the circuit.

In most applications there is no need to mount the microphone and

the relay in the same casing anyway. If, for example, the unit is
employed as a baby alarm, the microphone would be mounted in its
own case near the baby with the rest of the unit in a separate case
situated near the user. Screened cable must be used to connect the
microphone to the main unit, and as a low impedance microphone is
used, the cable can be several yards long if necessary.

Some readers may be puzzled about the inclusion of a diode across the
relay coil in this circuit, and in the photo switches described previously.
This is a protection diode which is needed because of the high reverse
voltage that is developed across the relay coil when the supply is
switched off. This voltage is generated as the magnetic lines of force
around the solenoid quickly decay and cut through the turns on the
coil. The voltage generated can be high enough to damage any of the
semiconductor devices of the circuit, even though it is at a high
impedance.

D3 acts as a sort of low voltage zener diode, and it limits this voltage
to only about 0.5V. in peak amplitude. There is no need to add any
form of current limiting circuit in series with D3, as this current is
limited to a safe level by its high source impedance.

Do not be tempted to omit D3, as this would almost certainly turn out
to be a false economy.

Latching Version

This is another example of a device that must be made to latch if it is

to be usable in certain application, such as burglar systems. This is
quite simple to achieve, and the modified circuit diagram for this
purpose appears in Figure 38.

This circuit operates in exactly the same way as the original until the
relay is energised. When this happens, Tr2 is turned on by the base
current flowing via R5. This causes a current to flow through the
emitter and collector of Tr2, through R6, and into the base of Tr I.
Trl is held on by this current, and even if no further sound is received
by the microphone, it will remain on.

Trl and Tr2 are, in fact, operating as a sort of thyristor.

67
 R5
39 k
On /off
0 cf....0-- +9 V
410 12 (approx.)
DIN AIL
R1 4002 6V
56k C4
Tr2
100 pf
2N3702
C1
t C5 D2 R6
t00 p.f C3 10 p.f 0A91 18 k
GC R3 Tr1
CA3130
n, BC109C
lff 150 R4
22M
cf=3
C2 M D1 A
15 p -f R2 80 AL
75 orIC 0A91 peset
56k
C6
14.

ye
Push to make
FIG. 38 (non locking)
Christmas Tree Lights Flasher

The usual way of getting the lights on a Christmas tree to flash on and
off is to use a string of series connected bulbs, with one of these being
of the bi-metal strip flashing type. When this bulb is on , it completes
the whole circuit, and all the bulbs come on. When it is off, it breaks
the series circuit, and all the bulbs go off.

This arrangement is very simple and works quite well, but it does have
the slight drawback that an ordinary flashing bulb is rather erratic in
operation, and does not usually give a very regular flash rate.

The circuit of Figure 39 can be used to operate the lights, and this will
flash them on for a period of about 1 second with a similar time elapsing
between flashes.

A squarewave generator utilising a CA3130 I.C. forms the basis of the

circuit. Normally when a slow rate of oscillation is required, as it is here,
a high value of timing capacitor must be used. This is not the case here,
however, as the high input impedance of the 1.C. enables a high value
of timing resistor (R4) to be used, and so a relatively low timing
capacitance (C3) ran be used.

The output of the I.C. drives a common emitter amplifier via the current
limiting resistor, R6. When the output of the I.C. goes high, Trt is turned
on and the relay is energised. When the output of the I.C. is low, Trl
is cut off and the relay receives no significant current. The relay contacts
are used to control the lights, and it is essential to check that these have
a high enough rating for the voltages and currents involved. It is
advisable to have contacts that are rated well in excess of the current
drawn by the lamps, as when power is first applied to a lamp a heavy
surge current flows. This is because the cold resistance of a lamp is far
lower than its normal hot working resistance. With the lamps being
constantly turned on and off there is a constant string of current surges
for the contacts to handle.

One might think that the relay would be short lived in this circuit
anyway, as with such rapid switching it would soon wear out. This is not
the case though, as any modern relay of reasonably good quality is
guaranteed to last for several hundred thousand operations.

The unit can be battery operated, but since ti is controlling a mains

load it would be more logical to construct a mains power supply for it.

Simple Organ

The field of electronic musical instrument and effects is one which has
increased greatly in popularity over the past few years, and it must now
rate as one of the most popular branches of electronics. Electronic
musical instruments need not be complicated, and a simple electronic

69
organ can be built using very few components indeed. A simple circuit
of this type using a CA3130 I.C. as a tone generator is shown in
Figure 40.

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0b O z

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70
 -o1O- +9 V
On/off
Rt C2
56k R5 100 pf
R3 560 k *
120 k
1
R4 L.S.
18 k 75 or 80 .C2
''...\..,....., I-
CASI60 > I
C3
C1
100 /If Stylus
i 10 of

VR1
/ 50 k Trl
R2 A11100 k log. BC109
/,/.
_56k presets R6
10 M

r 4/1 etc. ye

FIG 40
 Here the CA3130 is used once again as a squareWave generator, with
the output of the I.C. being used to drive a common emitter transistor
amplifier. R4 is a current limiting resistor and VR1 is the volume control.
This is a very economical arrangement as D.C. coupling is used, and a
D.C. blocking capacitor and bias resistor for Trl are therefore un-
necessary.

A high impedance loudspeaker is used as the collector load for Trl,

and quite a high volume level (for such a simple instrument) is available.
The circuit is most efficient if a high impedance speaker is used, but it
will work using speakers with impedances as low as 15 ohms. When
using a low impedance speaker R4 should be increased in value to 39k.

A different timing resistor is used for each note, and preset resistors are
used here as it is necessary to be able to adjust each tone for tuning
purposes.

There are many ways of arranging a simple keyboard for the instrument,
but almost certainly the easiest and most practical method is to etch
one along the lines shown in the circuit diagram. The enclosed shaded
areas represent the coppered areas of the P.C.B. A test prod, or anything
similar to this (wander plug, banana plug, etc.) can be used as the
stylus, and the desired note is obtained by placing this on the appropriate
part of the keyboard, so that the necessary circuit is completed and the
circuit oscillates.

R6 ensures that when the stylus is not placed on the keyboard, and the
circuit is not oscillating, the output of the I.C. goes low and Trl is cut
off. This gives a very low quiescent current consumption of only about
lmA. If R6 were to be omitted, the output of the I.C. would go high
under quiescent conditions, and a current of up to about 50mA. would
flow through Trl and the speaker. Apart from giving poor battery
economy, a large standing current would not be very good for the
speaker.

The current consumption of the unit when the tone generator is

oscillating varies from about ImA. to 30mA., depending upon how
well advanced the volume control is. The output stage is a sort of
Class B amplifier, and so the higher the volume level is adjusted, the
greater the current consumption. The circuit thus provides the longest
possible battery life.

The unit can be tuned over a range extending from well below middle
A to the A several octaves above this. By adjusting a preset for a very
low value the unit will in fact oscillate at frequencies at the upper
limit of human hearing. By increasing the value of C3 the unit can be
made to oscillate at frequencies as low as one wishes.

It is therefore possible to obtain a range of several octaves if required,

by using the appropriate number of presets and keyboard positions

72
For most purposes a single or two octave version will be sufficient.
This would have a compass from middle C to the C either one or two
octaves above this. Thirteen 100k presets are needed for a single octave
unit, and twenty five are required for a two octave version. This gives a
chromatic scale.

The unit is easily tuned against a piano, organ, pitch pipes, or virtually
any properly tuned musical instrument. A reasonably musical ear is
required for this, as not everyone will find it possible to tune the notes
on the organ to those produced by the instrument it is being tuned
against. However, most people will find that this is not too difficult
after a little practise.

It should perhaps be pointed out that this instrument is not polyphonic,

and cannot be used to play chords. It can only produce one note at a
time. The tone is quite pleasant though, particularly at the low frequency
end of the compass, and if a reasonably large speaker is used. The
absence of chords also makes the unit very easy for a beginner to play.

73
 Chapter 6
MISCELLANEOUS PROJECTS

As will probably have become apparent by now, op. amps. in general,

and the CA3130 in particular, are very versatile. They can be used to
perform a number of diverse applications which do not fit into any of
the categories so far covered.

In this chapter a number of interesting circuits of varying types will be

described, all of which are built around a CA3130 device.

Touch Switch

Touch switches have only redently become widespread in use, and they
do have definite advantages over more conventional mechanical switches
in certain applications. However, it is probably their novelty value that
largely accounts for their popularity.

Figure 41 shows the circuit diagram of a simple touch switch utilising a

CA3130 I.C. When the supply is connected, the voltage at the inverting
input is taken to half the supply potential as it is fed from the potential

+9 V
DI 185 sa
1N4001-A- or more
6V
RI
10 k C2
100 pf
R3
10 M
iraTi
10 ki.f
CA3130
BC109C
Touch R4
plates 39 k

flR2
10 k

ye

FIG. 41

75
divider network formed by RI and R2. The non -inverting output is fed
from the output of the I.C. via R3, and it will therefore remain at virtually
earth potential. Thus at switch on the output of the I.C. is low, and Trl
receives no significant base current. Trl is cut off and the relay is
energised.

If a finger is now lightly touched onto the two upper touch plates, the
resistance between these two plates will be something in the order of a
few Meg. ohms, and the voltage at the non -inverting input will go above
that present at the inverting input. This will cause the output of the I.C.
to go high, Trl will turn on, and the relay will be energised.

Even if the finger is now removed from the touch plates, the relay will
remain on. This is because the non -inverting is coupled to the output of
the I.C. by R3, and it will therefore be held at a higher potential than
the inverting input.

In order to set the circuit back in its original state it is necessary to

touch the middle and lower touch plates. The operator's skin resistance
will then bridge these two contacts, and R3 together with this skin
resistance will form a potential divider. The skin resistance will be less
than th4t of R3 and so there will be a lower voltage at the non -inverting
input than there is at the inverting one. The output of the I.C. will go
low and the relay will be de -energised.

The circuit will again latch in this state, as the non -inverting input will
be held low as it is coupled to the output of the I.C. by way of R3.
There circuit can, of course, be set to the on state once again by
touching the upper touch contacts.
There must be many possible uses for this circuit, and it could, for
example, be used as a touch operated wavechange switch in a radio set.
If the unit is to be used in a simple on/off application, it might be
possible to remove DI and the relay, and connect the cohtrolled equip-
ment in the collector circuit of Trl instead. The controlled equipment
should have a current consumption of 50mA. or less and need a supply
voltage of 9 volts. The current consumption of the unit in the off state
is about 250 micro -amps. The current consumption when it is in the on
state is dependant upon the coil resistance of the relay used

A suitable touch plate can be etched using p.c.b. techniques. An

alternative is to use stripboard in a similar manner to the way it is used
to make a sensor for the Rain Alarm project. A little ingenuity is
required here.

The sensitivity of the circuit is controlled by the value given to R3.

If necessary, the sensitivity can be increased by increasing the value of
R3. Resistors having values of more than 10Meg. are not readily
available, and it will be necessary to make up any increased value by
adding two or more resistors in series.

76
Flashing Pilot Light

A problem with most small battery operated signal generators and

similar pieces of equipment is that it is very easy to inadvertently
leave them on. Such units rarely incorporate a pilot light as these
consume a relatively high current. Even light emitting diodes need
about 10 to 20mA. to make them glow brightly. Some types need
even more than this.

It is possible to reduce the current consumed by a L.E.D. pilot

lamp by pulsing it. If it is pulsed on for say, 1/3 of a second at one
second intervals, the current consumption when averaged out will be
only about one third of the value needed to keep the L.E.D. on
all the time. Furthermore, a flashing pilot light is more noticeable
than a conventional one anyway.

When the output of a CA3130 I.C. is in the low state it has a

current consumption of only about 200 to 300 micro -amps. (from a
9V. supply), and so it makes an ideal basis for this type of circuit.
The circuit diagram of a flashing pilot light using a CA3130 I.C. is
shown in Figure 42.

+9 V

C1
100 pf
mim C2
10 nf

CA3I30
um C3
R4 "'RIO nf

R3 1k
560 k
[ R1
IOM
Z
R2 D1
47 k TIL209
ye

FIG. 42

77
This circuit is very similar to those of the Continuity Tester and
Metronome which appear in Figures 30 and 31 respectively, in this
book. It is a non -inverting, D.C. amplifier with positive feedback
between its output and input. It briefly switches the L.E.D. on at
approximately one second intervals. The average current consumption
of the unit is only about 2.5mA.

Usually this type of circuit employs large electrolytic capacitors as a

),sigh value timing capacitor is needed to provide the low oscillation
frequency. The high input impedance of the CA3130 enables the low
oscillation frequency to be obtained using a timing capacitance of only
lOnf. This unit is therefore easily miniaturised.

Analogue Stopclock

This simple circuit acts as a two range analogue stopclock have f.s.d.
values of 10 and 100 seconds. The circuit diagram of this device
appears in Figure 43.

The CA3130 is used as a non -inverting unity gain buffer amplifier, and
its output feeds a voltmeter circuit using one of the preset resistors,
R4 and R5, and the 100 micro -amp. meter. The voltmeter reads the
voltage developed across whichever of the two timing capacitors (Cl of
C2) is connected into circuit by Sla.

Trl, RI, R2, and D1 form a simple constant current generator circuit.
When PB1 is closed, a constant current will be fed to Cl, and in con-
sequence the voltage across it will rise in a linear fashion. In practice the
unit is adjusted so that PB1 needs to be closed for 10 seconds in order
for the voltage across Cl to reach the level that produces f.s.d. of the
meter.

If PB1 is only closed for 4 seconds, the meter will read 40% of f.s.d.,
if it is closed for 5 seconds, the meter will read 50% of f.s.d. The unit
thus acts as a simple stopclock.

When C2 is switched into circuit it will take ten times longer for f.s.d.
of the meter to be achieved, as C2 has ten times the capacity of Cl.
The unit thus functions as a 0-10 sec. stopclock with Cl in circuit,
and a 0-100 sec. stopclock with C2 switched into circuit.

The values of Cl and C2 are such that these have to be electrolytic

types which have very wide tolerances (often as much as -20% and
+50%). It is therefore necessary to use a different preset resistor for
each range in the meter circuit so that the ranges can be individually
calibrated.

It is essential for the voltmeter section of the circuit to have an

extremely high input impedance as otherwise it would discharge the
timing capacitor when PB1 was released. The CA3130 with its virtually

78
 S2
On/off
+9 V -e#0
R2
D1 22 M
3.9 V R5 C4
C3 50 I
Trl 1 -- 100 p.f
2N3702 82 pf

R4
pB, 50 k Sib
O siort/stoP CA3I30 loofa
R1
56k /
C1
10 p.f
an /0 S1a Range r,
10 s 100 S 6PB2
Reset
C2 cr='
100 fcf
- ye a

FIG 43
infinite input impedance is ideal for this application. Provided the timing
capacitors are good quality types, the meter reading should remain con-
stant for at least a minute after PB1 is released. Any variation in the
reading which does occur is almost certainly due to the deficiency of
the timing capacitor rather than a lack of performance on the part of
the CA3130.

The circuit is reset by operating PB2 which merely discharges the

timing capacitor. It is advisable to push this two or three times as
electrolytic capacitors can tend to regain some of their charge when
only briefly short circuited a single time.

Calibrating the unit is quite simple, and all that is needed for this is an
accurate timepiece which has a seconds hand. Initially adjust both R4
and R5 to insert maximum resistance into circuit. Then switch the
unit on. Using the time piece as a reference standard, depress PB1 for
precisely 10 seconds with Si switched to the 10 second range. Then
adjust R5 for exactly f.s.d. of the meter.

Switch SI to the 100 second range, reset the circuit, and then depress
PB1 for exactly 100 seconds. Then adjust R4 for precisely f.s.d. of the
meter. The unit is then ready for use.

Note that one advantage of this type of stopclock over its more con-
ventional counterpart is that it does not have to be activated manually.
It is possible to use microswitches, acoustic and photo switches, and
other types of switch to automatically operate the circuit.

The working life of PB2 might be increased if a resistor of a few ohms

in value is added in series with it. This will limit the discharge current
of the timing capacitors and prevent sparking occurring at the switch
contacts (and also the damage this could cause).

Over Voltage Protection

An over voltage protection circuit is used to switch off the power to the
circuit it is protecting if the supply rises above a safe level for this circuit.
Op. amps. are ideal for use in this type of circuit when they are used as
comparators. The circuit of such a device which employs a CA3130 I.C.
is shown in Figure 44.

VR1 is adjusted so that at the required threshold voltage there is the

same potential at both inputs. The inverting input is stabilised at a
voltage of about 0.65V. by Trl, which is used as an amplified diode.

When the supply voltage is at or below the threshold voltage, the output
of the I.C. will be low, and Tr2 will be cut off. The relay will not
therefore be energised, and its normally closed contacts will carry the
positive supply rail through to the protected circuit.

80
If the supply rises above the threshold level, the voltage at the non -
inverting input will go above that present at the inverting input. The
output of the I.C. will go high, Trl will turn on and energise the relay,
and the relays contacts will then break the supply line to the protected
equipment.

In the event that the supply returns to a safe level again, the circuit will
return to its original state and the supply will once again be connected
to the protected equipment

0 CC c0
0
2
N mina
N sir

M
cr

Ft0 KO
AND

LL

81
The circuit can be adjusted to operate at a threshold voltage of anything
from 5 to 16 volts, which is the operating voltage range of the I.C. If it
is possible that the input voltage could rise above 16V., this circuit is
unsuitable for that application unless some form of voltage limiting is
used to protect this circuit (which is not a very practical proposition).
The relay operating voltage should be chosen to suit the range of
voltages that are likely to be encountered when it is on. The voltages
eucounted when it is off are of no consequence in this respect.

Adjusting the circuit is quite simple. Apply a voltage to the circuit

which is equal to the required threshold voltage. Adjust VR I to produce
the lowest possible voltage at its slider which does not cause the relay
to turn off.

Under Voltage Shutdown

There are many types of circuit which incorporate a zener regulated

supply, and where false operation will occur if the stabilised voltage
should fall below its nominal voltage (due to an almost exhausted
battery for instance). Such items of equipment often incorporate some
form of under voltage shutdown, so that if the supply voltage does go
too low, the apparatus ceases to function altogether, rather than
giving misleading results.

It is a simple matter to modify the circuit of Figure 44 to perform this

task, and the modified circuit is shown in Figure 45. All that has been
done here is the inputs to the I.C. have been transposed.

As a result of this, the circuit operates in the opposite manner to the

original. VR1 is adjusted so that the voltage at the inverting input is
equal to the stabilised voltage at the non -inverting one with the supply
voltage at the threshold level, Provided the voltage stays above the
threshold level, the output of the I.C. stays low and the relay is not
energised. The normally closed relay contacts conduct the positive
supply through to the main circuitry.

If the supply voltage goes below the threshold level, the output of the
I.C. will go high, and the relay will be epergised. Its contacts will then
break the positive supply line to the main equipment.

This circuit is set up in much the same way as the circuit of Figure 44.
Apply a supply voltage which is equal to the required threshold voltage,
and then adjust VR1 for the highest voltage at its slider that does not
cause the relay to turn off.

Voltage Indicators
An alternative to having a circuit which automatically cuts off the
supply when it goes above or below a certain limit, is to use one that

82
 On/off RLA1
+ve -cro c'o-- +ye
D1
R1 IN4001 185 or more
100 k R3 1RLA
15 k
C2
82 pf
VR1
k lin.
R2
[150 18 k
CO Ar Tr2
In CA3I30 MINN Out
mem C1
11111 BC109
100 'If

Tr1
BC109

ve ye

FIG. 45
The circuit diagram of an over voltage indicator is shown in Figure 46.
This works in exactly the same manner as the circuit of Figure 44,
except the output of the I.C. is used to operate a light emitting diode
indicator instead of a relay circuit.

Figure 47 shows the circuit of an under voltage indicator. These last

two circuits are set up in the same way as their relay operating counter-
parts (except that VR1 is adjusted for the highest/lowest slider voltage
which does not turn the indicator lamp off).

Morse Practise Oscillator

This simple audio oscillator is ideal for morse practise, and it also
demonstrates how an op. amp. can be used in a phase shift oscillator.
Its circuit diagram appears in Figure 48.

A phase shift oscillator requires an amplifier having a voltage gain of

about 30 times, with the input and output in antiphase. The CA3130
is therefore used in the inverting mode. Feedback is provided between
the input and output of the amplifier by the R -C network consisting of
C4, R5, C3, R4, C2, R3. This feedback is not negative though, as each
of the three R -C sections of this network provide a 60 degree phase
shift at a certain frequency. They thus provide an overall 180 degree

84
 +ve

n R1
U100 k R3
15 k C1
82 pf
VR1
B50 k lin.
R2
1k
C2 si's CA3130
100 kr.f

Tr1
k
TILD1209
BC109

ye

FIG. 47

phase shift, which brings the inverting input and the output into phase,
and the circuit thus oscillates at the operating frequency of the phase
shift network. With the specified values the circuit oscillates at
approximately I kliZ.

A phase shift oscillator provides a sinewave output.. and it is therefore a

good basis for a morse practise oscillator, as a morse signal received on a
radio will also have a sinusoidal waveform. The unit can produce quite
a realistic imitation of a real morse signal.

However, as was the case with the Wien bridge oscillators described
earlier, the gain of the amplifier must be well controlled, as otherwise
the circuit will either not oscillate, or will produce a distorted output.
VR I enables the circuit gain to be adjusted to the correct level.

The output of the oscillator is fed to VR2 which is the volume control.
From here the signal is fed to a simple common emitter Class A output
stage using Tr I. This drives a high impedance loudspeaker and a fairly
high maximum volume can be obtained. Headphones of virtually any
type and impedance can be used if preferred.

The morse key is simply inserted in series with the positive supply line
so that the unit is normally off, and is turned on when the key is
depressed. No separate on/off switch is required, since no current is
consumed by the unit until the key is operated.

85
 Key

+ 9 V --(SO

R1 1 VR1 [ R6
390
5.6 k C5 500k
100 pf
R3
8.2 k I ft-g F
C6 R7 C8
100 of 560 k 10 ki.f
C1 imis
C43130
470 nf mo,
C4 J L.S.
C2 C3 10 nf C7
10 nf 100 of 75 or
10 nf VR2 so D.
50 k[
log.
R2 1 R4 R5
5.6 k 1 8.2 k 82k

ye I

FIG. 48
Only one adjustment is necessary before the unit is ready for use, and
that is to set VR1 at the correct point. Start with VR1 adjusted for
maximum resistance and then switch the unit on. A rather rough note
should be produced from the speaker, and adjusting VR1 for decreased
resistance should improve the tone of the output. If it is taken too low
in resistance, oscillation will cease.

Adjust VR1 to the point where it has the lowest resistance that produces
reliable oscillation from the unit.

It is normally advisable to use 5% tolerance components in the phase

shift network of this type of oscillator, but this circuit seems to work
quite well using 10% or even 20% tolerance capacitors. It is merely then
necessary to adjust VR1 for a higher gain in order to obtain reliable
oscillation.

Electronic Heads Or Tails

This circuit shows how it is possible to electronically simulate the

tossing of a coin. The circuit diagram of this device appears in
Figure 49.

Trl and Tr2 form a conventional astable multivibrator which operates

at a frequency of about 200HZ. This type of circuit produces antiphase
squarewave outputs, the outputs being at the collectors of the transistors.

The CA3130 is used as a latch circuit, and this is basically identical in

operation to the touch switch shown in Figure 41 of this book. Thus,
when the supply is initially connected the output of the I.C. will go
low, and the output load will receive no significant current. In this
circuit the load for the I.C. is a light emitting diode indicator and its
current limiting resistor (R8).

When PB1 is depressed, one output of the multivibrator is connected

to the input of the latch. While PB1 is operated the lamp will be rapidly
flashing on and off at a rate of about 200HZ. It comes on when the
non -inverting input is taken above the potential at the inverting input
by the input signal. The lamp is off when the input is in the low state.

Supply that PB1 is nowreleased, and at the moments its contacts

break the circuit the lamp is off. The lamp will remain off as the non -
inverting input will be held in the low state as it is connected to the
output via R7. If the output happened to be in the high state at the
instant PB1's contacts broke the circuit, then it will remain in the high
state with the lamp on. This is because the non -inverting input will
now be held in the high state by being coupled to the output via R7.
It is a matter of chance whether the output happens to be in the high
or low state at the moment and continuity through PB1 is broken, and
there is no way of predicting this. It is not feasible to wait until the

87
 +9V
On/off
81 R2 R4 R5
39 k 82k 82k
383 39 k 56k
C4
82 pf
C2
C1
100 nf
R8
100 nf 1k
00
umi C3 CA3I30
100/2
R7
10 M
R6
j56k i
TILD209
Tr1 T2
6C109 BC109

V0

FIG 49
 lamp is either on or off and then release PB1, as the lamp is flashing at
such a fast rate it appears to be on all the time that PB1 is depressed.

To simulate the tossing of a coin with this unit the high and low output
states are called 'heads' and 'tails' respectively, or vice versa if preferred.
The unit is switched on and P131 is depressed briefly and then released.
If the lamp is on after this it corresponds to 'heads', and if it is off this
corresponds to a 'tails'.

The circuit will not provide precise 50/50 operation as the tolerances
of the components will cause the multivibrator to generate a non -
symmetrical squarewave. If, for instance, the output at Tr2 collector
is high for longer than it is low, more 'heads' outputs will be obtained.
If it is low for longer than it is high, there will be a 'tails' bias in the
circuit.

Provided RI, R4, Cl, and C2 are all close tolerance components (2% or
better), any bias will be insignificant. Alternatively these can be ordinary
5 to 20% tolerance types, with a 100k preset resistor being used for RI.
This preset is then adjusted to produce genuine 50/50 operation. This
latter method is likely to be rather time consuming though, unless al
oscilloscope is available. RI can then be adjusted to produce an output
from the multivibrator which has a 1 to 1 mark space ratio.

In the absence of a suitable oscilloscope it will be necessary to find the

correct setting for R1 by trial and error. Take the unit through 50 or
more operations each time and record the results. RI is then adjusted
slightly to correct any significant bias that becomes apparent.
Eventually correct operation will be obtained.

Note that it is not possible for the I.C. to finish in an intermediate

state, and the output will always go fully positive or negative when
PB1 is released, even if this occurs while the multivibrator is changing
state. If the output is fractionally above the level at the inverting input
at the instant PB1 is opened, the non -inverting input will be taken
above the level at the inverting input due to the presence of R7, and the
output will go fully positive. If the output is slightly negative of the
inverting input, then it will swing fully negative.

White Noise Generator

White noise is a sound that contains all audio frequencies, and an

example of white noise is the background hiss that is present to some
degree at the output of all amplifiers. White noise generators can be
used as the basis of many sound effects when used in conjunction with
envelope shapers and frequency filters. The circuit diagram of a white
noise generator using a CA3130 is shown in Figure 50.

As mentioned above, all amplifiers generate noise, and the CA3130 is

no exception to this rule. Normally the noise level it produces is quite

89
small as it is reduced to an insignificant level by the use of negative
feedback. In this circuit the I.C. is used with a high voltage gain so that
there is less feedback and more noise. The level of noise at the output
is still rather low, and a high gain common emitter amplifier is used to
boost this to a reasonable level. This stage is built around Tr I.

The unit has a wideband output of about 250mV. R.M.S.

90
The circuit has a very high overall gain, and a sensible layout should be
used in order to avoid instability due to stray feedback.

Current Limiter

Most bench power supplies seem to incorporate a current limiting

circuit these days. This is more convenient than using a fuse, as if an
overload occurs the limiter circuit prevents the output current from
reaching an unsafe level. When the overload is removed from the output
of the P.S.U., the unit functions quite normally. Thus the expense and
bother of replacing fuses is eliminated

This type of circuit also has another important advantage over using a
conventional fuse. The speed at which even a fast bbw fuse operates is
low in comparison to an electronic cutout or limiter. Semiconductor
devices can be destroyed by very brief current surges, and so an electronic
protection circuit provides a worthwhile increase in protection efficiency.

The circuit diagram of a current limiter using a CA3130 I.C. is shown

in Figure 51. RI and Trl form a voltage stabilising circuit with an output
of approximately 0.65V. R2 and R3 are a simple potential divider
which are fed from this regulated voltage, and the output ofthis network
is fed to the non -inverting input of the I.C. About 100mV. is fed to
this input.

When low output currents are drawn from the circuit only a very low
voltage is developed across RX, and the inverting input is below the
potential at the non -inverting input. The output of the I.C. is therefore
in the high state, with Tr2 turned hard on.

If the output current is steadily increased, a point will be reached where

the voltage across RX is more than the voltage at the non -inverting input.
This will cause the output of the I.C. to swing slightly negative in order
to turn Tr2 off to some degree, and so reduce the output current.
Even if the output is short circuited, the output current will not rise
above the threshold level. The negative feedback action of the circuit
will always result in the voltage across RX being limited to no more
than that present at the non -inverting input. As the voltage across RX
is limited to a certain level, the output current that flows through it
must also be limited.

This circuit has a couple of advantages over the more usual ones that
are used. Firstly, in any current limiting circuit there is a voltage drop
between the input and output, even on outputs which are below the
threshold current. This is normally a drop of something like 0.65V.
In this circuit the voltage drop is only typically something in the order
of 0.15V. This means that less heat is generated in the series resistor
(RX) and a greater maximum output voltage is available.

91
 -000 + cc

cm

Cl0 ccti

co "P
A
win

MY
AL
C eD
CC

a)

The second advantage is that with this circuit there is not output
voltage drop when the unit is passing output currents a little below the
threshold level. The output current threshold is so well defined that it
is not really possible to significantly improve upon the circuit in this
respect.

No value is shown for RX, and the value of this must be chosen to suit
the particular output threshold current required. The output current
reaches its maximum level when 100mV. is developed across RX. Thus
if it has a value of 10 ohms the output current will be 10mA., if it is
100 ohms the output threshold will be lmA. The equation for
calculating the value of RX is:-
RX = 0.1 divided by the threshold current in amps.

92
Although this unit has been described as for use in bench power supplies,
it can also be used in other equipment, such as in the supply ines of an
audio amplifier so that it provides output overload protection.

High Current Version

The unit as described above is only suitable for use at relatively modest
output currents. The circuit can operate at any input voltage of
between 5 and 16 volts, and the maximum output current that can be
safely handled is dependant upon the input voltage. This is about 20mA.
at 16 volts and about 60mA. at 5 volts.

It is a simple matter to modify the circuit to operate safely at higher

currents, and all that is required is to change Tr2 to a 2N3504 power
transistor, and reduce R4 to 220 ohms. The unit can then operate
properly at currents up to about 500mA. regardless of the input
voltage, but Tr2 must be given adequate heatsinking.

Over Cunent Indicator

Another variation on the current limiter is the over current indicator

circuit which appears in Figure 52. This operates in much the same way
as the original circuit with the output of the I.C. normally high. This
causes the L.E.D. indicator in the output circuit of the I.C. to be off.

If an excessive current is drawn from the unit the voltage at the

inverting input will go above that at the non -inverting input. The output
of the I.C. will then swing negative and DI will come on, indicating
that an excessive output current is being drawn. When the overload is
removed the circuit returns to normal with the L.E.D. switching off.

The value of RX is calculated in exactly the same way as it was for the
previous circuit.

93
A
 COMPONENTS

In many of the circuits described in this book the CA3130 is not the
only semiconductor device which is employed. Figure 53 shows die
leadout diagrams for the other semiconductors used in the circuits in
this book, including the diodes and rectifiers.

d b
'C 9 0
)A
TIL209
2N3819 2N3702

0A91, 1N4002, 1N4001

8C107, BC109
C (Metal case)
b

ACI87, ACI88 2N3054

FIG. 53

There are many alternatives to most of these additional semiconduc-

tors, but in general the types specified are less expensive and more
readily available than these alternatives. There is therefore little point
in using devices other than those specified unless a suitable component
is already to hand.

Unless otherwise noted, all the resistors are ordinary miniature 114 or
1/3 watt types having the usual tolerances (5% up to 1 Meg., and 10%
above 1 Meg.). All potentiometers are carbon types and the circuit
diagrams specify whether a log. or a lin. type is required.

All capacitors must be of good quality, and ceramic plate, silvered mica,

95
or polystyrene types can be used for values up to l Onf. For l Onf and
above, apart from electrolytic types, any good quality plastic foil
(polyester, polycarbonate, etc.) components can be used.

Electrolytic capacitors can be any good quality type, and if in doubt

about a suitable voltage rating for any of these, use one having a
working voltage greater than the supply potential used.

A couple of circuits use trimmer capacitors (the `M.W. Radio' and the
'Crystal Calibrator'), and at the frequencies involved in these virtually
any trimmer of around the specified value should perform satisfactorily.

96
Please note overleaf is a list of other titles that are available in our
range of Radio and Electronic Books.
These should be available from all good Booksellers, Radio Com-
ponent Dealers and Mail Order Companies.
However, should you experience difficulty in obtaining any title
in your area, then please write directly to the publisher enclosing
payment to cover the cost of the book plus adequate postage.

BABANI PRESS & BERNARDS (PUBLISHERS) LTD

THE GRAMPIANS
SHEPHERDS BUSH ROAD
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ENGLAND
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I
 I] 1 No 223

50 Projects
Using IC CA3130

NI The CA3130 is currently one of the more

advanced operational amplifiers that is available
to the home constructor. This means that it is often
capable of a higher level of performance than
many other devices and that it often needs fewer
ancillary components.
In this book Mr. R. A. Penfold has designed and
developed a number of interesting and useful
projects which are divided into five general
categories:
I Audio Projects
II R.F.Projects
III Test Equipment
IV Household Projects
V Miscellaneous Projects
An ideal book for both the beginner and more
advanced enthusiast alike.

Cover design by the Nicholls Design Unit

BERNARDS (Publishers) LTD ISBN 0 900162 65 1

The Grampians
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England 95p