Ultrasonic Testing (UT) - Welds

NDT4

Training and Examination Services

Granta Park, Great Abington
Cambridge CB21 6AL
United Kingdom
Copyright © TWI Ltd
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) – Welds – NDT4

Contents
Section Subject

Preliminary pages
Contents
Standards and Associated Reading
COSHH, H&S, Cautions and Warnings
Introduction to NDT Methods
NDT Certification Schemes

1 Physical Principles
1.1 Frequency
1.2 Wavelength
1.3 Resolution
1.4 Signal amplitude
2 Modes of Sound Energy
2.1 Compressional waves
2.2 Shear waves
2.3 Rayleigh or surface waves
2.4 Lamb waves
3 Generating Ultrasound
3.1 Piezo-electric crystals
3.2 Quartz or silicon oxide (SiO2)
3.3 Lithium sulphide (Li2SO4)
3.4 Barium titanate (BaTiO3)
3.5 Lead metaniobate (PbNb2O6)
3.6 Lead zirconate titanate (PbZrO3, PbTiO3)
3.7 Electromagnetic acoustic transducers
4 Pulse Length and Damping
5 The Sound Beam
5.1 Near zone (or near field)
5.2 Far zone
6 Total Attenuation Loss
6.1 Attenuation due to beam spread
7 Acoustic Impedance
8 Snell's Law
8.1 Critical angle calculation
8.2 Mode conversion
9 Probe Design
9.1 Compression wave probes
9.2 Angle probes
9.3 Twin crystal probes
9.4 Other probe types

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10 Test Techniques
10.1 Pulse echo
10.2 Through-transmission
10.3 Tandem scanning
10.4 Contact scanning
10.5 Gap scanning
10.6 Immersion testing
10.7 Presentation
11 Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
11.1 Principles
11.2 Cathode ray tube
11.3 Pulse generation
11.4 Range control
11.5 Delay
11.6 Calibrated gain/attenuator control
11.7 Reject/suppressor control
11.8 The decibel
12 Calibration and Sensitivity
12.1 Finding the probe index
12.2 Checking the probe angle
12.3 Calibration of shear waves for range
13 Flaw Location
14 Flaw sizing
14.1 The 6dB drop sizing method
14.2 The 20dB drop sizing metho
14.3 Construction of a beam edge plot - 20dB
14.4 Constructing an angle beam plot
14.5 Proving the beam plot
14.6 Modified near zone angle probes
14.7 Horizontal beam plot
15 Sensitivity Setting
15.1 The Institute of Welding (IOW) block
15.2 Distance amplitude correction (DAC) curves
15.3 Flat-bottomed holes (FBH)
15.4 Using noise
15.5 Transfer correction
15.6 The distance gain size (DGS) method
15.7 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
16 Ultrasonic Equipment Checks
16.1 Linearity of time base
16.2 Linearity of equipment gain
16.3 Probe index and beam alignment
16.4 Beam angle
16.5 Sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio
16.6 Pulse duration
16.7 Resolving power (resolution)

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17 Practical Weld Inspection
17.1 Identifying flaws in butt welds
18 Root Flaws
18.1 Excess penetration
18.2 Root concavity
18.3 Root crack
18.4 Lack of root fusion
18.5 Misalignment
19 Face and Body Flaws
19.1 Lack of fusion
19.2 Crack
19.3 Gas pore
19.4 Porosity
19.5 Linear inclusion (slag)
20 Plate Inspection
21 Inspection Procedure
21.1 Information required prior to testing
21.2 Compression scan
21.3 Root scan
21.4 Weld scan
21.5 Transverse scan
21.6 Double V welds
21.7 Pipes
21.8 Reporting
22 Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement
22.1 Measurement modes
22.2 Requirements – test object, instruments, probes and reference blocks
Glossary
Product Technology Notes

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Preface

These notes are provided as training reference material and to meet the study
requirements for examination on the NDT course to which they relate.

They do not form an authoritative document, nor should they be used as a reference for
NDT inspection or used as the basis for decision making on NDT matters. The standards
listed are correct at time of printing and should be consulted for technical matters.

NOTE: These training notes are not subject to amendment after issue.

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Standards and Associated Reading

BS EN ISO 11666 Non-destructive testing of welds – Ultrasonic testing –

Acceptance levels

BS EN 1330-1 Non-destructive testing – Terminology

– Part 1: List of general terms

BS EN 1330-2 Nondestructive testing – Terminology

– Part 2: Terms common to NDT methods

BS EN 1330-4 Non-destructive testing – Terminology

– Part 4: Terms used in ultrasonic testing

BS EN ISO 23279 Non-destructive testing of welds – Ultrasonic testing –

Characterization of indications in welds

BS EN ISO 17640 Non-destructive testing of welds – Ultrasonic testing –

techniques, testing levels and assessment

BS EN ISO-16810 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic Testing.

General principles

BS EN ISO 16811 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic Testing.

Sensitivity and range setting

BS EN ISO 16823 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic Testing.

Transmission technique

BS EN ISO 16826 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic Testing. For discontinuities

perpendicular to the surface

BS EN ISO 16827 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic Testing.

Characterization and sizing of discontinuities

BS EN 10160 UT of steel flat product of thickness equal to or greater than

6mm (reflection method)

BS EN 10228-3 Non-destructive testing of steel forgings. Part 3: Ultrasonic

testing of ferritic or martensitic steel forgings

BS EN 10228-4 Non-destructive testing of steel forgings. Part 4: Ultrasonic

testing of austenitic and austenitic-ferritic stainless steel
forgings

BS EN ISO 17635 Non-destructive examination of welds –

General rules for metallic materials

BS EN ISO 2400 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic Testing

Specification for calibration block No.1

BS EN 12668-1 Non-destructive testing – Characterization and verification of

ultrasonic examination equipment. Part 1: Instruments

BS EN 12668-2 Non-destructive testing – Characterization and verification of

ultrasonic examination equipment. Part 2: Probes

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BS EN 12668-3 Non-destructive testing – Characterization and verification
of ultrasonic examination equipment.
Part 3: Combined equipment

BS EN 12680-1 Founding – Ultrasonic examination.

Part 1: Steel castings for general purposes

BS EN ISO 7963 Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic testing - Specification for

calibration block No. 2.

BS M 36 Ultrasonic testing of special forgings by an immersion technique

using flat bottomed holes as a reference standard

BS M 38 Guide to compilation of instructions and reports for the in-

service non-destructive testing of aerospace products

BS EN 473 Superseded by BS EN ISO 9712

BN EN ISO 9712 Non-destructive testing. Qualification and certification of

personnel

BS EN 4179 Aerospace series. Qualification and approval of personnel for

non-destructive testing.

ISO 18175 Non-destructive testing. Evaluating performance characteristics

of ultrasonic pulse-echo testing systems without the use of
electronic measurement instruments - First Edition.

BS EN 14127 Non-destructive testing. Ultrasonic thickness measurement.

BS EN ISO 6520-1 Welding and allied processes — Classification of geometric

imperfections in metallic materials — Part 1: Fusion welding

Associated Reading
NDT Ed.org – Introduction to ultrasonic testing
http://www.ndt-
ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Ultrasonics/cc_ut_index.htm

Procedures and 'Recommendations for Ultrasonic Testing of Butt Welds'

2nd edition. The Welding Institute

'Ultrasonic Flaw Detection for Technicians' by J C Drury.

Obtainable from the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing

Mathematics and Formulae in NDT. Edited by Dr. R Halmshaw.

Obtainable from the British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing

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COSHH, H&S, Caution and Warnings Relevant to TWI Training & Examination
Services

Introduction

The use of chemicals in NDT is regulated by law under the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (COSHH) Regulations 2005. These regulations require the School to
assess and control the risk of health damage from every kind of substance used in
training. Students are also required by the law to co-operate with the School’s risk
management efforts and to comply with the Control Measures adopted.

Hazard Data Sheets

The School holds Manufacturers Safety Data Sheets for every substance in use. Copies
are readily available for students to read before using any product. The Data Sheets
contain information on:

 Trade name of the product; eg Magnaglo, Ardrox, etc.

 Hazardous ingredients of the products.
 Effect of those ingredients on people’s health.
 Hazard category of the substance; eg irritant, harmful, corrosive or toxic, etc.
 Special precautions for use; eg the correct personal protective equipment (PPE) to
wear.
 Instructions for First Aid.
 Advice on disposal.

EH40 – Occupational Exposure Conditions

 Electrical Hazards include the following

- Electrical shock and burns from contact with live parts
- Injury from exposure to arcing or fire from faulty equipment
- Explosion caused by electrical apparatus (or static electricity)
- Electric shocks can lead to other types of injury such as falling from ladders or
scaffolds.
It is therefore important that workers know how to use electrical equipment and that
it should be properly maintained and switched off when cleaning, adjusting or
moving/transporting.
 As is the case with all items of test equipment and safety equipment, national
regulations in the country of operation must be adhered to.

What is Exposure?

Exposure to a substance is uptake into the body. The exposure routes are:

 Breathing fume, dust, gas or mist.

 Skin contact.
 Injection into the skin.
 Swallowing.

Many thousands of substances are used at work but only about 500 substances have
workplace exposure limits (WELs). Until 2005 it had been normal for HSE to publish a
new edition of EH40, or at least an amendment, each year. However, with increasing use
of the website facilities, the HSE no longer always publishes a revised hardcopy edition
or amendment.

The web-based list applicable from 1 October 2007 can now be found at
http://www.hse.gov.uk/coshh/table1.pdf

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Safety and Environmental Requirements
Ultrasonic testing requires the use of couplant and cleaning fluids, some of which may be
hazardous to health. Extended or repeated contact of such materials with the skin or
mucous membranes shall be avoided.

Testing materials shall be used in accordance with manufacturer’s instructions. National

accident prevention, electrical safety handling of dangerous substances and personal and
environmental protection regulations shall be observed at all times.

Cautions and Warnings

Some of the test samples used on the ultrasonic courses are heavy and become slippery
when covered in couplant. Care should be taken when moving the samples and suitable
PPE, particularly safety boots and barrier cream, should be used.

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Introduction to Non-Destructive Testing
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the ability to examine a material (usually for
discontinuities) without degrading it or permanently altering the article being tested, as
opposed to destructive testing which renders the product virtually useless after testing.

Other advantages of NDT over destructive testing are that every item can be examined
with no adverse consequences, materials can be examined for conditions internally and
at the surface and, most importantly, parts can be examined whilst in service, giving a
good balance between cost effectiveness and quality control. NDT is used in almost
every industry with the majority of applications coming from the aerospace, power
generation, automotive, rail, oil & gas, petrochemical and pipeline markets, safety being
the main priority of these industries. When properly applied, NDT saves money, time,
materials and lives. NDT as it is known today has been developing since around the
1920s, with the methods used today taking shape later and vast technological
advancements being made during the Second World War. The basic principal methods
are:

 Visual testing (VT).

 Penetrant testing (PT).
 Magnetic particle testing (MT).
 Eddy current testing (ET).
 Ultrasonic testing (UT).
 Radiographic testing (RT).

In all NDT methods, the interpretation of results is critical. Much depends on the skill and
experience of the technician, although properly formulated test techniques and
procedures will improve accuracy and consistency.

Visual testing (VT)

With sufficient lighting and access, visual techniques provide simple, rapid methods of
testing whilst also being the least expensive. Close visual testing (CVT) refers to viewing
directly with the eye (with or without magnification) whereas remote visual inspection
(RVI) refers to the use of optical devices such as the boroscope and the fibrescope.

Visual testing begins with the eye; however, the first boroscopes used a hollow tube and
a mirror with a small lamp at the end to investigate the bores of rifles and cannons for
problems and discontinuities. In the 1950s, the lamps were replaced by glass fibre
bundles which were used to transmit the light. These became known as fibrescopes
which were also less rigid, increasing the capabilities of testing. With usage expanding,
many users began to suffer from eye fatigue which led to the development of video
technology. This was first used in the 1970s and relies on electronics to transmit the
images rather than fibreoptics.

Further enhancements to video technology include pan, tilt and zoom lenses, and
mounting cameras to platforms and wheels, all allowing more parts to be tested and
better images for improved inspection. Video devices also allow recordings of inspections
to be taken, meaning permanent records can be kept. This has a number of advantages
such as enabling other inspectors to observe the test as it was performed and allowing
further review and evaluation.

Penetrant testing (PT)

Penetrant testing locates surface-breaking discontinuities by covering the item with a
penetrating liquid, which is drawn into the discontinuity by capillary action. After removal
of excess penetrant, the indication is made visible by application of a developer. Colour
contrast or fluorescent systems may be used.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

Applicable to non-ferromagnetics Only detects defects open to the surface

Able to test large parts with a portable kit Careful surface preparation required

Batch testing Not applicable to porous materials

Applicable to small parts with complex Temperature dependent

geometry

Simple, cheap, easy to interpret Cannot retest indefinitely

Sensitivity Compatibility of chemicals

History of penetrant testing

A very early surface inspection technique involved the rubbing of carbon black on glazed
pottery. The carbon black would settle in surface cracks, rendering them visible. Later, it
became the practice in railway workshops to examine iron and steel components by the
oil and whiting method. In this method, heavy oil, commonly available in railway
workshops, was diluted with kerosene in large tanks so that locomotive parts such as
wheels could be submerged. After removal and careful cleaning, the surface was then
coated with a fine suspension of chalk in alcohol so that a white surface layer was
formed once the alcohol had evaporated. The object was then vibrated by being struck
with a hammer, causing the residual oil in any surface cracks to seep out and stain the
white coating. This method was in use from the latter part of the 19th century to
approximately 1940, when the magnetic particle method was introduced and found to be
more sensitive for ferromagnetic iron and steels.

A different (though related) method was introduced in the 1940s. The surface under
examination was coated with a lacquer, and after drying, the sample was caused to
vibrate by the tap of a hammer. The vibration causes
the brittle lacquer layer to crack generally around
surface defects. The brittle lacquer (stress coat) has
been used primarily to show the distribution of
stresses in a part and not for finding defects.

Many of these early developments were carried out by

Magnaflux in Chicago, IL, USA in association with
Switzer Bros, Cleveland, OH, USA. More effective
penetrating oils containing highly visible (usually red)
dyes were developed by Magnaflux to enhance flaw
detection capability. This method, known as the visible
or colour contrast dye penetrant method, is still used
quite extensively today. In the 1940s, Magnaflux
introduced the Zyglo system of penetrant inspection where fluorescent dyes were added
to the liquid penetrant. These dyes would then fluoresce when exposed to ultraviolet
light (sometimes referred to as black light), rendering indications from cracks and other
surface flaws more readily visible to inspectors. UV lights have become increasingly
portable with hand held UV torches now readily available.

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Magnetic particle testing (MT)
Magnetic particle testing is used to locate surface and slightly sub-surface discontinuities
in ferromagnetic materials by introducing a magnetic flux into the material.

Advantages Disadvantages

Will detect some sub-surface defects Ferromagnetic materials only

Rapid and simple to understand Requirement to test in two directions

Pre-cleaning not as critical as with dye Demagnetisation may be required

penetrant testing (PT)

Will work through thin coatings Oddly-shaped parts difficult to test

Cheap equipment Not suited to batch testing

Direct test method Can damage the component under test

History of magnetic particle testing

The origins of MT can be traced to the 1860s when cannon barrels were tested for
defects by first magnetising the barrel and then running a compass down the length of
the barrel. By monitoring the needle of the compass, defects within the barrel could be
detected.

This form of NDT became much more common after the First World War, in the 1920s,
when William Hoke discovered that flaws in magnetised materials created distortions in
the magnetic field. When a fine ferromagnetic powder was applied to the parts, it was
observed that they built up around the defects, providing a visible indication of their
location.

Magnetic particle testing superseded the oil and chalk method in the 1930s as it proved
far more sensitive to surface breaking flaws. Today it is still preferred to the penetrant
method on ferromagnetic material and much of the equipment being used then is very
similar to that of today, with the only advances coming in the form of fluorescent coating
to increase the visibility of indications and more portable devices being used. In the early
days, battery packs and direct current were the norm and it was some years before
alternating current proved acceptable.

Magnetism
The phenomenon called magnetism is said to have been discovered in the ancient Greek
city of Magnesia, where naturally occurring magnets were found to attract iron.

The use of magnets in navigation goes back to Viking times or maybe earlier, where it
was found that rods of magnetised material, when freely suspended, would always point
in a north-south direction. The end of the rod which pointed towards the North Pole star
became known as the North Pole and consequently the other end became the South
Pole.

Hans Christian Oersted (1777-1851) discovered the connection between electricity and
magnetism, followed by Michael Faraday (1791-1867), whose experiments revealed that
magnetic and electrical energy could be interchanged.

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Historical perspective
Electromagnetic testing – the interaction of magnetic fields with circulating electrical
currents - had its origin in 1831 when Michael Faraday discovered electromagnetic
induction. He induced current flow in a secondary coil by switching a battery on and off.
D E Hughes performed the first recorded eddy current test in 1879. He was able to
distinguish between different metals by noting a change in excitation frequency resulting
from effects of test material resistivity and magnetic permeability.

Introduction to electromagnetic testing

Many electromagnetic induction or eddy current comparators were patented in the period
from 1952. Innumerable examples of comparator tests were reported in the literature
and in patents. Many involved simple comparator coils into which round bars or other
test objects were placed, producing simple changes in the amplitudes of test signals, or
unbalancing simple bridge circuits. In nearly all cases, particularly where ferromagnetic
test materials were involved, no quantitative analyses of test objects dimensions,
properties, or discontinuities were possible with such instruments. Often, difficulties were
encountered in reproducing test results. Some test circuits were adjusted or balanced to
optimise signal differences between a known good test object and a known defective test
object for each group of objects to be tested. Little or no correlation could then be
obtained between various types of specimens, each type having been compared to an
arbitrarily selected specimen of the same specific type.

Developments in electromagnetic induction tests

Rapid technological developments in many fields before and during the Second World
War (1939-45) contributed both to the demand for NDT and to the development of
advanced test methods. Radar and sonar systems allowed the viewing of test data on
the screens of cathode-ray tubes or oscilloscopes. Developments in electronic
instrumentation and magnetic sensors used both for degaussing ships and for actuating
magnetic mines brought a resurgence of activity.

Eddy current testing (ET)

Eddy current testing is based on inducing electrical currents in the material being
inspected and observing the interaction between those currents and the material. Eddy
currents are generated by coils in the test probe and monitored simultaneously by
measuring the coils electrical impedance. As it is an electromagnetic induction process,
direct electrical contact with the sample is not required; however, the material must be
an electrical conductor.

Advantages Disadvantages

Sensitive to surface defects Very susceptible to permeability changes

Can detect through several layers Only on conductive materials

Can detect through surface coatings Will not detect defects parallel to surface

Accurate conductivity measurements Not suitable for large areas and/or complex
geometries

Can be automated Signal interpretation required

Little pre-cleaning required No permanent record (unless automated)

Portability

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History of eddy current testing
The principles of eddy currents arose in 1831 with Faraday’s discovery of
electromagnetic induction; eddy current testing methods have their origins in a period
just after the First World War, when materials with a high magnetic permeability were
being developed for electrical power transformer cores and motor armatures. Eddy
currents are a considerable nuisance in electrical engineering – they dissipate heat and
efforts to reduce their effect led to a discovery that they could be used to detect material
changes and cracks in magnetic materials. The first eddy current testing devices for NDT
were in 1879 by Hughes, who used the principles of eddy currents to conduct
metallurgical sorting tests and the stray flux tube and bar tests.

It was left to Dr Friedrich Förster in the late 1940s to develop the modern day eddy
current testing equipment and formulate the theories which govern their use. The
introduction by Förster of sophisticated, stable, quantitative test equipment and of
practical methods for analysis of quantitative test signals on the complex plane was by
far the most important factor contributing to the rapid development and acceptance of
electromagnetic induction and eddy current testing. Förster is rightly identified as the
father of modern eddy current testing.

By 1950, he had developed a precise theory for many basic types of eddy current tests,
including both absolute and differential or comparator test systems and probe or fork coil
systems used with thin sheets and extended surfaces.

Continued advances in research and development, advanced electronics and digital

equipment have led to eddy currents becoming one of the most versatile of the surface
methods of inspection. Eddy current methods have developed into a wide range of uses
and are recognised as being the forerunner of NDT techniques today. From the mid-
1980s, microprocessor-based eddy current testing instruments were developed which
had many advantages for inspectors. Modern electronics have made instruments more
user friendly, providing reduced noise levels which made certain test applications very
difficult, but also improving methods of signal presentation and recording capabilities.

Applications for microcomputer chips abound, from giving lift-off suppression in simple
crack detection to providing signal processing for immediate analysis of condenser tube
inspection. As with other testing methods, improvements to the equipment have been
made to increase its portability and computer-based systems now allow easy data
manipulation and signal processing. Eddy current testing is now a widely used and
understood inspection method for flaw detection as well as for thickness and conductivity
measurements.

Ultrasonic testing (UT)

Ultrasonic testing measures the time for high frequency (0.5-50MHz) pulses of
ultrasound to travel through the inspection material. If a discontinuity is present, the
ultrasound will return to the probe in a time period other than that expected of a fault-
free specimen.

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 Advantages Disadvantages

Sensitive to cracks at various orientations No permanent record (unless automated)

Portability Not easily applied to complex geometries

and rough surfaces

Safety Unsuited to coarse grained materials

Able to penetrate thick sections Reliant upon defect orientation

Measures depth and through-wall extent

History of ultrasonic testing

In Medieval times craftsmen casting bells for churches were aware that a properly cast
bell rang true when struck and that a bell with flaws would give out a false note. This
principle was used by wheel-tappers inspecting rolling stock on the railways; they struck
wheels with a hammer and listened to the note given out. A loose tyre sounded wrong.

The origin of modern ultrasonic testing (UT) is the discovery by the Curie brothers in
1880 that quartz crystals cut in a certain way produce an electric potential when
subjected to pressure - the piezo-electric effect, from the Greek piedzein (to press or
strike). In 1881 Lippman theorised that the effect might work in reverse, and that quartz
crystals might change shape if an electric current was applied to them. He found that
this was so and experimented further. Crystals of quartz vibrate when alternating
currents are applied to them. Crystal microphones in a modern stereo rely on this
principle.

When the Titanic sank in 1912, the Admiralty tried to find a way of locating icebergs by
sending out sound waves and listening for an echo. They experimented further with
sound to detect submarines during the First World War. Between the wars, marine echo
sounding was developed and in the Second World War ASDIC (Anti-Submarine Detection
Investigation Committee) was extensively used in the Battle of the Atlantic against the
U-boats.

In 1929, the Russian physicist Sokolov experimented with through-transmission

techniques, passing vibrations through metals to find flaws; this work was taken up by
the Germans. In the 1930s the cathode ray tube was developed and miniaturised in the
Second World War to fit small airborne radar sets into aircraft. It made the UT set as we
know it possible. Around 1931 Mulhauser obtained a patent for a system using two
probes to detect flaws in solids and following this Firestone (1940) and Simons (1945)
developed pulsed UT using a pulse-echo technique.

In the years after the Second World War, researchers in Japan began to experiment on
the use of ultrasound for medical diagnostic purposes. Working largely in isolation until
the 1950s, the Japanese developed techniques for the detection of gallstones, breast
masses, and tumours. Japan was also the first country to apply Doppler ultrasound, an
application of ultrasound that detects internal moving objects such as blood coursing
through the heart for cardiovascular investigation.

The first flaw detector was made by Sproule in 1942 while he was working for the
Scottish firm Kelvin & Hughes. Similar work was carried out by Firestone in the USA and
by German physicists. Sproule went on to develop the shear-wave probe.

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Initially UT was limited to testing aircraft, but in the 1950s it was extensively used in the
building of power stations in Britain for examining thick steel components safely and
cheaply. UT was found to have several advantages over radiography in heavy industrial
applications:

 No health hazards were associated with radiography, and a UT technician could work
next to welders and other employees without endangering them of holding up work.
 It was efficient in detecting toe cracks in boilers – a major cause of explosions and
lack of fusion in boiler tubes.
 It could find planar defects, like laminations, which were sometimes missed by
radiography.
 A UT check on a thick component took no more time than a similar check on a thin
component as opposed to long exposure times in radiography.

Over the next twenty years, improvements focused on accurate detection and sizing of
the flaws with limited success, until 1977 when Silk first discovered an accurate
measurement and display of the top and bottom edges of a discontinuity with the time-
of-flight diffraction (TOFD) technique. Advances in computing technology have now
expanded the use of TOFD as real time analyses of results are now available.

It was also during the 1970s that industries focused on reducing the size and weight of
ultrasonic flaw detectors and making them more portable. This was achieved by using
semiconductor technology and during the 1990s microchips were introduced into the
devices to allow calibration parameters and signal traces to be stored. LCD display
panels and digital technology have also contributed to reducing the size and weight of
ultrasonic flaw detectors. With the development of ultrasonic phased array and increased
computing power, the future for ultrasonic inspection is very exciting.

Ultrasound used for testing

The main use of ultrasonic inspection in the human and the animal world is for detecting
objects and measuring distance. A pulse of ultrasound (a squeak from a bat or a pulse
from an ultrasonic source) hits an object and is reflected back to its source like an echo.
From the time it takes to travel to the object and back, the distance of the object from
the sound source can be calculated. That is how bats fly in the dark and how dolphins
navigate through water. It is also how warships detected and attacked submarines in the
Second World War. Wearing a blindfold, you can determine if you are in a very large hall
or an ordinary room by clapping your hands sharply; a large hall will give back a distinct
echo, but an ordinary room will not. A bat’s echo location is more precise: the bat gives
out and can sense short wavelengths of ultrasound and these give a sharper echo than
we can detect.

In UT a sound pulse is sent into a solid object and an echo returns from any flaws in that
object or from the other side of the object. An echo is returned from a solid-air interface
or any solid-non-solid interface in the object being examined. We can send ultrasonic
pulses into material by making a piezo-electric crystal vibrate in a probe. The pulses can
travel in a compression, shear or transverse mode. This is the basis of ultrasonic testing.
However, the information from the returning echoes must be presented for
interpretation. It is for this purpose that the UT set, or flaw detector as it is frequently
called, contains a cathode ray tube.

In the majority of UT sets, the information is presented on the screen in a display called
the A Scan. The bottom of the CRT screen is a time base made to represent a distance -
say 100mm. An echo from the backwall comes up on the screen as a signal, the
amplitude of which represents the amount of sound returning to the probe. By seeing
how far the signal comes along the screen we can measure the thickness of the material
we are examining.

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If that material contains a flaw, sound is reflected back from the flaw and appears on the
screen as a signal in front of the backwall echo (BWE) as the sound reflected from the
flaw has not had so far to travel as that from the backwall.

BWE
BWE

BWE
BWE

Defect
Defect

Ultrasonic signals

Anything that sends back sound energy to a probe to cause a signal on the screen is
called a reflector. By measuring the distance from the edge of the CRT screen to the
signal, we can calculate how far down in the material the reflector lies.

Radiographic testing (RT)

Radiography monitors the varying transmission of ionising radiation through a material
with the aid of photographic film or fluorescent screens to detect changes in density and
thickness. It will locate internal and surface-breaking defects.

Advantages Disadvantages

Gives a permanent record, the radiograph Radiation health hazard

Detects internal flaws Can be sensitive to defect orientation and

so can miss planar flaws

Detects volumetric flaws readily Limited ability to detect fine cracks

Can be used on most materials Access is required to both sides of the

object

Can check for correct assembly Skilled radiographic interpretation is

required

Gives a direct image of flaws Relatively slow method of inspection

Fluoroscopy can give real time imaging High capital cost

High running cost

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History of radiographic testing
X-rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen (1845-1923) who was a Professor at Wϋrzburg
University in Germany. Whilst performing experiments in
which he passed an electric current through a Crookes
tube (an evacuated glass tube with an anode and a
cathode), he found that when a high voltage was applied,
the tube produced a fluorescent glow. Roentgen noticed
that some nearby photographic plates became fogged.
This caused Roentgen to conclude that a new type of ray
was being emitted from the tube. He believed that
unknown rays were passing from the tube and through the
plates. He found that the new ray could pass through most
substances. Roentgen also discovered that the ray could
pass through the tissue of humans, but not bones and
metal objects. One of Roentgen's first experiments late in
1895 was a film of the hand of his wife.

Shortly after the discovery of X-rays, another

form of penetrating rays was discovered. In 1896
French scientist Henri Becquerel discovered
natural radioactivity. Many scientists of the
period were working with cathode rays, and
other scientists were gathering evidence on the
theory that the atom could be subdivided. Some
of the new research showed that certain types of
atoms disintegrate by themselves. It was
Becquerel who discovered this phenomenon
while investigating the properties of fluorescent
minerals.

One of the minerals Becquerel worked with was a

uranium compound. On a day when it was too
cloudy to expose his samples to direct sunlight,
Becquerel stored some of the compound in a
drawer with photographic plates. Later when he
developed these plates, he discovered that they
were fogged (indicating exposure to light).
Becquerel wondered what would have caused
this fogging. He knew he had wrapped the plates
tightly before using them, so the fogging was not
due to stray light; in addition, he noticed that
only the plates that were in the drawer with the uranium compound were fogged.
Becquerel concluded that the uranium compound gave off a type of radiation that could
penetrate heavy paper and expose photographic film. Becquerel continued to test
samples of uranium compounds and determined that the source of radiation was the
element uranium. Becquerel did not pursue his discovery of radioactivity, but others did.

While working in France at the time of Becquerel's discovery, Polish scientist Marie Curie
became very interested in his work. She suspected that a uranium ore known as pitch-
blende contained other radioactive elements. Marie and her husband, French scientist
Pierre Curie, started looking for these other elements. In 1898, the Curies discovered
another radio-active element in pitchblende, and named it polonium in honour of Marie’s
native homeland. Later that year, the Curies discovered another radioactive element
which they named ‘radium’, or shining element. Both polonium and radium were more
radioactive than uranium. Due to her lifelong research in this field, Marie Curie is widely

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credited with the discovery of gamma radiation and the introduction of the new term:
radio-active.

Since these discoveries, many other radioactive elements have been discovered or
produced. Radiography in the form of NDT took shape in the early 1920s when H H
Lester began testing on different materials. Radium became the initial industrial gamma
ray source. The material allowed castings up to 10 to 12 inches thick to be radiographed.
During the Second World War, industrial radiography grew tremendously as part of the
Navy's shipbuilding programme. In 1946, man-made gamma ray sources from elements
such as cobalt and iridium became available. These new sources were far stronger than
radium and much less expensive. The man-made sources rapidly replaced radium, and
the use of gamma rays increased quickly in industrial radiography.

William D Coolidge's name is inseparably linked with the X-ray

tube popularly called the Coolidge tube. This invention
completely revolutionised the generation of X-rays and remains
the model upon which all X-ray tubes for medical applications
are patterned. He invented ductile tungsten, the filament
material still used in such lamps. He was awarded 83 patents.

Although the theories and practices have changed very little,

radiographic equipment has developed. These developments
include better images through higher quality films and also
lighter, more portable equipment.

In addition to conventional film radiography, digital radiographic systems are now

widespread within the NDT industry. The use of photostimulable phosphor (PSP) bearing
imaging plates with photomultipliers to capture image signals and analogue-to-digital
converters (ADC) are used extensively in computed radiography (CR).

Direct radiography (DR) systems are also used based upon complementary metal oxide
sensor (CMOS) technology and TFT (thin film transistors). These systems have the
ability to directly convert light into digital format; additionally, they may be coupled with
a scintillator which coats CMOS and charged couple device (CCD) sensors. The
scintillator converts photon energy to light before the sensor and ADC converts to digital
format. Systems which use scintillators in this way are often referred to as indirect
systems.

Quality issues of any digital system are based upon the effective pixel size and the
signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). The benefits of using digital systems are the speed of
inspection and the absence of chemical processing requirements and wet film; however,
the initial equipment costs will be high.

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NDT Certification Schemes

CSWIP – Certification Scheme for Personnel

Managed by TWI Certification Ltd (TWICL), a TWI Group company
formed in 1993 to separate TWI’s activities in the field of
personnel and company certification thus ensuring continued
compliance with international standards for certification bodies
and is accredited by UKAS to BS EN ISO 17024.

TWICL establishes and implements certification schemes,

approves training courses, and authorises examination bodies and assessors in a large
variety of inspection fields, including; non-destructive testing (NDT), welding and plant
inspectors, welding supervisors, welding coordination, plastic welders, underwater
inspectors, integrity management, general inspection of offshore facilities, cathodic
protection, heat treatment.

TWI Certification Ltd

Granta Park,
Great Abington,
Cambridge CB21 6AL,
United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0) 1223 899000
Fax: +44 (0) 1223 894219
Email: [email protected]
Website: www.cswip.com

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PCN – Personal Certification in Non-destructive testing
Managed and marketed by the British Institute of Non-Destructive
Testing (BINDT) which owns and operates the PCN Certification Scheme,
it offeres a UKAS accreditied certification of competence for NDT and
condition monitoring in a variety of product sectors.

The British Institute of Non-Destructive Testing

Certification Services Division,
Newton Building,
St. Georges Avenue,
Northampton,
NN2 6JB,
United Kingdom

Tel: +44 (0)1604 893811

Fax: +44 (0)1604 892868
Email: [email protected]
Website: http://www.bindt.org/Certification/General_Information

Both schemes offer NDT certification conforming to BS EN ISO 9712; Qualification and
Certification of NDT personnel, this superseding EN473.

The PCN Scheme

What follows is a summary of the general requirements for qualification and PCN
certification of NDT personnel as described in PCN/GEN Issue 5 Revision R.
PCN Certification is a scheme which covers the qualification of NDT inspection staff to
meet the requirements of European and International Standards. Typically a standard or
procedure will call for the Inspector to be certified in accordance with BS EN ISO 9712
and/or PCN requirements. The PCN Gen Document describes how the PCN system works.

The points below cover extracts from this document which are major items, the full
document can be viewed on the BINDT website – www.bindt.org/certification/PCN.

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References
PCN documents
PSL/4 Examination availability
PSL/8A PCN documents – issue status
PSL/30 Log of pre-certification experience
PSL/31 Use of PCN & UKAS logo
PSL/42 Log of pre-certification on-the-job training
PSL/44 Vision requirements
PSL/49 Examination exemptions for holders of certification other than PCN
PSL/51 Acceptable certification for persons supervising PCN candidates gaining
experience prior to certification
PSL/57C Application for certification, experience gained post examination
PSL/67 Supplementary 56 day waiver
PSL/70 Request for L2 certificate issue to a L3 holder
CP9 Requirements for BINDT authorised qualifying bodies
CP16 Renewal and recertification of PCN Levels 1 & 2 certificates
CP17 Renewal and recertification of PCN Level 3 certificates
CP19 Informal access to authorised qualifying bodies by third parties
CP22 Marking and grading PCN examinations
CP25 Guidelines for the preparation of NDT procedures and instructions in PCN
examinations
CP27 Code of ethics for PCN certificate holders

PCN/GEN Appendix Z1 – NDT Training Syllabi

Levels of PCN certification

Level 1 personnel are qualified to carry out NDT operations according to written
instructions under the supervision of appropriately qualified Level 2 or 3 personnel.
Within the scope of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 1 personnel may be
authorised by the employer to perform the following in accordance with NDT
instructions:

 Set up equipment.
 Carry out the test.
 Record and classify the results in terms of written criteria.
 Report the results.

Level 1 personnel have not demonstrated competence in the choice of test method or
technique to be used, nor for the assessment, characterisation or interpretation of test
results.

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Level 2 personnel have demonstrated competence to perform and supervise non-
destructive testing according to established or recognised procedures. Within the scope
of the competence defined on the certificate, Level 2 personnel may be authorised by the
employer to:

 Select the NDT technique for the test method to be used.

 Define the limitations of application of the testing method.
 Translate NDT standards and specifications into NDT instructions.
 Set up and verify equipment settings.
 Perform and supervise tests.
 Interpret and evaluate results according to applicable standards, codes or
specifications.
 Prepare written NDT instructions.
 Carry out and supervise all Level 1 duties.
 Provide guidance for personnel at or below Level 2.
 Organise and report the results of non-destructive tests.

Level 3 personnel are qualified to direct any NDT operation for which they are
certificated and may be authorised by the employer to:

 Assume full responsibility for a test facility or examination centre and staff.
 Establish, review for editorial and technical correctness and validate NDT instructions
and procedures.
 Interpret codes, standards, specifications and procedures.
 Designate the particular test methods, techniques and procedures to be used.
 Within the scope and limitations of any certification held carry out all Level 1 and 2
duties and;
 Provide guidance and supervision at all levels.

Level 3 personnel have demonstrated:

 Competence to interpret and evaluate test results in terms of existing codes,

standards and specifications.
 Possession of the required level of knowledge in applicable materials, fabrication and
product technology sufficient to enable the selection of NDT methods and techniques
and to assist in the establishment of test criteria where none are otherwise available.
 General familiarity with other NDT methods.

Level 3 certificated personnel may be authorised to carry out, manage and supervise
PCN qualification examinations on behalf of the British Institute of NDT.

Where Level 3 duties require the individual to apply routine NDT by a method(s) within a
particular product or industry sector, the British Institute of NDT strongly recommends
that industry demand that this person should hold and maintain Level 2 certification in
the applicable methods and sectors.

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Training

Table 1 Minimum required duration of training.

NDT method Level 1 hours Level 2 hours1 Level 3 hours

ET 40 40 40

PT 16 24 24

MT 16 24 32

RT 40 80 72

RI N/A 56 N/A

UT 40 80 72

VT 16 24 24

BRS 16 N/A N/A

RPS N/A 24 N\A

Basic knowledge (Direct access to Level 3 80

examination parts A- C)

Note 1. Direct access to Level 2 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 1 for Levels 1
and 2, and direct access to Level 3 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 1 for
Levels 1-3. Up to one third of the total specified in this table may take the form of OTJ training
documented using form PSL/42 provided it is verifiable and covered practical application of the
syllabus detailed in CEN ISO/TR 25107:2006.

Industrial NDT experience

 Industrial NDT experience in the appropriate sector may be acquired prior to or
following success in the qualification examination.
 In the event that the experience is sought following successful examination, the
results of the examination shall remain valid for up to two years.
 Documentary evidence (in a form acceptable to the British Institute of NDT, i.e. on
PCN form PSL/30) of experience satisfying the following requirements shall be
confirmed by the employer and submitted to BINDT AQB prior to examination, or
directly to BINDT prior to the award of PCN certification in the event that experience
is gained after examination.

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Table 2 Minimum duration of experience for certification.
Experience, months
NDT method
Level 1
Level 2 Level 3
ET 3 9 18

MT 1 3 12

PT 1 3 12

RT 3 9 18

UT 3 9 18

RI N/A 6 N/A

VT 1 3 12

Work experience in months is based on a nominal 40-hour week or the legal week of work.
When an individual is working in excess of 40h/week, he may be credited with experience
based on the total hours, but he shall be required to produce evidence of this experience.
Direct access to Level 2 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 2 for Levels 1 and 2,
and direct access to Level 3 requires the total number of hours shown in Table 2 for Levels 1-3

Qualification examination
Table 3 Numbers of general questions.
NDT method Level 1 Level 2

ET 40 40

PT 30 40

MT 30 40

RT 40 40

RI N/A 40

UT 40 40

VT 30 40

BRS 30 N/A

RPS N/A 20 plus 4 narrative

Note: All Level 1 specific theory papers have 30 questions.

All Level 2 specific theory papers have 36 questions.

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Re-examination
a A candidate who fails to obtain the pass grade for any examination part (general,
specific or practical) may be re-examined twice in the failed part(s), provided the re-
examination takes place not sooner than one month, unless further training
acceptable to BINDT is satisfactorily completed, nor later than twelve months after
the original examination.

b A candidate who achieves a passing grade of 70% in each of the examination parts
(general, specific or practical) but whose average score is less than the required 80%
may be re-examined a maximum of two times in any or all of the examination parts
in order to achieve an overall average score of 80%, provided the re-examination
takes place not sooner than one month, unless further training acceptable to BINDT
is satisfactorily completed, nor later than twelve months after the original
examination.

c A candidate who fails all permitted re-examinations shall apply for and take the initial
examination according to the procedure established for new candidates.

d A candidate whose examination results have not been accepted for reason of fraud or
unethical behaviour shall wait at least twelve months before re-applying for
examination.

Summary
The PCN scheme is managed and administered by the British Institute of NDT (BINDT)
on behalf of its stakeholders. It meets or exceeds the criteria of BS EN ISO 9712.

There are 6 appendices covering various industry and product sectors,

1 Aerospace.
2 Castings.
3 Welds.
4 Wrought Products and Forgings.
5 Pre and in-service inspection (multi sector).
6 Railway.

There are many additional supporting documents varying from vision requirements
PSL44 to renewal and recertification (Levels 1 and 2 – CP16; Level 3 – CP17) and so on.

The document defines many terms used in certification of NDT personnel (PCN Gen
Section 3)

The certification body (BINDT) meets the requirements of BS EN ISO 17024 (PCN Gen
section 5)

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BINDT approves authorised qualifying bodies (AQBs) to carry out the examinations (PCN
Gen Section 5)

a The document sets out the Levels of PCN certification and what each level of
personnel is qualified to do (PCN Gen section 6). There are 3 Levels of PCN
certification.
b Candidates for examination must have successfully completed a BINDT validated
course of training at a BINDT authorised training organisation (PCN Gen Section 7).
c Table 1 shows the minimum required duration of training for all Levels and methods
plus a section of notes.
d Table 2 gives the minimum duration of experience for each Level and method.
e A candidate is required to have a vision test of colour perception and a near vision
test (Jaeger Number 1 or N4.5). PCN Gen Section a – the near vision test to be taken
annually.
f Examination applications are made directly with the AQB.
g PCN Level 1s and 2 initial exams comprise general; specific and practical parts.
h Table 3 shows the number of general questions at Levels 1 and 2 examinations.
i There are 30 specific questions on the Level 1 papers.
j There are 36 questions on the Level 2 specific papers.
k A variety of practical samples are tested depending on the method and sector.
l A Level 3 examination comprises a basic and a method examination – however the
basic examination needs to be passed only once. Table 4 shows the number of basic
examination questions. Table 5 shows the number of Level 3 examination questions.

Table 4 Number of basic examination questions.

Part Examination Number of

questions

A Materials technology and science, including typical defects in a 30

wide range of products including castings welds and wrought
products.

B Qualification and certification procedure in accordance with this 10

document

C 15 general questions at Level 2 standard for each of four NDT 60

methods chosen by the candidate, including at least one
volumetric NDT method (UT or RT).

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Table 5 Main method examination.

Part Subject Number

of
questions

D Level 3 knowledge relating to the test method applied 30

E Application of the NDT method in the sector concerned, including 20

the applicable codes, standards, and specifications. This may be
an open book examination in relation to codes, standards, and
specifications.

F Drafting of one or more NDT procedures in the relevant sector.

The applicable codes, standards, and specifications shall be
available to the candidate.

m A pass is obtained where each part is 70% or over with an average grade of 80% or
over.
n A PCN certificate is valid for 5 years.
o Renewal and recertification requirements are covered in CP16 for Level 1 and Level 2
and CP17 for Level 3.

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 Section 1
Physical Principles
1 Physical Principles
Sound is generated when something vibrates. You can twang a ruler on a table
or flick a stretched elastic band to verify this. The stretched surface of the
rubber band or the ruler vibrates and sets up a series of vibrations, sound
waves, in the air. As the surface of the band or ruler pushes into the air, the air
molecules are forced together and a region of high pressure forms; this process
is called compression. As the surface moves back, the air molecules move
apart, forming a low pressure area (rarefaction). As the surface vibrates,
alternate compressions and rarefactions are set up in the air and travel out
from the surface to form a sound wave. The air molecules don’t move with the
wave - they vibrate to and fro in time with the vibrating surface.

If we plot the displacement of the particle against time, it will produce a sine
wave as shown below.

D
i
s
p
l
Particle a
Motion c Time
e
m
e
n
t
One cycle
Figure 1.1 Ultrasonic vibration.

The sound wave thus produced travels through the air at a speed of about
332m/sec, at 0oC, at sea level. We hear the sound when it hits a membrane in
our ear and causes it to vibrate.

Sound will travel through any medium that has molecules to move but it travels
faster in more elastic materials because the vibrations are passed on more
quickly. Sound travels faster in water or metal than it does in air because
liquids and solids are more elastic than air. The speed of sound in a material
increases with its stiffness (elasticity) and decreases with its density; more
precisely, the square root of the stiffness divided by the density gives the speed
of sound.

A sound wave is generally described in terms of its frequency, velocity and

wavelength.

1.1 Frequency
As sound is a series of vibrations, one way of measuring it is to count the
number of vibrations per second - the frequency. Frequency is measured in
hertz (Hz). One vibration in one second is one hertz. Two vibrations in one
second is two hertz. Ten vibrations in one second is 10 hertz and 1000
vibrations in one second is 1000 hertz or one kilohertz (kHz). One million
vibrations in a second is one megahertz (MHz).

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Physical Principles 1-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The higher the frequency - the higher the note sounds - the higher the pitch. If
you twang the ruler or the rubber band hard, the noise is louder, it has greater
amplitude but the note remains the same. If, however, you shorten the ruler or
tighten the rubber band, they vibrate more quickly and the note given out is
higher, the frequency is greater. To raise the pitch of their instrument, guitar
players move their fingers down the frets, thus shortening the string and
making it vibrate more quickly.

We can only hear sounds between certain frequencies - more than 20 and less
than 20,000Hz. If you were able to move your arm up and down 20 times a
second, it would sound like a very low hum. You cannot move your arm this
fast, so you cannot hear the vibrations in the air caused by your moving arm. A
dog whistle vibrating at 25,000Hz cannot be heard by humans but it can be
heard by the sensitive ears of a dog.

Human Ultrasonic range

16Hz - 20kHz > 20kHz

0 10Hz 100Hz 1kHz 10kHz 100kHz 1MHz 10MHz

Testing
0.5 - 50MHz

Figure 1.2 The sound spectrum.

It rarely occurs to us that there is a whole world of sound that we cannot hear.
Some other animals can hear sounds at higher frequencies - bats can hear
sound at 100,000Hz - and some animals, like snakes, have worse hearing than
we have.

A sound with frequencies above the upper range of human hearing is called
ultrasound. Sound below about 16Hz is called infrasound. Therefore the
definition of ultrasound is sound with a frequency greater than 20kHz.

There is an advantage to using lower frequencies: The lower the frequency, the
more penetrating a sound wave is - that is why foghorns give out very low
notes and why the low throbbing notes from your neighbour’s stereo set come
through the wall rather than the high notes. Elephants and hippos can
communicate over distances of up to 30 kilometres using ultrasound, while
whales can communicate through water across an ocean!

1.2 Wavelength
A wave in the sea is a vibration of energy. As the wave passes a fixed point it
produces a constant rise and fall of energy. A complete vibration is a change in
energy from maximum to minimum and back to maximum. The distance over
which one complete vibration of energy occurs is called a wavelength.

A wavelength is the distance between the highest points of energy. It varies

with the speed of sound and with the frequency. Wavelength is represented by
the Greek letter lambda (). We can work out the wavelength if we know the
speed and frequency of a sound wave. Wavelength is the velocity in metres per
second divided by the frequency.

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 Wavelength Velocity

λ =V
f

Frequency

Figure 1.3 Wavelength, Velocity and Frequency relationships.

If we want to know the wavelength of a 200Hz frequency sound wave travelling

through air, we can apply this formula, as we know that the speed of sound in
air is 332m/sec.

332
  1.66m
200

If we want to know the wavelength of a 2MHz compression wave travelling

through steel, we can again use the formula, as we know the compressional
speed of sound in steel, 5,920m/s.

5,920,000
  2.96mm
2,000,000

If we wanted to know the wavelength of a shear wave of 2MHz in steel, we

could use the formula again but this time using the shear speed of sound in
steel which is 3,250m/s.

An easy way to remember how this formula works is to split it down within a
triangle - with the velocity, wavelength and frequency at the corners. The
velocity must be placed at the top (note how it forms a diamond shape) and the
wavelength and frequency at either of the bottom two corners.

V
λ f

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Physical Principles 1-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 If we want to work out wavelength we cover the wavelength symbol - this
leaves V over . If we need to find the velocity, cover the V which gives us  x
. Covering the frequency () will leave V over .

V λ=
V
f
λ f

V = λf
V
λ f

V f=
V
λ
λ f

So the wavelength of ultrasonic waves is important because the shorter the

wavelength, the smaller the flaws that can be detected. Defects of a diameter
of less than half a wavelength may not show on the cathode ray tube (CRT). On
the other hand, the shorter the wavelength the less the ultrasound will
penetrate the test material. Beam shape is also affected by wavelength. These
factors will be discussed later.

1.3 Resolution
Resolution is the ability of an equipment/probe combination to distinguish
between two echoes from reflectors that are close together. To have good
resolution, a probe must present two signals on a CRT screen from two
separate reflectors: if it has poor resolution, the echoes from the two reflectors
appear as one signal on the screen.

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 In the early days of ultrasonic testing, we used 100, 91 and 85mm steps at the
radius end of the V1 block to test resolving power. However, today this is
regarded as too crude a test and BS 4331 part 3 (now obsolete and superseded
by BS EN 12668-3: Methods of assessing the performance characteristics of
ultrasonic flaw detection equipment Part 1: Overall performance on-site
methods) recommends that we should be able to recognise two discrete echoes
less than two wavelengths apart. Discrete echoes means split by more than 6dB
(see 1.4) or to more than half the total height of the signals.
100%

50% - 6dB

Accept Reject

Figure 1.4 Echo resolution.

1.4 Signal amplitude

The amplitude of an ultrasonic signal is defined as the maximum displacement
of the molecules from their equilibrium position. The energy of an ultrasonic
wave is in turn expressed as the square of the amplitude.

The relative amplitude of ultrasonic signals is expressed using the decibel (dB),
a logarithmic unit of comparison. When we compare the height of two signals
on the CRT screen, we are in fact comparing the electric voltage that is being
sent to the Y plates; electric voltage is proportional to the square of the current.
To compare two signals we must use a formula that takes account of this fact:

H1
Differencein dB  20 x log10
H2

For example, if we want to compare a signal of 40mm with one of 20mm on the
CRT screen:

Difference in dB  20 log 10
40 
20 
 20 log 10 2

Find the log10 of 2 in tables or a calculator.

20 x 0.301 = 6.02dB

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 So the answer is 6dB and this can be tested on a CRT screen by obtaining a
signal from a backwall echo on a test block and increasing or decreasing the
gain until the signal touches the top of the screen. Take out 6dB with the gain
control and the signal should drop to 50% full screen height (FSH). If it does
not, the vertical linearity of the UT set is out or inaccurate; the signal height is
not changing in accordance with energy from the probe.

Using the formula, we discover that:

 12dB difference means that one signal is 4 times bigger than another.
 10dB difference means that one signal is 3 times bigger than another.
 20dB difference means that one signal is 10 times bigger than another.

Remember that decibels are only a means of comparing signals. All UT sets are
different, so a defect may be at FSH with a gain control reading of, say, 36dB
on one set and be at FSH on another set with a gain control reading of only
28dB on another set. The gain control allows us to set sensitivities and forms
the basis of ultrasonic sizing techniques.

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 Section 2
Modes of Sound Energy
2 Modes of Sound Energy
Sound waves propagate due to the vibrations or oscillatory motions of particles
within a material. Within a freely vibrating medium each particle is subject to
both inertial and elastic forces. These forces cause particles to exhibit oscillatory
motions comparable to the free vibration of a system of masses and springs.
The elastic restoring forces in a material can be described as microscopic spring
forces as shown below.

Figure 2.1 Representation of sound wave propagation using partial mass and
microscopic restoring spring forces.

This theory agrees with both Hooke’s Law and Newton’s second law. Hooke’s
Law states that, within the elastic limit of any body, the ratio of the stress to
the strain produced is constant; therefore, the more stress or force is placed on
an object, the more it will strain or deform. Newton’s second law of motion
states that the force (F) equals the mass (m) times the acceleration (a).

F = ma

The spring theory makes accurate predictions for the propagation of sound. The
propagation of a sound wave velocity is determined by the elastic properties
and density of the material. The velocity of a longitudinal wave is described by
the following equation:

V = fλ

2.1 Compressional waves

We cannot hear all sound; what we do hear is sound in a compressional mode,
where molecules vibrate backwards and forwards in the same direction as the
energy of propagation - rather like billiard balls in a line. A compressional wave
of sound is also called a longitudinal wave: waves of this type consist of
alternate compression and dilation in the direction of propagation. As each
particle moves, it pushes or pulls the adjacent particle through elastic
interconnection (see Figure 2.2). Gases, liquids and solids have elasticity, so
compressional waves can travel in all of them.

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Modes of Sound Energy 2-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Propagation

Particle vibration

Figure 2.2 Compression wave propagation.

The velocity of a longitudinal wave is described by the following equation:

E 1   
VL 
 1   1  2  

VL = Longitudinal bulk wave velocity.

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity.
 = Poisson ratio.
 = Material density.

Sound travels through air in the compressional mode at 332m/sec, through

water at 1480m/sec, Perspex at 2730m/sec, steel at 5920m/sec and aluminium
at 6320m/sec.

Note: Sound can only travel through air and water in the compressional mode.
Sound can travel through Perspex, steel and aluminium in modes other than the
compressional mode.

2.2 Shear waves

Sound can travel in solids in a shear mode as well as a compressional mode. In
the shear mode, molecules vibrate up and down, across the direction of
propagation rather than to and fro; for this reason, the shear mode is also
called the transverse mode, as particle vibration is transverse to the direction of
sound energy (see Figure 2.3).

NDT4-51015
Modes of Sound Energy 2-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 In the shear or transverse mode, molecules of a solid move rather like beach
balls floating on the surface of the sea - they move up and down as a wave
passes.

Particle vibration

Propagation

Figure 2.3 Shear wave propagation.

This type of sound travel can only happen when the molecules through which it
propagates are joined together - as in a solid. A solid has rigidity as well as
elasticity. Air and water, like other gases and liquids, do not have rigidity. Shear
or transverse waves cannot travel in gases of liquids for this reason.

Shear (transverse) wave velocity can be written as:

E 1    G
Vs  
2  1    

Vs = Shear wave velocity.

E = Young’s modulus of elasticity.
 = Poisson ratio.
 = Material density.
G = Shear modulus.

The speed of sound in the shear or transverse mode is less than it is in the
compressional or longitudinal mode. The shear speed of sound in steel is
3250m/sec and in aluminium 3130m/sec. There is no shear or transverse speed
for air or water, as shear waves cannot be supported in these media.

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Modes of Sound Energy 2-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Table 2.1 Comparison of compression wave and shear wave velocities in
different materials.

Material Compression Shear velocity,

velocity, m/sec m/sec
Air 332 NA
Water 1480 NA
Steel 5920 3250
Aluminium 6320 3130
Perspex 2730 1430
Copper 4700 2260
Brass 4430 2120

Applying these values for one velocity of steel to the formula used previously
for determining the wavelength, it can be seen that for a given frequency that
the wavelength of the shear wave is less than that of the compression wave.

Table 2.2 Comparison of wavelength between compression and shear waves at

different frequencies in steel.

Frequency, Compression Shear wavelength,

MHz wavelength, km km
0.5 11.8 6.5
1 5.9 3.2
2 2.95 1.6
4 1.48 0.8
6 0.98 0.54

2.3 Rayleigh or surface waves

A third type of sound wave can travel along the surface of a solid: these are
called Rayleigh or surface waves.

Figure 2.4 Surface wave propagation.

The surface molecules vibrate in an elliptical motion, though only to a depth of

one wavelength in the carrier material. Surface waves are about 8% slower
than shear waves and in steel they travel at about 3000m/sec.

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Modes of Sound Energy 2-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
2.4 Lamb waves
Another mode of sound travel is Lamb or plate waves which propagate in thin
plate materials when the plate thickness is about the same as the wavelength.
Lamb or plate waves travel at velocities which vary with the plate thickness and
the wavelength. Particle motion is elliptical, as with surface waves.

Asymmetrical

Symmetrical

Figure 2.5 Lamb waves.

NDT4-51015
Modes of Sound Energy 2-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 3
Generating Ultrasound
3 Generating Ultrasound
Sound is created when something vibrates. It is a stress wave of mechanical
energy. The piezo-electric effect changes mechanical energy into electrical
energy. It is reversible, so electrical energy - a voltage - can be changed into
mechanical energy or sound, which is the reverse piezo-electric effect. The first
people to observe the piezo-electric effect were the Curie brothers who
observed it in quartz crystals.

3.1 Piezo-electric crystals

Jacques and Pierre Curie used quartz for their first experiments. Nowadays
polarised ceramics are used instead of quartz crystals.

- + + - - +

Figure 3.1 Illustration of the piezo-electric effect showing the effect of an

applied voltage on a crystal.

It was later discovered that by varying the thickness of crystals and subjecting
them to a voltage, they could be made to vibrate at different frequencies. The
frequency depends on the thickness of the piezo-electric crystal, according to
the following formula:

V
t
2f

Where:

t = Crystal thickness.
V = Velocity of sound in crystal.
f = Frequency.

NDT4-51015
Generating Ultrasound 3-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.2 Quartz or silicon oxide (SiO2)
Found in granite as a natural crystal, quartz can produce compressional or
shear waves according to the way the crystal is cut. An X-cut crystal is cut in a
direction that directly crosses the axis joining two angles of the crystal. A Y-cut
crystal is cut in a direction parallel to the axis joining two angles of the crystal
(see Figure 3.2).

 X-cut crystals produce a compressional wave.

 Y-cut crystals produce a shear wave.
z

x x x
z

y
z
Figure 3.2 X-cut quartz crystal.

Quartz is not much used now. Several types of quartz crystal can be produced,
each with its advantages and disadvantages, some of which are listed below.

Advantages
 Resistant to wear.
 Insoluble in water.
 Resistant to ageing.
 Easy to cut to give the required frequencies.

Disadvantages
 Needs a lot of electrical energy to produce a small amount of ultrasound,
which means it is inefficient.
 Quartz crystals are susceptible to mode change.
 High voltage is needed to give low frequency sound.

For these reasons quartz has been largely superseded by other piezo-electric
materials.

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Generating Ultrasound 3-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.3 Lithium sulphate (Li2SO4)
Crystals grow as a solution of lithium sulphate is evaporated.

Advantages
 Most efficient receiver of ultrasound.
 Very low electrical impedance.
 Operate well at low voltages.
 Do not age.
 Very good resolution.
 Crystals are easily damped to give short pulse lengths (to give good
resolution).

Disadvantages
 Soluble in water.
 Break easily.
 Decompose at temperatures above 130°C.

These disadvantages make lithium sulphate crystals unsuitable for industrial

use, though they are used for medical ultrasonics in the examination of
pregnant women and patients suffering from tumours. Polarised crystals were
found to be most suitable for industrial use. Polarised crystals are made by
heating powders to high temperatures, pressing them into shape and allowing
them to cool in very strong electrical fields, which affect the atomic structure of
the crystal lattice.

3.4 Barium titanate (BaTiO3)

Crystals are made by baking barium titanate at 1,250°C and then cooling it in a
2kV/mm electrical field.

Advantages
 Efficient generator of sound.
 Only needs a low voltage.
 Good sensitivity.

Disadvantages
 Its Curie temperature, at which the crystal depolarises, is only about 120°C,
which makes it susceptible to heating.
 Deteriorates over time.

3.5 Lead metaniobate (PbNb2O6)

Crystals are made in a similar way to barium titanate.

Advantages
 Heavy internal damping.
 Gives out very narrow pulses of ultrasound, which gives good resolution.

Disadvantages
 Much less sensitive than lead zirconate titanate (PZT).

NDT4-51015
Generating Ultrasound 3-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
3.6 Lead zirconate titanate (PbZrO3, PbTiO3)
Lead zirconate titanate (PZT) crystals have the best all-round performance for
industrial testing.

Advantages
 A high Curie point, up to 350C.
 Good resolution.
 Does not dissolve in water.
 Tough and resistant to ageing.
 Easily damped.

Because it has no major disadvantages, PZT is used in most probes.

3.7 Electromagnetic acoustic transducers

A feature of probes using piezo-electric crystals is that they require mechanical
coupling to the solid under inspection. This is achieved either by immersing
them in a tank filled with a fluid (usually water) or directly by the use of a thin
(less than one quarter of the wavelength) fluid layer between the two. When
shear waves are to be transmitted, the fluid is also generally selected to have a
significant viscosity. The acoustic impedance of the couplant layer should also
have a value somewhere between that of the probe and that of the material
being tested.

Electromagnetic acoustic transducers (EMATs) rely upon a totally different

physical principle. When a wire is placed near the surface of an electrically
conducting object and a current of the required ultrasonic frequency is applied,
eddy currents will be induced in a near-surface region of the object.

EMAT probes are used for the detection of flaws and the determination of
material properties such as the precise velocity as well as attenuation
measurements. They do not require the use of couplant and as such can
operate without contact at elevated temperatures and in remote locations.

EMAT probes are, however, inefficient and require strong magnetic fields and
large currents to produce ultrasound that is often weaker than that produced by
piezo-electric transducers. Rare earth materials such as samarium-cobalt and
neodymium-iron-boron are often used to produce sufficiently strong magnetic
fields, which may also be generated by pulsed electromagnets.

EMAT probes generate ultrasonic waves due to the interaction between a static
magnetic field of a magnet and the high frequency magnetic field generated by
a coil. The eddy currents produced in the material due to the coil create a
Lorentz force, causing the atomic lattice of the material to oscillate and produce
an ultrasonic wave. A magnetic structure component is also generated by the
EMAT and although not very efficient in terms of energy, the ultrasonic
proportion can have useful in-service applications (see below).

NDT4-51015
Generating Ultrasound 3-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 3.3 Method of ultrasonic wave generation from an EMAT probe.

Including a magnetic component in the structure of an EMAT probe can allow

thickness measurement of sealed tubes (eg ferromagnetic boiler tubes) at
elevated temperatures without the necessity to remove the oxide scale.

NDT4-51015
Generating Ultrasound 3-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 4
Pulse Length and Damping
4 Pulse Length and Damping
A pulse of ultrasound from a piezo-electric crystal has a length or width of
several vibrations or wavelengths. When you strike a bell it continues to ring for
several seconds as the metal continues to vibrate. The vibrations get steadily
weaker and the sound dies away. If you put your hand on the bell you stop the
vibrations and the sound dies away more quickly - you dampen the sound.

A piezo-electric crystal continues to vibrate after it is hit by an electrical charge.

This affects the sensitivity: the longer the pulse length, the worse the
resolution. In most probes a slug of tungsten-loaded Araldite is placed behind
the crystal to cut down the ringing time and to shorten the pulse length. Pulse
length, duration and width are the same thing but we must not confuse them
with wavelength.

Pulse length (or width) is also sometimes called wave train length. It is defined
in a number of ways but not even the standards always agree. We choose the
one in EN 1330 Part 4 NDT terminology – Part 4: Terms used in ultrasonic
testing, which defines it as the leading and trailing edges of a pulse measured
at a defined level below the peak amplitude.

Maximum

10% of maximum

Pulse length

Figure 4.1 Ultrasonic pulse.

A long pulse may be 15 wavelengths (cycles, vibrations) while a short pulse

may have as little as two cycles. The average pulse length is about five
wavelengths. The longer the pulse length, the more penetrating the ultrasound,
as it contains more energy but the worse the sensitivity and resolution; hence
the need to compromise.

NDT4-51015
Pulse Length and Damping 4-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 1-2 cycles

10-12 cycles

5 cycles

Figure 4.2 Pulse lengths.

NDT4-51015
Pulse Length and Damping 4-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 5
The Sound Beam
5 The Sound Beam
The spread of sound waves from a piezo-electric crystal has been likened to the
beam of a torch, ie an elongated cone. Just as the intensity of light from a torch
diminishes with distance, so sound pulses get weaker the further they travel
from the crystal. An acoustic sound wave has also previously been described as
being a single sinusoidal wave propagating through a material. These analogies
do not however present a totally true picture. The sound produced from an
ultrasonic crystal does not originate from a single point but rather it is derived
from many points along the surface of the piezo-electric crystal. This results in
a sound field with many waves interacting or interfering with each other (see
Figure 5.1).

Constructive interference Destructive interference

Figure 5.1 Interaction of the ultrasonic beam.

When waves interact. they overlay each other and the amplitude of the sound
pressure or particle displacement at any point of interaction is the sum of the
amplitudes of the two individual waves. When the waves are fully in phase, the
result is additive or constructive and the intensity is doubled. When completely
out of phase, the result would be the amplitudes cancelling each other out. The
interaction can vary between these two extremes and the wave produced will
equal the sum of the amplitudes at all points with peaks of intensity referred to
as nodes. In an ultrasonic probe the situation is further complicated as sound
originates from not just two but many points on the crystal surface.

Figure 5.2 Additive nature of two sound waves interacting.

NDT4-51015
The Sound Beam 5-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 In an ultrasonic probe, one would expect the sound intensity to be highest at
the probe face and to fall away gradually as the distance from the probe
increases. Due to interactions near the face of the probe, however, the sound
field is very uneven in this region with peaks and troughs in sound intensity.
This area of intensity variation is known as the near field or Fresnel zone. As
one moves farther away from the probe these variations are eliminated and the
sound field behaviour becomes more uniform. This region of the sound beam is
referred to as the far field, or Fraunhofer zone. In the far field, the intensity
behaves as expected and is reduced exponentially with distance. The beam
spreads out as a circular wave front.

5.1 Near zone (or near field)

A piezo-electric crystal is made up of millions of molecules. Each of these
vibrates when the crystal is hit by an electric charge and they send out shock
waves. The shock waves jostle each other.

Intensity of the
sound beam on its
central axis Exponential decay

Distance from the probe

Figure 5.3 Variations in sound intensity.

After a time, the shock waves or pulses even out to form a continuous front.
The area between the crystal and the point where the wave front evens out is
what we call the near or Fresnel zone. Inside the near zone, signals from a
reflector bear no accurate relation to the size of the reflector, as the sound
vibrations are going in all directions. This affects the accuracy of flaw sizing of
small reflectors inside the near zone.

Far zone

Near zone

Figure 5.4 Regions of a sound beam.

NDT4-51015
The Sound Beam 5-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The near zone of a crystal varies with the material being tested, but it can be
worked out by a formula:

D2
Near zone =
4λ

D 2f
Or
4V
D = Diameter
f = Frequency
 = Wavelength
V = Velocity

For example, the near zone of a 5MHz compression probe with a 10mm
diameter crystal will be, in steel:

10 2 x 5,000,000
 21.1mm
4 x 5,920,000

The near zone of a 2.5MHz probe with a 20mm diameter crystal will be:

20 2 x 2,500,000
 42.2mm
4 x 5,920,000

We can deduce from the formula that:

 The greater the diameter, the greater the near zone.

 The higher the frequency, the greater the near zone.

In twin crystal or angle beam probes with a Perspex stand-off component in the
probe body, some or even all of the near zone is contained in the Perspex shoe.
This must be taken into account when the calculation for near zone is applied.

We will need to know the length of the beam path within the Perspex, the
velocity of the Perspex and the velocity of the test material, as well as the near
zone within the test material.

The first step is to calculate the near zone in the test material; then the path
length in the Perspex is multiplied by the velocity in the Perspex before dividing
by the velocity in the test material; this is finally subtracted from the near zone
length.

If a 2.5MHz, 20mm compression probe has a near zone of 42.2mm and a

Perspex shoe of 15mm in front of the transducer, then the length of the near
zone within the steel is:

15 x 2730  5920 = 6.91mm

42.2 – 6.91 = 35.31mm of the near zone is in the test material.

NDT4-51015
The Sound Beam 5-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Ratio of near zone
in the wedge

Nrs = Ns Tw
1 -Nw
Ratio
remaining

Figure 5.5 Near zone path distance in the steel test object and probe wedge.

Nrs = Near zone path length remaining in the steel (mm).

Ns = Near zone in steel (mm).
Tw = Thickness (mm) travelled through wedge.
Nw = Near zone in wedge (mm).

5.2 Far zone

In the far zone the sound pulses follow the inverse square law, spreading out as
they move away from the crystal; the sound intensity decays exponentially.

1 If we double the distance, we quarter the intensity.

I 2
r If we halve the distance, we increase the intensity fourfold.

I = Sound intensity.
r = Distance from the crystal.

The higher the frequency of the crystal, the less the beams spread out. The
angle of beam spread can be found using the formula below:



2

Near zone Far zone

Figure 5.6 Beam spread.

NDT4-51015
The Sound Beam 5-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Kλ KV
sin θ/2  or
D Df

Where:

K = Constant for the edge of the beam spread.

D = Diameter of crystal.
V = Velocity of sound in material.
f = Crystal frequency.

Edge, K = 1.22

20dB, K = 1.08

6dB, K = 0.56

Beam axis

Figure 5.7 K values for the beam edge.

Where the sound intensity drops by 6dB (half the intensity), K is 0.56.

If we take the edge of the beam to be where the sound energy is 10% (20dB)
of the energy at the beam centre, K is 1.08.

If we take the extreme edge of the sound beam to work out beam spread
angles, then K is 1.22.

Example
The beam spread of a 10mm 5MHz probe in steel is calculated as follows:

5920
sin /2 = 1.08 or 1.22 x
5000 x10

sin /2 = 7.35 at the 20dB point or

8.3 at the edge

So the angle of beam spread is 14.7 if you take the edge of the beam to be
where the energy is 10% of the main energy or 16.6 taking the extreme edge
of the beam.

From the formula we can deduce that:

 The higher the frequency, the smaller the beam spread.

 The larger the crystal, the smaller the beam spread.

This is one of the reasons why low frequency probes have large diameter
crystals.

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The Sound Beam 5-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 6
Total Attenuation Loss
6 Total Attenuation Loss
EN 1330 defines attenuation as the decrease in sound pressure that occurs
when a wave travels through a material arising from absorption and scattering.
The two components, absorption and scatter, are defined as:

Absorption
Component of the attenuation resulting from transformation of ultrasonic
energy into other types of energy (eg thermal).

Absorption occurs as the sound pulse hits the molecules of the test material and
makes them vibrate. The energy lost in vibrating the molecules turns to heat.
The rate of absorption varies from one material to another and even from one
type of steel to another. It is very high in Perspex, nylon and lead and is low in
aluminium.

Scatter
Randomly reflected energy caused by grain structure and/or by small
discontinuities in the beam path.

Scatter occurs as sound energy is reflected from grains in the test material. The
larger the grains, the more scatter occurs. The grass at the bottom of the CRT
screen is caused by reflections from grain boundaries in the test material. More
grass arises from cast iron or brass than from small grained materials like
refined steel or annealed aluminium.

The longer the wavelength of a sound pulse, the less energy is scattered.
Where the wavelength is smaller than the grain size, a sound pulse is scattered
very quickly. It is for this reason that a low frequency probe, with its longer
wavelength, has greater penetration in a given material than a high frequency
probe.

Scatter

Figure 6.1 Scatter of the ultrasonic beam at grain boundaries.

NDT4-51015
Total Attenuation Loss 6-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.1 Attenuation due to beam spread
The amount of energy reflected back depends on whether the reflector is bigger
in area than the sound beam at that distance. If the reflector is bigger in area
than the sound beam, the signal on the screen varies according to the law of
large reflectors. If the reflector is smaller in area than the sound beam at that
distance, it obeys the law of small reflectors.

Both of these laws only apply beyond a distance of three times the length of the
near zone.

6.1.1 Law of the large reflector

Large reflectors outside three near zones obey the inverse law.

A large reflector at 20mm, if it is beyond three near zones, gives a signal at

80% FSH. If the dB setting is not altered, a large reflector in the same material
at 40mm will give a signal at 40% FSH (inverse law).

80% FSH

20mm

40mm
40% FSH

Figure 6.2 Law of the large reflector.

NDT4-51015
Total Attenuation Loss 6-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
6.1.2 Law of the small reflector
Small reflectors outside three near zones obey the inverse square law.

A small reflector at 20mm, if it is beyond three near zones, gives a signal at

80% FSH. If the dB setting is not changed, a similar reflector in the same
material at 40mm will give a signal at 20% FSH (inverse square law).

20mm
80%
FSH BWE

BWE
40mm

20%
FSH

Figure 6.3 Law of the small reflector (ie smaller than the beam width).

Sound energy is lost in other ways:

 Reflection inside the probe.
 Scattering from a rough surface.
 Non-metallic inclusions or laminations in test material.
 Reflection from the surface of the test piece.
 Mode change.

NDT4-51015
Total Attenuation Loss 6-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Measurement of material attenuation
a Place a compression probe on a piece of the test material and turn the
backwall echo to FSH. Note: If the back wall echo (BWE) is within three
near zones of the probe, use the first BWE outside the distance of three
near zones.

b Obtain an echo from twice the distance of the BWE used and increase the
signal height until it is at FSH. Note: The dB difference.

c To remove the effects of beam spread we subtract 6dB (due to beam spread
loss) from the dB difference and divide the remainder by the distance the
sound has travelled between the two echoes. This is twice the distance
shown on the CRT, as the sound has to travel to the backwall and back to
trigger the probe.

d The answer will give the number of decibels lost per millimetre by
attenuation. This can give an assessment of plate quality and heat
treatment.

If the difference between the first and second backwall echoes from a 75mm
thick block of steel was 9dB, what is the attenuation of the material?

9dB due to beam spread and attenuation combined.

9dB - 6dB = 3dB

This gives 3dB due to attenuation only as the sound travels through the block.

The 75mm block gives a sound path for the pulse echo of 150mm; the sound
has to travel to the backwall, then back to the probe:

3/150 = 0.02

The attenuation within the block is 0.02dB/mm.

If we need the answer in dB/m, multiply by 1000 (1000mm in a metre):

Attenuation is 20dB/m.

Attenuation checks have to be made when dealing with distance amplitude

correction (DAC) and distance gain size (DGS) systems; these will be discussed
later.

NDT4-51015
Total Attenuation Loss 6-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 7
Acoustic Impedance
7 Acoustic Impedance
When a sound pulse arrives at an interface between different materials at right
angles, some sound is reflected back into the material from whence it came.
The rest of the sound, however, is transmitted into the second material. This is
due to the difference in acoustic impedance of the two materials and is known
as acoustic impedance mismatch or sometimes as interface behaviour.

We can calculate how much sound is transmitted and how much sound is
reflected back if we know the acoustic impedance of both materials.

Acoustic impedance is represented by the letter Z and is the velocity of sound in

the material multiplied by the material density:

Z  V

Where  (the Greek letter rho) is the density and V is the sound velocity
(compressional or shear, depending on the case).

Once we know the acoustic impedances of two materials, we can use a formula
to work out how much sound will be reflected back. The formula is:

2
 Z1  Z 2 
  x100  % reflected
 Z1  Z 2 

Where Z1 is the acoustic impedance of the first material and Z2 is the acoustic
impedance of the second material.

Example
To calculate the amount of energy reflected back at a steel-water interface, we
must find out the acoustic impedances of steel and water. They are:

Z1 (steel) = 46.7 x 106 kg/m2s

Z2 (water) = 1.48 x 106 kg/m2s

So, applying the formula:

2
 46.7  1.48 
  x100
 46.7  1.48 
2
 45.22 
  x100
 48.18 

0.938562 x 100

0.8809 x 100 = 88.09%

88% of the sound energy is reflected back at the interface. This means that
12% of the energy is transmitted at the interface. Using the same formula, the
figures for other media can be worked out. At a steel/oil interface, 91% of
sound energy is reflected back; at a glycerine/steel interface, 90% of energy is
reflected back.

NDT4-51015
Acoustic Impedance 7-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 These substances, water, oil and glycerine, are used as couplants in ultrasonics
to transmit sound energy from the probe into the test materials. So in fact, only
about 10% of the energy generated by the probe crystal actually gets through
the couplant into the test material.

When examining a piece of steel with a compression probe, we pass at most

about 10% of sound energy from the crystal into the steel. Even if all that
energy is reflected back from the backwall or a large flaw in the steel, only 10%
of the returning energy will pass back through the interface into the probe.
Consequently, at most 1% of energy generated by a probe crystal will come
back into a probe, a very small amount indeed. A rule of thumb with UT is that
whatever happens to sound going in one direction, happens also in the reverse
direction.

Table 7.1 Characteristic acoustic impedance for different materials.

Material Characteristic impedance

(106kg/m2s)

Aluminium 17

Brass 36

Copper 41

Lead 27

Magnesium 93

Nickel 50

Steel 46.7

Glass 18

Polystyrene 29

Oil 1.3

Water 1.4

Air 0.0041

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Acoustic Impedance 7-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 8
Snell’s Law
8 Snell’s Law
When sound waves pass obliquely (not at 90°) between materials having
different acoustic velocities, the direction of sound propagation is changed on
passing through the interface and the sound wave is said to have been
refracted.

Light is also refracted when passing from one medium to another with a
different velocity; this means that objects seen across an interface appear to be
shifted relative to where they really are.

Incident

Transmitted

Figure 8.1 Refraction.

Snell’s law states that the ratio between sound speeds in two materials is the
same as the ratio between the sine of the incident and refracted angles (to the
vertical).

sin I V1
I 
Material 1
sin R V2

Where:
I = Incident angle
R = Refracted angle
V1 = Velocity in material 1
Material 2
V2 = Velocity in material 2
R

Figure 8.2 Snell’s law.

NTD4-51015
Snell’s Law 8-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 If we want to make a probe transmitting a shear wave at a certain angle, we
have to transpose the formula:

sin R V1
sin I 
V2

For example, if we want a probe giving a 45 shear wave in steel, we must
calculate the angle at which to cut the Perspex wedge - the incident angle. The
compression speed of sound in Perspex is 2730m/s, the shear speed of sound in
steel is 3250m/s and the refracted angle we need is 45.

sin45 o x2730
sin I 
3250

0.7071x2730
sin I 
3250

sin I  0.594

I  36.44 o

However, when the incident angle in the Perspex shoe is less than 27, both
compression and shear waves are generated in the steel. This makes
interpretation very confusing. To get a shear wave on its own, the angle of
incidence must be more than 27.4, called the first critical angle. This gives a
shear wave of 33 (the lowest standard angle probe manufactured is 35).

C 20º

Perspex

Steel 48.3º
C
24º
S

Figure 8.3 Two sound modes.

NTD4-51015
Snell’s Law 8-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 If the incident angle is above 57.14, the shear wave is replaced by a surface
wave. This angle is called the second critical angle.

C C C
27.4
57.14

Perspex Perspex
C

S
Steel Steel

33
S

Figure 8.4(a) First critical angle. (b) Second critical angle.

The largest probe angle below a surface (90°) wave probe available from
manufacturers without a special order is 80.

Shear waves on their own in steel are only possible when the incident angles
are between 27.4 and 57.14. This is worked out by the probe manufacturers
and it must be borne in mind that a probe which gives a refracted angle of 45
in steel will give a different refracted angle in other materials.

8.1 Critical angle calculation

Snell’s law can be used for working out critical angles in non-ferrous metals. For
example, during immersion scanning the incident material is water, so a whole
new set of angles need to be worked out.

The first critical angle is the incident angle at which the compression wave in
the test material is generated at 90. So using Snell’s law:

sin I 2730
o

sin 90 5960

sin 90 o  1

2730
sin I 
5960

NTD4-51015
Snell’s Law 8-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The second critical angle is the incident angle at which a shear wave is
generated in the material at 90. Use Snell’s law again:

sin I 2730 m/s

o

sin 90 3240 m/s

2730
sin I 
3240

sin I  0.8245

I  57.4 o

8.2 Mode conversion

When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be
transformed into another. When a longitudinal wave strikes an interface at an
angle, some of the energy can cause particle movement in the transverse
direction to start a shear (transverse) wave. This phenomenon is referred to as
mode conversion and will occur every time a wave encounters an interface
between materials of different acoustic impedance and the incident angle is not
at 90 to the interface. Mode conversion can, therefore, cause numerous
spurious indications to arise during an inspection which the inspector must
eliminate.

NTD4-51015
Snell’s Law 8-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 9
Probe Design
9 Probe Design
In the US, a probe is usually called a search unit or formerly a transducer.
However, we generally now understand the transducer to be the crystal. There
are a number of probe designs and configurations. We shall deal with those
most commonly used in weld, aerospace and general ultrasonic testing.

9.1 Compression wave probes

Compression probes (see Figures 9.1 and 9.2) generate compressional or
longitudinal waves in test materials and are sometimes called normal degree
probes. A typical compression probe is composed of a crystal in a metal or
plastic housing, with wires connected to it which carry the electrical pulse from
the flaw detector and cause the crystal to vibrate. The crystal is surrounded by
a damping material at the back to restrict vibration and a plastic disc in front to
prevent crystal wear.

Electrical
connectors
Housing

Damping

Transducer

Figure 9.1 Compression wave probe: Schematic drawing.

Figure 9.2 Compression wave probe: Cross section.

NDT4-51015
Probe Design 9-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
9.2 Angle probes
An angle probe is a piezo-electric crystal mounted on a Perspex wedge at an
angle calculated to generate a shear (transverse) wave in the test material.

The wedge is made of Perspex because:

a The compressional speed of sound in Perspex (2730m/s) is lower than the

shear velocity of sound in steel (3250m/s) so refracted angles are greater
than incident angles.

b Perspex is very absorptive and attenuates unwanted echoes from the

compressional wave as it hits the Perspex test material interface.

The piezo-electric crystal generates a compressional wave which it transmits

into the Perspex wedge. When the compressional wave hits the bottom surface
of the wedge, most of the energy is reflected away from the interface and back
into the Perspex. It is damped by tungsten powder in epoxy resin on the
Perspex wedge.

I
C

S R

Figure 9.3 Angle probe: Photograph and schematic drawing.

If there is no couplant on the bottom surface of the Perspex wedge, all the
energy is reflected back into the probe. If there is couplant and if the probe is
placed on a test material, sound energy passes into the test material and
generates a shear wave. Angle probes use compression probes mounted on a
wedge of Perspex. The wedge of such a probe is cut to a particular angle to
enable the beam to refract into the test material at a chosen angle.

Angle probes usually transmit a shear or sometimes a surface wave into test
materials and are used largely in weld testing, casting and forging inspection
and in aerospace applications.

9.3 Twin crystal probes

A single crystal probe transmits and receives ultrasound with one crystal: the
crystal transmits the pulse and vibrates when the pulse returns from a backwall
echo or a flow. However, when a single crystal probe is used, a signal appears
on the screen at the beginning of the time base. It is caused by vibrations
immediately adjacent to the crystal and is known by several names: initial
pulse, transmission signal, crystal strike or main bang.

For a single crystal probe, the length of the initial pulse is the dead zone and
any signal from a reflector at a shorter distance than this will be concealed in
the initial pulse.

NDT4-51015
Probe Design 9-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 In twin crystal probes, the initial pulse is deliberately delayed beyond the left of
the time base by mounting the transducers of a twin (or double) crystal probe
onto plastic wedges. This, in addition to the focusing of the crystals, reduces
the dead zone considerably and flaws can be assessed anywhere except where
the transmission and receptive beams do not overlap.

A twin or double crystal probe is designed to minimise the problem of the dead
zone. A twin crystal probe has two crystals mounted on Perspex shoes, angled
slightly inward to focus at a set distance in the test material. If the crystals
were not angled, the pulse would be reflected straight back into the
transmitting crystal.

Figure 9.4 Twin crystal probe: Photograph and schematic drawing.

The Perspex shoes hold the crystals away from the test surface so that the
initial pulse does not appear on the CRT screen. The dead zone is greatly
reduced to the region adjoining the test surface, where the transmission and
reception beams do not overlap.

Additional advantages of double crystal probes:

 Can be focused.
 Can measure thin plates.
 Can detect near-surface flaws.
 Good near-surface resolution.

Disadvantages:
 Good contact is difficult with curved surfaces.
 Difficult to size small defects accurately as the width of a double crystal
probe is usually greater than that of a single crystal probe.
 The amplitude of a signal decreases the further a reflector is situated from
the focal distance - a response curve can be made out.

Therefore single and twin crystal probes are complementary.

NDT4-51015
Probe Design 9-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
9.4 Other probe types
Immersion probes are designed for use where the test part is immersed in
water. They are typically used inside a water tank or as part of a squirter or
bubbler system in scanning applications. Immersion transducers usually have
an impedance matching layer that helps to get more sound energy into the
water and thus into the component being inspected. Immersion transducers can
be purchased in a flat, cylindrically or spherically focused lens. A focused
transducer can improve sensitivity and axial resolution by concentrating the
sound energy to a smaller area.

Delay line probes, as the name implies, introduce a time delay between the
generation of the sound wave and the arrival of any reflected waves. This
allows the crystal to complete its transmission function before it begins to
receive returning signals. Delay line transducers are recommended for
applications that require a contact transducer with good near-surface resolution
and are designed for use in applications such as high-precision thickness
gauging of thin materials and delamination checks in composite materials. They
are also useful in high temperature measurement applications since the delay
line provides some heat insulation to the piezo-electric element.

High frequency broadband probes with frequencies between 20 and 150MHz

are commercially available and can dramatically improve flaw resolution and
thickness measurement capabilities.

NDT4-51015
Probe Design 9-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 10
Test Techniques
10 Test Techniques
10.1 Pulse echo

Ultrasonic inspections are largely performed by the pulse echo technique, in

which a single probe is used to both transmit and receive ultrasound. In
addition to the fact that access is required from one surface only, a further
advantage of this technique is that it gives an indication of not only the type of
defect but also its size and exact location within the item being tested.

The major disadvantage is that pulse echo inspection is reliant upon the defects
having the correct orientation relative to the beam in order to generate a
returning signal to the probe and is therefore not considered fail safe (see
Figures 10.1 and 10.2). If the sound pulse hits the flaw at an angle other than
90°, much of the energy will be reflected away and not return to the probe with
the result that the flaw will not show up on the screen.

Figure 10.1 Schematic drawing of the pulse echo technique showing specular
reflection from a discontinuity: Normal compression probe.

Figure 10.2 Schematic drawing of the pulse echo technique showing specular
reflection from a discontinuity: Shear wave angle probe.

10.2 Through-transmission
Through-transmission was used in the early days of UT and is still used in plate
and bar production. A probe on one side of a component transmits an ultrasonic
pulse to a receptor/receiver probe on the other side. The absence of a pulse
arriving at the receiver indicates a defect.

NDT4-51015
Test Techniques 10-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 T No defect

Transmission
signal

T Defect
Transmission signal
reduced

Figure 10.3 Through-transmission.

Advantages
 Less attenuation of sound energy.
 No probe ringing.
 No dead zone on the screen.
 Orientation of a defect does not matter as much as on the pulse echo
display.

Disadvantages
 Defect cannot be located.
 Defect cannot be identified.
 Component surfaces must be parallel.
 Vertical defects do not show.
 Process must be automated.
 Requires access to both sides of the component.

NDT4-51015
Test Techniques 10-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
10.3 Tandem scanning
Tandem scanning is used mainly to locate defects lying perpendicular to the
surface. It involves the use of two or more angle probes of the same angle of
incidence and facing the same direction with one probe acting as the
transmitter and the others as receivers.

T R R R R R

Figure 10.4 Tandem scanning (T=Transmitter, R=Receiver).

10.4 Contact scanning

Contact scanning is defined by BS EN 1330 as scanning by means of (an)
ultrasonic probe(s) in direct contact with the object under examination (with or
without couplant). A thin film of couplant between the probe and the test
surface usually serves to transmit ultrasound, to lubricate the surface and to
reduce wear on the probe face. Ideally the acoustic impedance of the couplant
should be between that of the probe (Perspex) and that of the material under
test.

10.5 Gap scanning

Gap scanning is a technique in which the probe is not in direct contact with the
surface of the specimen but rather coupled to it through a column of liquid no
more than a few wavelengths thick.

Figure 10.5 Gap scanning.

NDT4-51015
Test Techniques 10-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
10.6 Immersion testing
Immersion testing involves the test object being submerged in a liquid, usually
water and the probe being scanned at a fixed distance above the component.
The water serves to provide constant coupling conditions and amounts to a long
fluid delay line. Although the probe itself requires a compression wave, shear
waves can be produced within the sample by angulation of the probe. This
technique frequently uses high frequency probes (25-50MHz) and focused
probes for automated inspections and is suited to the inspection of complex
components, see eg BS M36: Ultrasonic Testing of Special Forgings By an
Immersion Technique.

Wheel probes, squirters and bubblers are also considered to be immersion

systems.
Front surface Back surface

Water path
distance

Water path distance

Figure 10.6 Immersion scanning.

10.7 Presentation

C – Plan view

B – End View

D – Side View

Figure 10.7 B, C and D scans.

NDT4-51015
Test Techniques 10-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 10.8 P scan image.

Scan image consisting of (from top to bottom):

 Top view – C scan.
 Side view - D scan.
 Echo view - A scan (cumulative).
 End view - B scan.
 Projection view – P scan.

10.7.1 A scan
The flaw detector or UT set sends ultrasound energy into test materials. Some
of this energy returns to the set to be presented as information on a cathode
ray tube (CRT) screen. This is an A scan display with the amplitude of signals
displayed as a function of time or distance.

10.7.2 B scan
This gives an end or cross-sectional view of the component being examined,
with the position of the probe displayed on one axis and the distance from the
surface to the signal on the other (see Figure 10.7). The B scan is used in
hospitals and on aircraft components. It is often used with specimens immersed
in water and with an automated scanning device.

NDT4-51015
Test Techniques 10-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
10.7.3 C scan
The C scan gives a plan view of a defect (see Figure 10.7). It is often used as
an automated process to map out laminations in plate. It gives the area of a
defect, so it is good for plotting the extent of laminations in metal sheets.

10.7.4 D scan
The D scan gives a side view of the defect seen from a viewpoint normal to the
B scan (see Figure 10.7). It is usually automated and shows the length, depth
and through thickness of a defect. The D scan should not be confused with the
delta technique.

NDT4-51015
Test Techniques 10-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 11
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
11 Ultrasonic Flaw Detector
11.1 Principles
The ultrasonic flaw detector, which is part of the UT set, sends a voltage down a
coaxial cable (sometimes called the lead) to a probe. The piezo-electric crystal
in the probe is hit by the voltage and vibrates. The vibration creates an
ultrasonic pulse which enters the test material. The pulse travels through the
material until it strikes a reflector and is reflected back to the probe.

It re-enters the probe, hits the crystal and vibrates it, causing it to generate a
voltage. The voltage causes a current which travels back to the flaw detector
along the cable. The set displays the time the pulse has taken through the test
material and therefore the distance travelled back and the strength amplitude
of the pulse as a signal on the CRT screen.

In essence, a UT set transmits energy into a material via a probe and measures
the time in microseconds that the sound pulse takes to return to the probe. The
controls on the UT set are almost entirely concerned with presenting a display
on the CRT screen for the operator to interpret.

Sweep
Timer generator

Pulser
H

Amplifier
V

Probe

Figure 11.1 Block diagram of an ultrasonic flaw detector instrument.

11.2 Cathode ray tube

The cathode ray tube (CRT) is a device for measuring very small periods of
time. The CRT displays electrical pulses on a screen in a linear time/distance
relationship. This means that the longer the distance on the on-screen time
base, the longer the time that has been measured.

How the CRT works

A filament is heated in a vacuum tube. The heat causes the particles of the
filament to vibrate and electrons start ‘boiling’ out of the surface, a process
known as thermionic emission.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector 11-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 A positive potential electric charge is positioned further down the vacuum tube
and the negatively charged electrons from the filament are attracted towards it.

The electrons pass through a negatively charged focusing ring which pushes
them towards the centre of the tube, forcing them into a fine stream. This
stream of electrons hits a phosphor-covered screen at the end of the tube. The
electron bombardment forces the phosphor to give out light and a green dot
appears on the screen.

The X and Y plates above, below and beside the electron stream carry
potentials that move the electron stream from side to side and up and down,
moving the green dot on the screen.

The X plates control horizontal movement and the Y plates control vertical
movement. By altering the potential of the X and Y plates, the dot can be
moved on the screen.

11.3 Pulse generation

The pulse generator in a UT set is a timer which gives out a number of electrical
pulses every second. This is called the pulse repetition rate or pulse repetition
frequency (PRF) and must not be confused with probe frequency.

The PRF on most sets is about 1000 pulses/s, though this can be varied on
most sets from 50 for thick specimens to 1250 pulses/s for thinner specimens.

The pulse generator sends the pulse to the time base generator on the CRT and
to the pulse transmitter.

The time base generator sends the green dot moving across the CRT screen by
generating a charge in the X plates in the tube.

Simultaneously the pulse transmitter sends an electric voltage down the coaxial
cable to the piezo-electric crystal in the probe. The crystal vibrates, transmitting
the pulse of sound into the test material.

At the end of each pulse, the green dot on the CRT screen flies back to the left-
hand side of the screen to await the next pulse.

If the test material is thick, the dot must travel across the screen fairly slowly,
as the pulse repetition rate is lowered. Only one pulse may be in the test
material at any one time or confusing echoes will result. For this reason the PRF
is lowered when thicker specimens are examined.

11.4 Range control

The range control varies the speed of the green dot across the screen. It is
divided into the coarse range, which allows large changes in range (eg 10 to
100 to 500mm), and the fine range which allows small adjustments in distance
between these. As mentioned above, the dot travels slowly for thick specimens,
while for thin specimens its speed is increased. Adjusting the speed of the dot
in relation to the time taken for the sound pulse to enter the test specimen and
to be reflected back to the probe is called setting a time base.

If the speed of the dot across the screen is not even, as a result of equipment
failure, we say the time base is not linear. Flaw detectors should be checked
frequently to assess time base linearity.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector 11-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.5 Delay
The delay control makes the time base generator wait before sending the green
dot moving across the screen.

Twin crystal and angle probes have Perspex blocks or wedges between the
crystal and the test material. This need not be shown on the CRT screen, so we
adjust the delay to move it sideways off the display, so the passage of the
ultrasound through the Perspex in the probe does not appear on the screen.

You can also use the delay control to wait until the sound has travelled part of
the way through the test piece itself before representation on the screen. For
example, if you only want to look at the bottom 25mm of a 200mm specimen,
you can adjust the delay so that the green dot begins to travel across the
screen at 175mm. During thickness checks, this can make for more accurate
readings for thicker specimens.

11.6 Calibrated gain/attenuator control

If the sound pulse sent into the test material is reflected back at the proper
angle, it returns to the probe and hits the receiver crystal. The crystal sends a
current back to the UT set. For technical reasons this current must be very
small.

The current returning to the set goes to an amplifier which increases it and
filters out irrelevant signals. The returning current is alternating (AC) and must
therefore pass through the rectifier before going to the CRT.

The rectified current now goes to the attenuator, which uses a variable
resistance to control the current passed on to the CRT. The greater the
resistance, the smaller the current. This attenuator is controlled by the
calibrated gain/attenuator control on the set.

From the attenuator, the current goes to the Y plates in the CRT. When the
current hits the Y plates, they pull the electron stream upwards and the green
dot jumps from the bottom of the screen to make a signal. The height of the
signal is increased or decreased by turning the gain up or down.

This control is a method of controlling the amplitude of a signal. It is also a

means of comparing the height of one signal with the height of another. So the
UT set can tell us two things:

a The position of a reflector below the probe.

b The comparative amount of energy reflected from that reflector.

We can find the latter by comparing a signal from the reflector in the test piece
with a signal from an artificial reflector in a reference block.

11.7 Reject/suppression control

When measuring high attenuating material, there is often a corresponding high
level of grass (US: hash) on the time base. It is possible to reduce this to an
acceptable level by means of the reject/suppression control and, providing the
calibration is verified, accurate thickness measurements are possible. However,
reject often makes the vertical axis non-linear so must NOT be used if readings
related to the decibel are made.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector 11-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
11.8 The decibel
Gain is measured in decibel (dB) - tenths of a unit called a bel. When we
compare the height of two signals on the CRT screen, we are in fact comparing
the electric voltage that is being sent to the Y plates; electric voltage is
proportional to the square of the current. To compare two signals, we must use
a formula that takes account of this fact (see Section 1.4).

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Flaw Detector 11-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 12
Calibration and Sensitivity
12 Calibration and Sensitivity
Angle probes, initial checks and calibration
Before we can start to use an angle probe, we need to find out more about it.
For instance:

a Where is the sound coming out of the Perspex shoe?

b Is it the angle that it is supposed to be?
c Has the angle changed since it was last used?

So we must check the probe before we can calibrate the time base for use. The
following paragraphs also describe a number of other performance checks which
should be carried out at specified intervals.

12.1 Finding the probe index

The point at which the centre of the beam leaves the probe and enters the test
material is called the probe index or emission point. It should be marked on
each side of the probe and checked regularly. As the probe surface wears down,
the probe index can change. Stand-off measurements are taken from the probe
index and used to check the probe angle (another check that the UT technician
must perform regularly), so this is the master reference point or datum.

To find the probe index, place the probe on a Calibration Block No 1 (see BS EN
ISO 2400 Ultrasonic Testing Specification for Calibration Block No 1), also
referred to as a V1 Block, and obtain an echo from the 100mm radius and
establish it at more than 50% FSH using the gain control. Maximise the echo by
moving the probe backwards and forwards. Mark a line on each side of the
probe directly above the slots which indicate the centre of the 100mm radius.
This is the probe index, where the axis of the beam leaves the Perspex shoe.

Figure 12.1 Determination of probe index:

a Calibration Block No 1;
b Schematic drawing of Calibration Block No 1 with angle probe at 100mm
radius;
c ‘A’ scan display.

NDT4-51015
Calibration and Sensitivity 12-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
12.2 Checking the probe angle
For a 45 or 60 probe, place it on the Calibration Block No 1, approximately
adjacent to where the appropriate angle is inscribed, directed towards the
plastic insert. Obtain a signal on the screen from the plastic insert and
maximise it. Find the position where the probe index coincides with the angle
indicated on the side of the No 1 Block and this will tell you the probe angle.

This procedure can be repeated for a 70 probe, but reflecting the energy from
the plastic insert radius is unreliable. Therefore we suggest you use the 1.5mm
hole as a target.

Figure 12.2 Determination of probe angle:

a and b Angle probe in position;
c ‘A’ scan display.

12.3 Calibration of shear waves for range

12.3.1 Calibration with the Calibration Block No 1 (V1 block)
By range in angle probe testing we mean the distance a reflector is from the
probe index.

It is possible on some flaw detectors to calibrate the time base to 100mm range
from the Calibration Block No 1. However, this involves delaying the signal by
100mm and not all equipment can do this on the appropriate scale expansion
setting, so we will confine ourselves to calibrating for 200mm full screen width.

Place the probe on the Calibration Block No 1 and obtain a boundary echo from
the 100mm radius. Establish this signal to more than 50%FSH using the gain
control. Further maximise the echo by moving the probe backwards and
forwards, then keep the probe stationary.

Wind in or out on the scale expansion/range control to establish a second

boundary echo at 200mm range.

NDT4-51015
Calibration and Sensitivity 12-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Place the signal from 100mm at 5 (half scale) on the time base and the one
from 200mm at 10 (full scale), using the delay and range controls. The time
base is calibrated for 200mm; longer ranges can be catered for in multiples of
100mm.

However, the Calibration Block No 1 is bulky and inconvenient for site work, so
it is not always possible to calibrate for 100mm and we tend to use the
Calibration Block No 2 (also referred to as the V2 Block).

5 10

Figure 12.3: Calibration of the time base (range) of the flaw detector:
a Schematic drawing of shear wave probe positioned on Block No 2;
b ‘A’ scan display.

12.3.2 Calibration with the Calibration Block No 2 (V2 block)

The V2 Block (see BS EN ISO 7963 Non Destructive Testing: Ultrasonic Testing;
Specification for Calibration Block No 2) is the most convenient calibration block
to use with angle probes. It has two arcs, at 25 and at 50mm (see Figure 12.4).

12.3.3 Calibration for 100mm

Place the probe on the block and point it at the 25mm arc. Adjust the delay and
range controls until you have two signals on the screen; the first will represent
25mm and the second will represent 100mm. Maximise the signals by sliding
the probe forward and backward. Adjust range and delay until the first echo
comes a quarter of the way across the screen at 2.5 and the second echo
comes at the extreme edge of the screen on the right-hand side at 10.

The time base now represents 100mm. Check this by turning the probe around
and pointing it at the 50mm arc. If you have calibrated correctly, the signal
when maximised will come up exactly in the middle of the screen at 5.

NDT4-51015
Calibration and Sensitivity 12-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 2.5 10
a c

Figure 12.4 Calibrations using Block No 2:

a Schematic drawing of Block No 2 with angle probe, first reflection at 25mm
and second at 100mm;
b Block No 2 with 25mm and 75mm arc (radius);
c ‘A’ scan display for probe in position as pictured in a.

12.3.4 Calibration for 200mm

Point the probe at the 50mm arc on the Block No 2 and obtain three echoes on
the screen. These represent 50, 125 and 200mm. Maximise these signals by
sliding the probe forward and backward. Adjust the range and delay until the
first signal comes a quarter of the way across the screen at 2.5 and the third
echo comes at the extreme edge of the screen at 10.

2.5 6.25 10
a b

Figure 12.5 Block No 2 Calibration for 200mm range:

a Schematic drawing of Calibration Block No 2 with probe partitioned for the
50mm arc (radius);
b ‘A’ scan display with echoes at 2.5 (50mm), 6.25 (125mm) and 10 (200mm).

NDT4-51015
Calibration and Sensitivity 12-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Calibration for 250mm
Point the probe at the 25mm radius arc on a Calibration Block No 2 (V2 Block)
and adjust the set until you get four echoes. These represent 25, 100, 175 and
250mm. Maximise these signals by sliding the probe forward and backward.
Adjust range and delay until the first echo comes one tenth of the way across
the screen at 1 and the fourth echo comes at the extreme edge of screen at 10.
Check on a Calibration Block No 1. On the 100mm arc you should get one echo
4/10 across the screen and the other 7/10 across the screen.

1 4 7 10
a b

Figure 12.6 Block No 2 Calibration for 250mm range:

a Schematic drawing of Calibration Block No 2 with probe positioned for the
25mm arc (radius);
b ‘A’ scan display with echoes at 1 (25mm), 4 (100mm), 7 (175mm) and 10
(250mm).

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Calibration and Sensitivity 12-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 13
Flaw Location
13 Flaw Location
You can calculate the location of a flaw by using trigonometric formulas as
shown below. You need to know the angle of the probe and the stand-off
measured from the centre of a weld.

Stand-off

Depth = cos  x range

Stand-off = sin  x range


Depth
Range

Figure 13.1 Reflector depth and probe stand-off as a function of probe angle.

A general rule of thumb used to calculate the depth of an indication from the
range on the screen is:

 45° probe - range is approximately 1.5 x depth.

 60° probe - range is exactly 2 x depth.
 70° probe - range is approximately 3 x depth.

It is quicker and easier, however, to use a flaw location slide and a beam plot or
even a piece of clear plastic film with the probe angle drawn on it (see Figure
13.2). Use the slide as follows:

a Draw a cross section of the weld on the transparent outer envelope of the
slide.
b Draw a mirror image of the weld cross section immediately under it if the
sound energy is going to bounce off the backwall, ie using full skip.
c Use the printed datum line on the plastic envelope as the centre of the weld
and measure all stand-offs from it.
d Maximise the echo from a defect and mark where the index point falls on
the parent metal. Measure its distance from the centre of the weld.

Note: The defect on a sketch as well as the stand-off and range of the centre of
the defect.

e Move the weld datum line on the plastic envelope to the stand-off distance.
f Look along the centre of the beam plot until you come to the range shown
on the screen.
g Make a mark on the envelope; this represents the centre of the defect. It
shows the position of the defect in the weld body.

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Flaw Location 13-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Stand-off

Range

Stand-off

Range

Figure 13.2 Determination of flaw location using the flaw location slide:
a Probe position for ‘full skip’ into the weld for detection of side wall defect;
b Flaw location slide showing graduated range, stand-off and defect depth.

NDT4-51015
Flaw Location 13-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Section 14
Flaw Sizing
14 Flaw Sizing
14.1 The 6dB drop sizing method
This method is used for sizing large reflectors. If the probe is moved until the
signal amplitude from a reflector drops to half its original screen height, then it
can be said that the sound beam is half on and half off the reflector. So by
moving the probe until the signal from the end of a large reflector halves in
height, we can estimate that the edge of the reflector is immediately below the
centre of the probe.

This method is called the 6dB drop sizing method because the amplitude of the
signal drops by half, which corresponds to 6dB, when the probe is moved to the
edge of a large reflector.

Note: The last peak on the screen before the probe goes off the end of the
reflector is usually considered as the peak of the reflector, rather than the
maximum signal from the reflector.

a c
Probe

Defect

b d

6dB
BWE
Defect
signal

Figure 14.1: 6dB drop sizing:

a Maximum signal position of probe;
b ‘A’ scan response at maximum signed height;
c Probe position for signal at 50% of maximum response;
d ‘A’ scan response at 50% of maximum response, ie 6dB drop from maximum
echo height.

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Flaw Sizing 14-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
14.2 The 20dB drop sizing method
We can use a beam plot to find the edge of a defect by using the edge of the
sound beam.

If we know the width of a beam at a certain distance from the crystal, we can
mark the distance across a defect from where the extreme edges of the beam
touch each end of the defect and then subtract the beam width to get the
defect size.

When the signal from the defect drops by 20dB from its peak, we judge that the
edge of the beam is just touching the end through-thickness extremity of the
defect. We can find the width of the sound beam at that range by consulting the
beam plot we have made.

Note: The last peak on the screen before the probe goes off the end of the
defect is usually considered as the peak of the defect, rather than the maximum
signal from the defect.

Maximum signal response.

100%

10%

a b c

Figure 14.2 Probe and ‘A’ scan displays:

a Top edge of the ultrasonic beam detecting the bottom edge of the defect;
b Maximum signal response from the defect;
c Bottom edge of the ultrasonic beam detecting the top edge of the defect.

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Flaw Sizing 14-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
14.3 Construction of a beam edge plot - 20dB
Find the hole at a depth of 13mm on an IOW block with a 0 probe and
maximise the signal. Move the probe until you get the highest signal you can
from the hole, then turn the signal to FSH using gain. Mark the position of the
middle of the probe on the side of the block.

13mm

Move the probe to one side until the signal drops to 10% FSH (-20dB) and mark
the centre of the probe on the side of the block.

Move the probe to the other side of the hole until the signal drops to 10% FSH
(-20dB) and mark the centre of the probe on the block.

Use the distances between the marks on the block to plot the beam on a piece
of graph paper. Measure 13mm depth on the paper then mark the distances of
the probe centre at -20dB from the beam centre at 100% FSH on either side.

13mm

Now find the 25mm hole and maximise the signal, turning it to 100% FSH.
Move the probe to either side of the hole, marking the centre of the probe on
the side of the block where the signal drops by 20dB.

Measure 25mm on the paper and use the distances on the block to plot the
beam dimensions at 25mm.

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Flaw Sizing 14-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 13mm

25mm

Repeat using the 32mm hole. Join up the points marking the probe centre at
20dB to obtain a beam plot.

13mm

25mm

32mm

Figure 14.3 Construction of the 20db beam plot:

a Maximum signal – centre beam;
b-e Determination of the 20dB ultrasonic beam edge.

Note: We have only drawn the beam width in one plane, so the probe must be
marked accordingly and used to measure defects in this plane. We use
knowledge of the beam spread to size defects, find their edges and hence their
width, length and sometimes orientation.

14.4 Constructing an angle beam plot

An IOW reference block is convenient for constructing a beam plot. It has a
number of 1.5mm side-drilled holes at different depths and is used mainly for
setting sensitivity. Use a 20dB beam edge for 45 and 60 probes, but use a
10dB beam edge for 70 probes. With the 70 probe, a 20dB beam spread is so
wide and difficult to construct that it is effectively useless.

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Flaw Sizing 14-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 14.4 IOW reference block with 1.5mm side-drilled holes at different
depths.

We will start with a 60 probe. Using the probe, find the hole which is 13mm
below the top surface and maximise the signal to 100% FSH. Mark where the
index point comes on the block with a pencil or crayon. Move the probe forward
until the signal drops to one tenth screen height (20dB drop). Make a second
mark on the block where the index point on the probe stands on the block.

Maximum signal response

100%

10%

Figure 14.5 Angle beam plot construction.

Move the probe backwards until the signal maximises and then drops down to
1/10 screen height. Mark where the index point now stands and draw a vertical
line on the block from the hole to the upper edge. Measure the distances of the
three index point marks from the top of the line and note them down.

Now find an echo from the 19mm deep hole and repeat the process, noting the
distances and repeat the process a third time using the 25mm hole.

Take the slide out of a beam plotting chart and draw three faint lines across it
at depths of 13, 19 and 25mm.

Transfer the distances of the index points from the vertical lines to the relevant
pencil lines on the chart. Join the marks up. The centre line represents the main

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Flaw Sizing 14-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 energy of the beam and the other two marks represent the leading and trailing
edges of the beam.

With a 45 probe, use the 19, 25 and 32mm depth holes as the 13mm hole may
be in the probes near zone.

Use a 10dB drop with a 70 probe and instead of dropping the signal to 1/10
FSH for the leading and trailing edges, use the 3/10 line on the screen.

14.5 Proving the beam plot

Use the six side-drilled holes in the IOW block:
Use the corner of the block as a reference point from which to measure stand-
offs.

On the cover of the beam plotting chart, use the corner of the block to
represent the centre line.

Calibrate the probe to 100mm (200mm for a 70 probe).

Obtain a signal from the top hole of the six, maximise it, then push the probe
towards the block corner until the signal drops to 1/10 FSH (3/10 for a 70
probe). Mark where the index point occurs on the block and measure the stand-
off. Note the range of the reflector on the screen.

Use the stand-off and the range to plot the defect along the trailing edge of
your beam spread. Mark it on the slide cover.

Now obtain a signal from the bottom hole of the six, maximise it and turn it up
to FSH on your screen. Pull the probe back until the signal drops to 1/10 FSH
(3/10 for a 70 probe). Plot the bottom of the defect on your slide cover using
the leading edge of your beam plot.

Lay the transparent slide over the IOW block; the top and bottom of the drilled
holes should coincide with the marks on the slide. If they do not, your beam
plot is off or you are going wrong somewhere. If they do, you have just sized a
defect by the 20dB drop method (10dB drop for the 70 probe).

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Flaw Sizing 14-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 14.6 Example of bespoke reference block to check beam characteristics
including beam edge resolution and near-zone approximation.

14.6 Modified near zone angle probes

We must now consider the part of the beam which is in the near zone on an
angle shear wave probe because with a beam edge method of flaw sizing, we
cannot assess small defects in the near zone.

However, the beam starts to travel in the plastic wedge and is then refracted
and carries on in the material being tested. We are only concerned with the part
of the beam near zone registering later than zero on the time base, ie in the
test material. This is called the modified near zone.

Here is an example:

A 5MHz shear probe has a 10mm diameter crystal. The beam travels in Perspex
for 10mm. What is the modified near zone?

D2 f
NZ, if totally developed in steel =
4V

10 2 x 5 x 1,000,000
= mm = 38.46mm
4 x 3250 x 1000

We must now subtract the Perspex wedge part of the beam which is 10mm,
multiplied by the ratio of the Perspex and steel velocities which is
10 x 2730/3250 = 8.4mm

Therefore: modified near zone = 38.46 - 8.4 = 30mm.

14.7 Horizontal beam plot

A number of methods can be used to find the -20dB edge of a beam in the
horizontal plane. Some use the ends of the side-drilled holes in the IOW block
to determine the edge. However, we prefer to use the 1.5mm through-drilled
hole in the IOW calibration block.

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Flaw Sizing 14-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Method:
a Place the probe to pick up the 1.5mm hole at ½ skip and maximise the
signal from the intersection of the hole and the opposite face. Mark the
straight edge adjacent to the near centre of the probe to indicate the beam
centre.

b Position a straight edge either in front of or behind the probe to hold the
probe in the fixed transverse position. Scan the probe laterally (sideways)
until the hole signal drops by 20dB. Mark on the straight edge adjacent to
the rear centre position of the probe. This registers half a beam at the ½
skip range.

c Scan the probe laterally the other way, through the maximum signal
position, until the hole signal again drops by 20dB. Mark the straight edge
as before.

d You now have three marks on the straight edge to indicate the beam width
at that range. Transfer these to the beam plotting chart as appropriate.

e Repeat steps a-d, but at full skip and 1½ skip for a 45 probe (only at full
skip for a 60 probe). Note that mode conversion reduces the 1½ skip signal
on a 60 probe to too low a level to be reliable.

f Join up the three points on either side of the centre line to complete the
beam. Only take the lines back to the near zone because the edge is not
reliable beyond that.

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Flaw Sizing 14-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 15
Sensitivity Setting
15 Sensitivity Setting
Setting a sensitivity level is essential to providing reproducible results when the
same inspection is carried out by different operators, using different probe set
combinations and maybe working in different locations. They must all see the
same flaw giving the same signal height and therefore have the same data on
which to base their accept/reject decisions.

There are several systems for setting sensitivity. We have already encountered
the method of setting the first backwall echo (BWE) to FSH for lamination
checks. However, when checking plates adjacent to a weld, the second BWE
should be set to FSH.

When setting the sensitivity, we must be sure that a signal from a defect will be
visible on the CRT screen and that we will be able to distinguish the defect
signal from background noise or grass. All UT sets differ slightly, so we cannot
say, ‘Set the sensitivity to xdB’, as different probes and equipment will give
entirely different signals from the same reflector. The methods of setting
sensitivity have evolved to attain some uniformity.

Different methods are used in different places. At TWI, the IOW block is used as
the recommended method for PCN examinations. On North Sea contracts,
either the distance amplitude correction (DAC) curve or the American Society of
Mechanical Engineering (ASME) curve is used. The DAC method is
recommended in BS EN ISO 17640 (Non-destructive testing of welds –
ultrasonic testing techniques, testing levels and assessment), while in Germany
the distance gain size (DGS) system is usually applied, especially when
evaluating small reflectors.

The purpose of sensitivity setting is to find a gain level sufficient to find a flaw
and depends on the:

a Probe used, in particular its frequency.

b Flaw detector.
c Properties of the test material.
d Ratio of noise to BWE or flaw echo.

15.1 The Institute of Welding (IOW) block

We met the Institute of Welding block when studying beam profiles. The block
contains 1.5mm side-drilled holes at different depths and allows the holes to be
detected from different angles with angle probes. To use it is simple and
straightforward.

Find a hole on the block that approximately coincides with the thickness of the
material you are testing. Double the thickness if you are examining at full skip,
ie bouncing your sound beam off the backwall.

Obtain a signal from the hole and turn the gain control until the signal is at
FSH.

Work out the transfer correction.

You have now set the sensitivity and can be assured that flaws having the
equivalent reflectivity of 1.5mm side-drilled holes will appear on the screen.

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Sensitivity Setting 15-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 This method has several advantages:
 Simple to use.
 Provides a uniform system of reference.
 A fairly large and visible echo is assured from small flaws.
 Side-drilled hole reflectors are independent of angle.

But also some disadvantages:

 Block is heavy and expensive.
 Only applies to 1.5mm side-drilled holes.
 Not a reliable method for sizing defects.
 Sensitivity will be higher for ranges shorter than the SDH used.

Figure 15.1 The IOW reference block containing a series of 1.5mm SDH at
different depths. A 60° angle probe is shown in position on the block.

15.2 Distance amplitude correction (DAC) curves

BS EN ISO 17640 and all US specifications recommend this method. A special
reference block of the same material as the test object is usually necessary,
though the curves can be constructed from an IOW block.

The type of block recommended by BS EN ISO 17640, which is an ASME block,

is shown below.

Figure 15.2 Distance amplitude correction (DAC) reference block.

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Sensitivity Setting 15-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 The procedure described in BS EN ISO 17640 for constructing a DAC curve is:

 Calibrate the time base for the maximum sound path length to be used.
 Adjust the gain so that the amplitude from the series of reflectors falls
between 20 and 80% FSH.
 Without altering the gain setting, maximise the amplitude of each reflector
in turn and mark the tip of the signal, either on the screen or on a
transparent overlay.
 Record the gain setting used for plotting the DAC curve and reference this to
some other reflector, such as the radius in a V calibration block. This action
enables the gain to be reset without the reference block.

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 15.3 DAC construction from a series of reflector SDHs to cover the
thickness range of the test component.

Note: Should the difference in height between the largest and the smallest
echoes exceed the range of 20-80%FSH, the line shall be split and separate
curves plotted at different gain settings. The difference in gain between the two
curves shall be noted.

Examine the test material as instructed in the specifications, comparing the

signals from discontinuities to the curves on your screen. Any signal above the
curve shows a reflector larger than the reference hole. Accept or reject
discontinuities as instructed in the specification you are working to.

Advantages
 A quick way of accepting or rejecting discontinuities without too much time
consumed in sizing reflectors.
 Some idea can be gained of the size of the discontinuities in relation to the
reference holes.
 Uniformity provided by all technicians constructing their curves from the
same test block.

Disadvantages
 Curves must be constructed for each probe in conjunction with each UT set.
 Transfer correction must be worked out.

15.3 Flat-bottomed holes (FBH)

Blocks are drilled with flat-bottomed holes to precise diameters at set distances
from the top of the block. These diameters and distances are stamped on the
side of the block.

When setting sensitivities, the specification or technique will specify the block to
be used and the amplitude of the signal to be obtained from the FBH.

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Sensitivity Setting 15-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Blocks are cut for use with 0 probes or angle probes in different materials. This
method is mostly used in aerospace applications.

Advantages
 Easy to use.
 Uniformity assured when different technicians use the same blocks.
 Blocks can be made from different materials.

Disadvantages
 Fairly rigid system for specific applications.
 Large number of blocks needed for different settings.
 Transfer correction usually needed.
 Blocks for angle probes are rarely cut exactly normal to the beam.

You may hear these blocks called HITT or ALCOA blocks, after the originators.

15.4 Using noise

Work out the maximum range at which you will be examining the test material.
Place the probe on the material with couplant applied. Turn up the gain until
you have 2mm grass on the screen at the maximum range. You will now have
the assurance of knowing that any discontinuity larger than the grain size will
show up on the screen.

Advantages
 Quick and easy.
 No reference block is needed.
 Any defect larger than the material grains will show up.
 No transfer correction needed.

Disadvantages
 No accurate sizing of the defect.
 Discontinuities near the surface of the test material may be hidden in the
grass.

15.5 Transfer correction

Reference blocks usually have smooth machined surfaces, while test objects
frequently have rougher, more uneven surfaces. Also the attenuation of sound
in the reference block might be different to that in the test material. Usually,
the attenuation in the reference block is smaller than that of test material, but
not always. This means that allowances must be made for the differences in
sound energy transfer between probe and test material and probe and
reference block. More energy can be passed into a reference block than into a
rougher surfaced component.

Therefore, the artificial defects in a reference block may give higher amplitude
signals (anything up to 6dB or even more) than signals from similarly sized
discontinuities in the test materials.

Allowances have to be made for this and corrections made for different
surfaces. This allowance is named transfer correction or transfer loss.

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 There are several methods of determining the transfer correction, some
requiring the construction of separate DAC curves and some requiring
calculation according to formulae. Two simple methods are explained below.

15.5.1 Compression probe method

Place the probe on the reference block and turn the BWE up to FSH. Note the
gain settings. Now place the probe on the test material and at a similar range
bring the BWE to FSH. Again note the gain setting. The difference between
them is the transfer correction.

15.5.2 Angle probe method

As you cannot get a BWE with angle probes from a plate or pipe wall, you have
to use two probes with the same angle.

Place the two probes opposite each other on the reference block with one probe
transmitting and the other receiving, so that the sound energy is bounced off
the backwall and caught by the receiving probe (pitch and catch).

Figure 15.4 Schematic drawing of the transfer correction method for angle
probes.

Maximise the signal and adjust the gain until it is at FSH.

Place the two probes on a piece of test material of the same thickness as the
reference block and repeat the process.

Note the difference between the two gain settings. This is the transfer
correction needed.

Other methods of transfer correction are described in EN 17640 and in literature

concerning the distance gain size (DGS) system.

15.6 The distance gain size (DGS) method

The DGS system relies on the laws of large and small reflectors in the far zone
and was developed to relate the amplitude of a signal to various sizes of perfect
disc reflectors (flat-bottomed holes), so it does not actually size flaws but
relates them to an equivalent reflector. The relative heights of signals from
different sizes of flat-bottomed holes at different distances were plotted as
curves.

Reflector sizes are expressed in terms of the probe diameter and distances from
the probe are expressed as multiples of the near zone.

If you have a signal from a flaw at a certain depth, you can compare the signal
size to what the signal of a BWE should be at that depth and estimate the size
of a flat-bottomed hole that would give such a signal at that depth. The defect
can then be sized according to its flat-bottomed hole equivalent.

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 The attenuation factor for the test material must be taken into consideration
when using the DGS system.

Example
You are using a 5MHz 10mm diameter compression probe on a 100mm steel
plate and you find a defect at 60mm depth which gives a signal at FSH with a
30dB gain setting. What is its flat-bottomed hole equivalent?

First, work out the probe near zone. It is 21mm, so the defect is at a distance
of three near zones.

Now get a BWE and find what the dB reading is. Say it is 20dB when the BWE is
at FSH. 100mm is five near zones. What will it be at 60mm – three near zones?
Refer to the DGS curves. If the BWE is at FSH with 20dB at 100mm, by the law
of large reflectors and according to the BWE line on the DGS curves, a BWE at
60mm should reach FSH at 16dB - 4dB less than at 100mm.

The signal height from the flaw is 30dB, which is 14dB more than the BWE.
Look down the scale 14dB at three near zones from the BWE and you find that
the nearest line is at 0.5 of the probe diameter. The probe diameter is 10mm so
the nearest equivalent flat bottomed hole to the flaw had a diameter of 5mm.

By a similar process, a sensitivity setting can be worked out for a flat-bottomed

hole of a certain diameter at a given range to a given screen height and the
flaw detector gain set accordingly.

Advantages
 Can choose a gain level for sizing.
 Tells you the smallest defect you can find at a given range.
 Provides the basis for an accept/reject system.
 Gives a rough equivalent to the size of a flaw.
 Uniformity between results from different technicians.

Disadvantages
 Operators must keep referring to a chart and making calculations.
 Attenuation must be taken into account.
 No account is taken of the flaw orientation.
 Most effective on small defects.
 An equivalence system, not a sizing system.
 Flaw surfaces and shapes are not ideal reflectors; therefore, the signal
amplitudes are not the same as those of a comparable flat-bottomed hole.

For angle probes, plastic slides have been manufactured by Krautkramer to fit
over the CRT screen. The set is calibrated and gain setting is performed by
bringing the BWE or the echo from the 1.5mm hole on the V2 block up to marks
on the slide. Flat-bottomed hole equivalents for flaws can then be read straight
off the slide. The DGS system is widely used in Germany.

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Sensitivity Setting 15-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
15.7 Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
It has been mentioned elsewhere that frequency and wavelength have a major
influence on flaw detection. However, the detection of a defect is also
influenced by many other factors. The amount of sound that reflects from a
defect is, for example, dependent on the acoustic impedance mismatch between
the flaw and the surrounding material. A gas-filled defect such as a lack of
fusion is generally a better reflector than a metallic inclusion because the
difference in acoustic impedance is greater between air and metal than between
a metal and another metal.

The nature of the surrounding material also greatly affects the detection of
defects with coarse-grain structures, reducing defect detectability. A measure of
detectability of a flaw and the effect of the many factors involved is its signal-
to-noise ratio (SNR). The SNR is a measure of how the signal from the defect
compares to other background reflections (categorised as noise). An SNR of 3-1
is often required as a minimum.

The absolute noise level and the absolute strength of an echo from a small
defect depend on a number of factors:

 Probe size and focal properties.

 Probe frequency, bandwidth and efficiency.
 Inspection path and distance (water and/or solid).
 Interface (surface curvature and roughness).
 Flaw location with respect to the incident beam.
 Inherent noisiness of the metal microstructure.
 Inherent reflectivity of the flaw, which is dependent on its acoustic
impedance, size, shape and orientation.
 Cracks and volumetric defects can reflect ultrasonic waves quite differently.
Many cracks are invisible from one direction and strong reflectors from
another.
 Multi-faceted flaws will tend to scatter sound away from the transducer.

General factors to consider with respect to SNR and therefore defect detection:

 Increases with increasing flaw size (scattering amplitude). The detectability

of a defect is directly proportional to its size.
 Increases with a more focused beam. In other words, flaw detectability is
inversely proportional to the transducer beam width.
 Increases with decreasing pulse width. In other words, flaw detectability is
inversely proportional to the duration of the pulse produced by an ultrasonic
transducer. The shorter the pulse (often higher frequency), the better the
detection of the defect. Shorter pulses correspond to broader bandwidth
frequency response.
 Decreases in materials with high density and/or a high ultrasonic velocity.
The SNR is inversely proportional to material density and acoustic velocity.
 Generally increases with frequency.

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Sensitivity Setting 15-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 16
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks
16 Ultrasonic Equipment Checks
16.1 Linearity of time base
General
This check may be carried out using a standard calibration block, eg Block 1
(see BS EN ISO 2400), and a compression wave probe. The linearity should be
checked over a range at least equal to that which is to be used in subsequent
testing.

Method
a Place the probe on the 25mm thickness of Calibration Block 1 and adjust the
controls to display ten BWEs.
b Adjust the controls so that the first and last BWEs coincide with the scale
marks at 1 and 10.
c Increase the gain to bring successive backwall echoes to 80% FSH. The
leading edge of each echo should line up with the appropriate graticule line.
d Record any deviations at approximately half screen height. Deviations
should be expressed as a percentage of the range between the first and last
echoes displayed (ie 225mm).

Tolerance
Unless otherwise specified by the testing standard, a tolerance of ±2% is
considered acceptable.

Frequency of checking
This check shall be carried out at least once per week.

Figure 16.1 ‘A’ scan flaw detector showing signal amplitude vs distance (transit
time) for linearity of time base checks.

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Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 16.2 ‘A’ scan (echo amplitude at approximately 80% vs depth distance)
presentations.

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Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
16.2 Linearity of equipment gain
General
This is a check on both the linearity of the amplifier within the set and the
calibrated gain control. It can be carried out on any calibration block containing
a side-drilled hole; the probe should be the same that is used in subsequent
testing. Reject/suppression controls shall be switched off.

Method
 Position the probe on a calibration block to obtain a reflected signal from a
small reflector, eg the 1.5mm hole in Calibration Block No 1.
 Adjust the gain to set this signal to 80% FSH and note the gain setting (dB).
- Increase the gain by 2dB and record the amplitude of the signal.
- Remove the 2dB again and return the signal to 80% FSH.
- Reduce the gain by 6dB and record the signal amplitude.
- Reduce the gain by a further 12dB (18 in total) and record the signal
amplitude.
- Reduce the gain by a further 6dB (24 in total) and record the signal
amplitude.

Tolerance

Table 16.1 Expected screen height results and limits for equipment gain check.
Gain, Expected screen Recorded Limits
dB height (%) amplitude

+2 101 No less than 95%

0 80 (Reference line)

-6 40 37-43%

-12 20 17-23%

-18 10 8-12%

-24 5 Visible, below 8%

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Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Frequency of checking
The check shall be carried out at least once per week.

Figure 16.3 ‘A’ scan presentations showing respective echoes set at 80% FSH.

16.3 Probe index and beam alignment

16.3.1 Index point
General
The probe index only needs to be checked in shear wave angle probes, but for
them it should be the first probe characteristic to be checked. The standard
Calibration Block No 1 may be used for this purpose.

Method
a Position the probe on the appropriate side of the block to obtain a reflection
from the quadrant.
b Move the probe backwards and forwards to maximise the amplitude of the
reflected signal.
c When the signal is at maximum, the probe index will correspond to the
engraved line on the block. Mark this position on the side of the probe.

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Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Tolerance
The tolerance depends on the application, but for plotting of defects it is
recommended that the probe index be accurate to within 1mm.

Frequency of checking
When a probe is in continuous use, it is recommended that the check be carried
out every few hours; otherwise, a daily check is recommended.

16.3.2 Beam alignment (squint)

With the probe still in position, a check of the beam alignment can be
performed. If the probe beam is correctly aligned, the edge of the probe will be
parallel to the edge of the block. If this is not the case, measure the squint
angle between the two edges.

The tolerance depends upon the accuracy of defect plotting required.

This check should be carried out once per week.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Figure 16.4 Amplifier and gain control checks at 0db to 24db.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
16.4 Beam angle
General
The beam angle can be checked on several calibration blocks, eg Calibration
Block No 1 (BS EN ISO 2400) or Beam Calibration Block (BCB, A5 Block). The
beam angle check shall preferably be made on a probe in conjunction with the
flaw detector to be used in subsequent testing.

Method
a Place the probe in such a position as to receive a reflected signal from the
selected transverse hole in the calibration block (eg the 19mm deep hole in
the BCB).
b Maximise the signal from the hole and mark the index point of the probe on
the block.
c Measure the distance from the marked point on the block to the edge of the
block. Knowing the position of the drilled hole will allow the beam angle to
be calculated (see below).

Note If only a rapid check is required, maximise the signal from the 50mm hole
in Calibration Block No 1. The angle can then be assessed by visual
interpolation between the reference markings on the block.

Tolerance
The accuracy achieved by the described method is 1.5.
The accuracy in this case can only be assumed to be 3.

Frequency of checking
When a probe is in continuous use, it is recommended that the check be carried
out at least every few hours; otherwise, a daily check is recommended.

16.5 Sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio

General
The main objective of this check is to provide the operator with a simple
method which will identify the deterioration in sensitivity of the combination of
probe and flaw detector.

Method (see Figure 16.5)

a Place the probe on Calibration Block No 1 (also referred to as the V1 Block)
and adjust its position to maximise the signal from the 1.5mm diameter
hole.
b Adjust the gain control to set this signal to 20%FSH and note the dB setting.
c Increase the gain until the overall system noise (electronic noise and grain
structure grass) at the same range as the target hole reaches 20%FSH and
note the new dB setting.
d The first gain measurement noted provides a check on the sensitivity of the
probe and flaw detector and the difference between the first and second
measurements (dB) gives the SNR.

Note 1: A demonstration of the sensitivity of the probe and the flaw detector
on a calibration block does not guarantee that the same size of reflector could
be detected in the workpiece.

Note 2: If it is desired to check the sensitivity as a function of range, the use of

the standard Beam Calibration Block (also referred to as the A5 Block) is
recommended for longer ranges.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Tolerance
The tolerance depends on the application. Any deterioration in the sensitivity
value indicates a problem with the probe or flaw detector. A low SNR would be
typical of a coarse-grained material.

Frequency of checking
Unless otherwise agreed, the check shall be carried out once per probe per day.

16.6 Pulse duration

General
This check on the combination of probe and flaw detector measures the effect
on the displayed signal of probe damping, amplifier bandwidth, built-in
suppression and smoothing circuits. The standard No 1 Calibration Block may
be used for this check.

Method
a Calibrate the time base in millimetres to a range that is to be used in
subsequent testing.
b Maximise the signal from the 1.5mm side-drilled hole for shear wave probes
or a BWE for compression wave probes and set its peak to 100% screen
height.
c Measure the width of the signal in millimetres at the 10% screen height
position.
d If desired, the measurement in millimetres can be converted into
microseconds by dividing it by the relevant sound velocity.

Tolerance
The tolerance depends upon the application. A long pulse duration will limit
range resolution and indicate the need for a resolution check*, while a short
pulse duration may indicate that the flaw detector has built-in suppression that
could prevent the observation of small signals.

*A resolution check is described in Section 16.7.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Frequency of checking
Unless otherwise agreed, the check should be carried out daily.

20%

Figure 16.5 Sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) check.

16.7 Resolving power (resolution)

General
This check determines the ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give
separate indications of discontinuities which are situated close together and
simultaneously hit by the sound beam.

Method
a Calibrate the time base to a range of 0-100mm for either the compression
or the shear wave probe.
b Place the probe so that the axis of the beam impinges upon the 2mm step in
the A7 ‘resolution’ calibration block for shear wave probes, or the 3mm step
for compression wave probes.
c Adjust the position of the probe so that the echoes from the two targets are
of the same height (approximately half the full graticule height).
d The steps are said to be resolved when their echoes are clearly separated at
half maximum echo height or lower.

Note: The 3mm steps between the 9mm and 3mm drilled holes in the A6
calibration block may also be used when checking compression probes.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Frequency of checking
This check shall be carried out monthly, or when too long a pulse duration is
suspected.

a b

c d

Figure 16.6 Flaw detector and probe system resolving power (resolution) check
to give separate indications of closely situated reflections (note how
discontinuities a and b above give clear echo resolution).

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Equipment Checks 16-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 17
Practical Weld Inspection
17 Practical Welding Inspection
Equipment (instrumental and probe) sensitivity is set in accordance with one of
the methods described in Section 15, with calibration covered in Section 12 and
flaw location and sizing covered in Sections 13 and 14, respectively.

17.1 Identifying flaws in butt welds

It is not always easy to identify a defect, but by noting its position in the weld
and moving the probe around the defect and watching the changing signal on
the screen you can come to a reasonably accurate conclusion. Knowledge of the
welding process is essential, as is knowledge of the weld preparation, weld
dimensions, size of the gap and other factors. Slag is unlikely in a TIG weld and
lack of sidewall fusion is not likely in the middle of the weld metal. Cracks are
more likely in thicker welds than in thinner welds and fusion defects are more
likely to result from automatic than manual welding processes.

The shape, amplitude and time spread of a reflector, as represented on the

screen, can also give clues as to the identity of a flaw. Specular reflectors are
those with a mirror-like face, where all the sound is reflected back to the source
of energy, providing that the probe and flaw are correctly orientated. A sidewall
fusion flaw is nearest to this ideal.

However, at the other extreme, porosity can be considered as a large number

of small spherical reflectors which cause the energy to reflect everywhere,
rather like the light reflecting from a disco ball hanging from the ceiling.
Porosity is a diffuse reflector.

By combining these movements and watching the movement of the signal on

the screen, conclusions can be drawn. The characteristics of different defects
are shown in the accompanying diagrams, with explanations adjacent.

Guidance in the classification of ultrasonic indications can be found in:

BS EN ISO
Ultrasonic testing Characterisation of indications in welds
23279
BS EN ISO Characterisation and sizing of
Ultrasonic testing
16827 discontinuities

BS EN ISO 23279 contains a flowchart to be followed in order to determine the

exact nature of any indications. The stages involved are:

 Echo amplitude.
 Directional reflectivity.
 Echostatic pattern (A scan).
 Echodynamic pattern.

The first stage of assessing the echo amplitude involves comparing the
amplitude of an indication to DAC level and classifying it into one of the four
categories shown in the table below.

Table 17.1 Echo amplitude vs DAC level.

S1 S2 S3 S4

DAC –10dB DAC +6dB DAC –6dB 9/15dB

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Practical Weld Inspection 17-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Indications falling into the S1 category would be immediately discounted. All
other indications would then proceed to be assessed for directional reflectivity,
which is defined as the variation in echo amplitude from a discontinuity in
relation to the angle at which the ultrasonic beam is incident upon it. A
spherical indication would show the same echo amplitude over a wide range of
incident angles, eg 45o, 60o and 70o, and is said to have low directional
reflectivity. A large smooth planar reflector would show a great variation in
echo amplitude and would therefore be said to have high directional reflectivity.

The next two stages of the process analyse firstly the shape of the signal as
displayed on the A scan equipment and finally the behaviour of the signal when
the probe is scanned at 90o to the discontinuity (traversing). Echostatic patterns
are categorised as:

 Single and smooth.

 Single and jagged.
 Multiple.

a b c

Figure 17.1 Echostatic patterns:

a Single and smooth reflector;
b Single and jagged reflector;
c Multiple facet reflector.

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Practical Weld Inspection 17-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 With respect to echodynamic patterns, indications fall into one of five categories
dependent upon the changes observed in the signal on the A scan in response
to probe movement. To aid the identification of defects, there are four basic
probe movements:

Lateral
Traversing
a b

c d

Orbital Rotational

Figure 17.2 Probe movements to determine echodynamic patterns:

a Lateral probe movement;
b Traversing probe movement;
c Orbital probe movement;
d Rotational probe movement.

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Practical Weld Inspection 17-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Variations in signal amplitude

Pattern 1

Variations in signal amplitude

Pattern 2

Variations in signal amplitude

Pattern 3a

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Practical Weld Inspection 17-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Variations in signal amplitude
Pattern 3b

Variations in signal amplitude

Pattern 4

Figure 17.3 The five echodynamic patterns.

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Practical Weld Inspection 17-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Section 18
Root Flaws
18 Root Flaws
The signal from a root flaw will appear on the time base while you are scanning
laterally along a straight edge, at a fixed position from the root. Once the signal
is maximised by getting the best reflection from the flaw, it can be assumed
that the centre of the beam is hitting the bottom of the flaw. Fine adjustment of
the straight edge will perhaps be necessary.

18.1 Excess penetration

 Echo amplitude between 10-90%, dependent on depth and probe angle.
 Multi-range signal - echo falls rapidly when traversed with 70 probe; also
the range increases.
 Probe movement - echo falls rapidly when angle probe traverses forward.
 Measurement - it is not possible to measure the depth with an angle probe.
Length measurement is difficult (usually 6dB).

C/L C/L

Figure 18.1 Excess penetration.

18.2 Root concavity

 Echo sharp and large, with reduced range. Often mode conversion with 60
probe.
 Probe movement - traversing backwards, the echo falls more rapidly than
the lack of penetration.
 Measurement - use centre of beam and 20dB drop (trailing edge) for height.
Not always possible to measure height.

C/L C/L

Figure 18.2 Root concavity.

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Root Flaws 18-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
18.3 Root crack
 Usually high amplitude response with fir tree appearance.
 Probe movement - orbit, echo held over large angle.
 Lateral, echo held with multi-range signals and variations on time base.
 Measurement - 6dB for length. Traverse forward with 20dB for height.

C/L C/L

Figure 18.3 Root crack.

18.4 Lack of root fusion

 Similar to corner reflector with large, narrow echo from both sides.
 Probe movement - confirm with 70 probe, when traversed.
 Large movement for 20dB drop. Orbit: echo falls rapidly.
 Measurement - lateral use 6 or 20dB drop. Traverse use 20 or 10dB for 70
probe.

C/L C/L

Figure 18.4 Lack of root fusion.

18.5 Misalignment
 Large single echo from one side. No echo from opposite side.
 Probe movement - traverse back echo falls rapidly.
 Measurement - lateral for 6dB drop.

C/L C/L

Figure 18.5 Mismatch.

NDT4-51015
Root Flaws 18-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 19
Face and Body Flaws
19 Face and Body Flaws
A degree of additional flexibility can be applied when flaws are located at the
face or in the body of a weld. The diagrams below illustrate the characteristic
shape of the screen presentation, but they are ideal rather an actual.

19.1 Lack of fusion

Echo large, single, narrow at time base when on the sidewall. Poor echo from
opposite side. Confirm by skip scan.

 Probe movement:
Rotate or orbit - echo falls rapidly.
Lateral or traversing - echo height held.
 Measurement: For depth use 20dB. For length use 6 or 20dB.

Figure 19.1 Lack of fusion.

19.2 Crack
 Multiple peak reflector: usually high amplitude, but dependent on type of
crack and size; echo with fir tree appearance.
 Probe movement:
Orbit - echo over larger angle than with fusion defects.
Lateral - signal held with varying height.
 Measurement: For length use 6 or 20dB. For depth use 20dB.

Figure 19.2 Crack.

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Face and Body Flaws 19-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
19.3 Gas pore
 Spherical even reflector: single peak echo, narrow profile, similar to drilled
hole or radius of calibration block intensity (approximately 50% CRT).
 Probe movement:
Rotate, lateral and traversing - echo falls rapidly.
Orbit - echo height remains.
 Measurement: Impractical to measure height and length. Report as isolated
reflector. Equate reflectivity against disc area or DGS.

Figure 19.3 Gas pore.

19.4 Porosity
 Multiple peak echo: Low intensity (20% CRT), broad at time base due to
numerous ranges.
 Probe movement: Orbit - echoes held with amplitude variations.
 Measurement: Indicate area by pinpointing last maximum signal from
traversing and lateral scans.

Figure 19.4 Porosity.

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Face and Body Flaws 19-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
19.5 Linear inclusion (slag)
Echo may be wide at time base and will be multi-faceted, due to having more
than a single range. Height will vary between 20-90%.

 Probe movement:
Orbit (traversing is similar) - echo held with various maxima and minima.
Rotational - echo will drop quickly.
Lateral - will produce large variations in height, perhaps with total loss of
signal for distances shorter than the beam width.

Figure 19.5 Linear inclusion (slag).

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Face and Body Flaws 19-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 20
Plate Inspection
20 Plate Inspection
EN 10160 describes methods for inspecting uncoated steel plates between 6
and 200mm in thickness for internal discontinuities. It details:

a Three quality classes.

b Equipment to be used.
c Calibration requirements (two BWEs).
d Coupling (normally with water but oil and paste are also acceptable).
e Scanning plan - 200 or 150mm grids, dependent upon the quality class.
f Sensitivity setting.
g Sizing techniques for defects (6dB).
h Acceptance criteria.
i Reporting requirements.

NDT4-51015
Plate Inspection 20-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 21
Inspection Procedure
21 Inspection Procedure
BS EN ISO 17640 (NDT of welds – Ultrasonic testing – Techniques, testing,
levels and assessment) describes the procedure for examining welds and details
beam paths to be used for welds of different configurations, eg plates, pipes,
nozzles and nodes. To standardise methods of examination, BS EN ISO 17640
and EN ISO 16811 (NDT - Ultrasonic testing – Sensitivity and range setting)
recommend the use of DACs and different sensitivity settings to match the
criticality of different examinations. The sensitivity is set higher for examining,
say, a high-pressure steam pipe in a chemical plant than it is for a
comparatively low-pressure line in a refinery.

Different procedures are followed in different projects. Usually, the test

procedure is formulated before the job starts so the technicians know exactly
what is expected of them.

The following is the procedure laid down in BS EN ISO 17640, recommended for
the inspection of examination test pieces:

 Compression scan to check the parent metal on either side of the weld for
laminations and to check through-thickness dimensions.
 Root scan to check the root for longitudinal defects such as lack of
penetration, lack of root fusion, cracking or mismatch.
 Weld body scan with shear probes to check the sides of the weld and the
weld body for longitudinal defects like lack of fusion, cracks, slag and
porosity.
 Transverse weld scan to check the weld for transverse and chevron
cracking.
 Reporting.

21.1 Information required prior to testing

BS EN ISO 17640 specifies that the following information should be specified
before commencing an inspection:

 Method for setting the reference level.

 Method to be used for evaluation of indications.
 Acceptance levels.
 Testing levels.
 Manufacturing and operating stage at which inspection is to be performed.
 Qualification of personnel.
 Extent of testing for transverse indications.
 Requirements for tandem testing.
 Parent metal testing prior to and/or after welding.
 Whether or not a written test procedure is required.
 Requirements for written testing procedure.

NDT4-51015
Inspection Procedure 21-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 EN 17640 also states that it is essential that the operator performing an
inspection on a welded joint shall have access to the following:

 Written test procedure.

 Types of parent material and product form.
 Manufacturing and operating stage at which inspection is to be performed.
 Time and extent of post-weld heat treatment.
 Joint preparation and dimensions.
 Requirements for surface conditions.
 Welding procedure or relevant information on the welding process.
 Reporting requirements.
 Acceptance requirements.
 Extent of testing including requirements for transverse defects if relevant.
 Personnel qualification level.
 Procedures for corrective action when unacceptable indications are revealed.

EN 17640 itself would, in many cases, satisfy the requirement for a written test
procedure.

21.2 Compression scan

Make a visual examination of the weld. Note if there is any spatter, rust or
inaccessible areas. Look for surface defects, lack of fill, undercut and gross
misalignment, cracks or surface porosity.

Find the centre of the weld. The stand-off must be measured from there. If the
root is detectable, find the root from both sides with a 60 probe. Mark where
the index point falls on both sides of the weld when the root signal is
maximised; the weld centre is midway between these two marks. Note the
thickness of the parent metal on either side of the weld and ensure there is no
counter boring.

C/L

Figure 21.1 Weld root detection.

Examine the parent metal on either side of the weld with a 0 compression
probe with sensitivity set at either 2nd BWE to FSH or the sensitivity given in
the procedure. Look for changes in thickness and lamination. You should cover
the parent metal on either side of the weld to full skip distance for the highest
angle probe, that is for a 60 or 70 probe. Mark any discontinuities found in the
parent metal.

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Inspection Procedure 21-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Full skip
Probe
movement

Full skip

Figure 21.2 Parent material comparison probe scan.

Draw a cross section of the weld on the slide of your beam plotting chart once
you are sure of the weld dimensions.

If the cap of the weld has been dressed ground flush with the parent metal,
examine the body of the weld with the 0 probe. If a backing bar has been
used, check bonding at the root if possible. Check the root on a double sided
weld if the cap has been ground flush. Lack of penetration at the root will
sometimes show with a 0 probe.

If you are examining a single V weld with a dressed cap, a 0 probe scan of the
weld can reveal lack of inter-run fusion and large pockets of slag.

21.3 Root scan

Use a 70 probe for the root scan if possible. Work out the half skip distance for
a 70 probe to put the beam centre exactly through the centre of the root.

Measure out the half skip distance on the parent metal on either side of the
weld, measuring from the centre line of the weld. Draw lines on either side of
the weld at this distance. Note the range of the root centre along the main
beam.

Stand-off

Index

Range

Figure 21.3 Root Scan using an angle probe at a fixed ‘stand-off’

Set the gain from an IOW block so that a hole at the depth of the root will give
an echo to FSH. (Or set the gain according to the set procedure.)

Place the probe index point on the line and put a magnetic ruler or strip behind
it as a guide. Move the probe laterally along the weld. Signals from a good root
should be small, while defects will give large signals. Signals from a fully
penetrated root will usually appear just beyond the range of the root centre.

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Inspection Procedure 21-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Stand-off

Stand-off

Straight
edge

Figure 21.4 Fixed ‘stand-off’ scan using a straight edge.

Mark any defects on the parent metal or the magnetic guide behind your probe.
Find the height of the defect using a 20dB drop on the trailing edge of your
beam. Record the defect on a sketch and note the stand-off distance and range.

21.4 Weld scan

Many standards and procedures demand that the first weld scan be done with a
probe beam which meets the joint face at as near to 90 as possible. This has
almost always meant a 60 probe, although probe angles have become steeper
lately and 70 probes are increasingly used.

If a 60 probe is used first, follow up with a 70 probe if the plate thickness is
less than 25mm and a 45 probe if it is over 20mm. There is a bit of an overlap.

Use your beam plot and flaw location slide to work out the half skip distance to
the root centre and full skip distance plus half the weld width to the top of the
weld. Mark these stand-off distances on the parent metal on either side of the
weld. Note the range of the root can cap.

½ skip Full skip

stand-off stand-off

Figure 21.5 Angle probe raster scanning from the weld cap edge to the full skip
position.

Set the gain relative to DAC according to the sensitivity setting given in the
procedure.

Move the 60 probe backwards and forwards along the weld on either side so
that the beam covers the sidewalls and centre body of the weld (see Figure
21.5). Defects should maximise between the root and cap signals. If any signal

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Inspection Procedure 21-4 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 occurs near the cap, use a couplant-covered finger to damp any signal that may
be coming from the cap, thus identifying its position.

Make a second scan of the weld body with a 45 probe for materials with more
than 20mm thickness or a 70 probe for less than 25mm thickness.

Check the area just under the cap with a 45 probe if you are examining thicker
materials. You may find porosity that the 60 probe has not revealed. Check
any defect already noted and see if it is longer than shown with the 60 probe.

On thinner materials, a 70 probe will confirm defects already noted and may
help you distinguish between signals from a defect and signals from, say, the
weld cap or mode change.

21.5 Transverse scan

Place a 60 or 70 probe beside the weld cap angled slightly inwards (see Figure
21.6) and move the probe along the weld to find transverse cracking. Turn the
probe round and check in the opposite direction. Examine the weld along the
other side in both directions.

Figure 21.6 Shear wave angle probe scan to detect transverse defects.

If the weld has been dressed, push the probe along the centreline of the weld in
both directions and then push it along both edges of the weld in both directions.

21.6 Double V welds

If a weld had been welded from both sides, it can be examined from both sides.
The method for examining a double V weld is not much different from that used
for a single V weld.

Examine the root with a 70 probe straight into the root at 1/4 skip (see Figure
21.7). Run the probe laterally along the weld with sensitivity set from a hole in
the IOW block at a suitable range; this should show any lack of penetration at
the root.

Figure 21.7 Double V weld root examination from ¼ skip.

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Inspection Procedure 21-5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Make body scans with 60 and 45 probes from both sides of the weld if the
plate is thick (over 25mm) using ¼ to ½ skip stand-off.

Figure 21.8 Weld body scan between a ¼ and ½ skip stand-off using 45° and
60° probes.

On thinner plates, use a 60 and a 70 probe from one side of the weld only
between ¼ and full skip and ½ weld thickness stand-off positions. Take great
care in locating the defects and reporting, as you will have to use a mirror
image on your plotting chart and this can lead to confusion. You may find a
defect and place it on the wrong side of the weld.

21.7 Pipes
Circumferential pipe welds can be examined in the same way as butt welds in
plates are examined, that is:

 Compression scan to check the parent metal on either side of the weld for
laminations and to check through-thickness dimensions.
 Root scan using a flexible strip at the back of the probe will help to ensure
that the centre of intensity of the beam goes into the centre of the root.
 Weld body scan with shear probes to check the sides of the weld and the
weld body for longitudinal defects like lack of fusion, cracks, slag and
porosity.
 Transverse weld scan - difficulty may arise here as you must be sure that
the beam reaches the bore of the pipe.

This flexible guide is convenient for marking defects. All defects must be
measured from a datum point. The button at the top of the weld is a convenient
datum point. When examining a longitudinal weld on a pipe or when doing a
transverse check on a circumferential weld, you must choose a probe angle that
will reach the bore of the pipe (see Figure 21.8). The formula below provides
this angle.

NDT4-51015
Inspection Procedure 21-6 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Inside diameter of pipe a
 Sine of max probe angle
Outside diameter of pipe

Figure 21.9 Ultrasonic beam:

a at the inside surface of the pipe;
b with its centre axis not reaching the inside pipe surface.

So a 12cm OD pipe with a 1cm wall will need what probe angle?

10
= 0.8333 which is the sine of 56.
12

A 60 probe will not reach the bore of this pipe, so a 45 probe is advised.

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Inspection Procedure 21-7 Copyright © TWI Ltd
21.8 Reporting
A detailed test report will normally be produced for each item of test and will
cover all of the salient parameters that affect the quality and integrity of the
test as laid out in the test procedure, which must be made available to the test
technician/operator prior to starting the test along with written instructions
detailing the components to be tested, the specific test procedure,
specifications/standards and acceptance criteria to be applied along with any
special instructions that might apply (eg PPE to be used, use of photographs
etc.). The test report will normally include an assessment of the condition of the
component against the specified acceptance criteria.

Specific details that may be included in the test procedure are as follows:

 Title of the test procedure.

 Description (including sketch/drawing if relevant) of components including
materials and surface condition.
 Scope detailing general requirements of the test (eg type of ultrasonic
instrument and settings together with probe and scanning details).
 Reference documents (eg codes, standards, client requirements, personnel
qualifications).
 Definitions and abbreviations used.
 Responsibilities (personnel involved in the test sequence including
identification of test component, carrying out the test and making the area
of testing safe).
 Personnel qualifications (technician undertaking the test, evaluating the
results/indications and procedure preparation).
 Technique procedure, equipment and settings (if applicable), initial cleaning,
surface preparation and access requirements.
 Examination details, diagnostic area and scan overlap.
 Interpretation of results and evaluation of indications against the
acceptance criteria with a sketch showing the positions of indications if
required.

What follows is a sample NDT report. The headings within it are taken from BS
EN ISO 17640, (Ultrasonic Testing – Techniques, testing levels and assessment)
which specifies these as the minimum content.

NDT4-51015
Inspection Procedure 21-8 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Ultrasonic Test Report

Name of Date of report

inspector

Reference
standard

Item Inspected

Material Configuration
Product form Stage of
manufacture
Dimensions Surface
condition
Location of
weld
Specification Date of test
Operator
certification

Equipment

Flaw Detector
Maker Type Serial number

Ultrasonic Probes
Maker Type Frequency Serial number

Couplant

NDT4-51015
Inspection Procedure 21-9 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Technique

Testing levels

Extent of test

Location of scanning areas

Reference point

Identification of probe
position
Time base range

Sensitivity level

Reference level

Parent metal

Acceptance level

Deviations from standard

Results

Co-ordinates Maximum Type Length Accept/

amplitude reject

Figure 21.10 Ultrasonic Test Report conforming to BS EN ISO 17640.

NDT4-51015
Inspection Procedure 21-10 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 Section 22
Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement
22 Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement
Standards to be used for reference include:

BS EN 14127. Non-destructive testing - Ultrasonic thickness measurement.

BS EN ISO 16811. Non-destructive testing – Ultrasonic testing. Sensitivity and

Range setting.

BS EN 1330-4. Non-destructive testing – Terminology. Part 4, Terms used in

ultrasonic testing.

22.1 Measurement modes

The precise thickness of a component part can be determined by accurately
measuring the transit time for a short duration ultrasonic pulse generated by a
transducer to travel through the material thickness once, twice or several
times.

The material thickness can be calculated by multiplying the sound velocity of

the material with the transit time and dividing the result by the number of times
that the pulse has transited the material thickness.

Four ultrasonic measurement modes are given below and illustrated in Figure
22.1:

a Mode 1: Measure the transit time from an initial excitation pulse to a first
returning echo, minus a zero correction to account for the thickness of the
transducer wear surface and the couplant layer (single echo mode).

b Mode 2: Measure the transit time from the end of a delay line to the first
back wall echo (single echo delay line mode).

c Mode 3: Measure the transit time between back wall echoes (multiple
echoes).

d Mode 4: Measure the transit time for a pulse travelling from the transmitter
to a receiver in contact with the back wall (through transmission mode).

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement 22-1 Copyright © TWI Ltd
 A

A3

C C
D D

E1
F F1
Mode 1 B Mode 2

B
G

E1 A1 A2
E2
A E3

D C
D H

F E1 E2 E3
Key
A transmit/receive probe B test object F interface echo
(dual element probe) C sound path travel time G delay path
A1 transmit probe D transmission pulse indication H received pulse
A2 receive probe E1-E3 back wall echoes

Figure 22.1 Ultrasonic Measurement Modes.

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Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement 22-2 Copyright © TWI Ltd
22.2 Requirements – test object, instruments, probes and reference blocks
a Test Object:
The object to be tested shall enable ultrasonic propagation/transmission and
have access to apply the probe to the test surface that will be free of all
dirt, grease, scale or any material that could interfere with the examination.

If the surface to be tested is coated, the coating will have tight adhesion to
the base parent material, otherwise it must be removed.

When measuring through a coating, the coating thickness and sound

velocity need to be known unless Mode 3 above is being used.

b Ultrasonic Instruments
The following Ultrasonic measurement instruments can be used:

 Dedicated ultrasonic thickness measurement instrument with a numerical

display that shows the measured thickness.
 Dedicated ultrasonic thickness measurement instrument with a numerical
display that shows the measured thickness and the ‘A’-scan waveform
presentation.
 ‘A’-scan display instruments that are designed primarily for flaw detection
and may also include a numerical display of measured thickness.

c Probes
Generally compression (longitudinal) wave probes are used based on either
of the following configurations:

 Dual element probes (see Probe A3 in Figure 22.1)

 Single transducer probes (see Probe A in Figure 22.1)

d Reference Blocks
The ultrasonic measurement system (ie instrument and probe) must be
calibrated on a sample(s) or reference block that closely represent the
component whose thickness is to be measured in terms of dimensions,
material and structure and the reference sample thickness range should
cover the range of component thicknesses to be measured. Either the
thickness or the sound velocity of the reference sample block shall be
known.

Thickness calibration reference blocks are commercially available for steel

and aluminium in the form of ladder step wedges and curved step wedges.

NDT4-51015
Ultrasonic Thickness Measurement 22-3 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Glossary
Glossary
Acoustic emission (AE). Method of flaw detection which uses an array of accurately
positioned transducers to listen to the structure under stress. The high-frequency sound
given out by a growing crack would be detected by the transducer array.

Acoustic impedance matching. Coupling of two media together to provide optimum

transfer of acoustical energy between them.

Acoustical shadow. Effect produced in a body by its geometry or by a discontinuity in

it, whereby ultrasonic energy when travelling in a particular direction is prevented from
reaching a certain region within the body.

Angle of incidence. Angle which the axis of an ultrasonic beam makes with the normal
to a tangent plane of a surface at its point of impingement as it travels towards that
surface.

Angle of reflection. Angle which the axis of an ultrasonic beam makes with the normal
to the tangent plane of a reflecting interface, at the point of impingement of the incident
wave, as it travels away from that interface in the same medium.

Angle of refraction. Angle which an ultrasonic beam makes with the normal to a
tangent plane of an interface as it travels away from that interface into the second
material. Note: A synonymous term is beam angle.

Angle of squint. Angle between the side edge of the probe and the projection of the
beam axis on the plane of the probe face. Note: For angle probes this normally relates
to deviation in the lateral direction.

Angle probe. Contact probe from which the main lobe of waves propagates at any angle
other than 0° or 90° to the normal to the tangent plane of the surface at the place
where the probe is positioned.

A-scan. Ultrasonic flaw detector display in which the pulse amplitude is represented as a
displacement along one axis (usually the Y axis) and the travel time of the ultrasonic
pulse is represented as a displacement along the other axis (usually the X axis).

ASME. Cross-drilled holes with diameter and position as required by the ASME pressure
vessel code. Note: ASME = American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Attenuation. Diminution in the level of acoustic energy as it propagates through

material.

Attenuation coefficient. Factor determined by the diminution in the amplitude of a

wave per unit distance travelled. Note: The attenuation coefficient is composed of two
parts, one proportional to frequency (termed absorption), the other dependent on the
ratio of grain size to wavelength and arising from scatter.

Attenuator. Electrical device by which the amplitude of an ultrasonic signal can be

adjusted by calibrated increments.

Automatic scanning. Systematic relative displacement of the ultrasonic beam and the
material under test by other than manual means.

AVG/DGS diagram. Series of curves which show the relationship between distance
along the beam to gain in dB compared with a particular back wall echo and the size of a
particular flat-bottom hole reflector.

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Back wall echo (BWE). Pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from the boundary of a
body directly opposite to the surface on which the probe(s) is/are positioned and
returned to that surface by the shortest possible path. Note: The term is generally
restricted to normal compressional waves and is sometimes referred to as bottom echo
(first).

Beam angle. See angle of refraction.

Beam axis. Locus of points of maximum intensity in the far field in a beam of ultrasonic
waves, and its geometrical prolongation into the near field.

Beam index. Point on the surface of a body through which the beam axis passes (cf.
probe index).

Beam spread. Divergence of the main lobe of an ultrasonic beam in the far field. Note:
The beam spread is proportional to the ratio of the wavelength to the diameter of the
ultrasonic crystal.

Bottom echo (first). See back wall echo (first).

Boundary echo (first). Pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from any boundary of a
body to the surface on which the probe(s) is/are positioned, and returned to that surface
by the shortest possible path. Note: Term is generally restricted to shear or surface
waves.

B-scan display. Two-dimensional graphical plot showing the apparent size and position
of reflectors in the test piece on a cross-sectional plane which is normal to the test
surface and contains the beam axis of the probe during a single line scan.

Calibration block. Piece of material of specified composition, heat treatment, geometric

form and surface texture, by means of which the performance of ultrasonic flaw
detection equipment can be assessed and calibrated for the examination of material of
the same general composition. Note: For specification and use of calibration blocks, see
BS EN ISO 2400 and BS EN ISO 7963, respectively.

Calibration reflector. Reflector of ultrasonic waves, such as a drilled hole, machined

slot or the end face of a specimen representative of the material under test, which can
be used to calibrate or set up equipment for inspection purposes.

Characteristic impedance. Complex ratio of sound pressure to particle velocity at a

point in the path of a purely progressive sound wave. For a non-dissipative material it is
equal to the product of density and velocity.

Combined double probe. See double crystal probe.

Compressional wave. Form of wave motion in which the particle displacement at each
point in a material is parallel to the direction of propagation. Note: A synonymous term
is longitudinal wave; also sometimes referred to as dilatational wave or irrotational
wave.

Constructive interference. When two positive or negative sound waves from two
sources (Huygens's Principle) meet at a point at the same instant, the wave is reinforced
and assists the sound to propagate into the material under test. This is constructive
interference and takes place in the near field. See also destructive interference.

Contact scan. Scanning carried out by means of ultrasonic probe(s) in contact with the
body under examination.

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Convergence point. Point of intersection of the axes of the transmitting and receiving
sound fields in a double crystal probe.

Corner effect. Reflection of ultrasonic energy back to a point coincident with or very
close to its point of origin, after impinging successfully on two or three orthogonal
surfaces.

Couplant. Liquid or pliable medium interposed between two solids to assist the passage
of ultrasonic waves between them. Note: In the majority of cases, the couplant is a
liquid interposed between the probe and the body under examination. Synonymous
terms are coupling film and coupling medium.

Coupling film. See couplant.

Coupling losses. Reduction in amplitude of ultrasonic waves as a result of their passage

through the couplant.

Coupling medium. See couplant.

Coupling monitor. Probe operating in the receive mode and positioned such that it
detects ultrasonic energy originating from a second probe or multiple probes, thereby
monitoring that successful coupling is taking place between the second probe and the
body.

Critical angle. Angle of incidence of a beam of ultrasound on an interface at which one

of the refracted wave modes has an angle of refraction of 90o.

Cross-drilled holes. Cylindrical holes drilled parallel to the test surface and at right
angles to the vertical plane of the probe, the cylindrical surfaces of which form the
ultrasonic reflectors.

Cross talk. Acoustical or electrical signal leakage across an intended barrier. Note:
Sometimes referred to as cross noise.

Crystal (ultrasonic). Part of a single crystal or polycrystalline plate having piezo-

electric properties, used for the generation and/or detection of ultrasonic waves.

Crystal array. Single housing containing an orderly assembly of crystals which may be
energised together in groups, with or without time delay, to give directional effects,
focused beams or variable angle beams.

Crystal backing. Material attached to the rear surface of a crystal to increase damping.

Crystal loading. Mechanical power per unit surface area delivered by a crystal to a
medium acoustically coupled to it.

Crystal mosaic. Regular assembly of ultrasonic crystals, in which each crystal is of

identical material and cut and mounted so that the assembly of crystals tends to behave
as though it were a single crystal.

C-scan display. Two-dimensional graphical projection of the test surface showing in

plan view the apparent size and position of reflectors in the volume inspected by
scanning an area of test surface.

Curie point. Temperature above which a ferromagnetic material loses its polarisation.

Curved crystal. Non-planar crystal generally used to improve coupling or focusing.

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Cylindrical reflector. Reflecting surface in the form of a circular cylinder.

Damped train. Wave train in which the amplitudes of successive waves diminish.

Dead zone. Region in a material adjoining the surface of entry from which no direct
echoes from discontinuities can be detected due to the characteristics of the ultrasonic
equipment in association with the material under test and its surface condition.

Decay technique. Technique of using ultrasonic waves to assess the quality of a

material or a bond by studying the amplitudes of successive echoes.

Decibel (dB). Unit used to express the magnitude of change in the amplitude of an
ultrasonic signal, defined by the equation: dB = 20 log10(A1/A0), where A0 is a reference
amplitude.

Defect detection sensitivity. A particular level of sensitivity setting of an ultrasonic

flaw detector for revealing the presence of defects in a given application.

Delayed time-base sweep. Cathode ray tube display in which the initial part of the
time scale is not shown.

Depth scan. Manipulation of an ultrasonic shear wave probe over the surface of a body
so as to cause an oblique beam to traverse a particular plane section of the body.

Destructive interference. When a positive sound wave from one point source
(Huygens's Principle) passes a negative sound wave from a second point source at the
same instant, the pressure sound wave is nullified at that point. This is destructive
interference, which results in areas of maximum and minimum pressure giving spurious
indications from any reflectors in this area. This area of interference is the near field.
See also constructive interference.

Diffuse reflection. Reflection of an ultrasonic wave from a rough surface so that the
reflected energy is detectable over a range of angles on either side of the theoretical
angle of specular reflection, ie reflection in a non-specular manner.

Dilatational wave. See compressional wave.

Directional sensitivity. Relationship between the angle made with the normal to the
surface of a reflector by a beam of ultrasonic waves and the amplitude to the resultant
echo.

Direct scan. See single traverse technique and indirect scan.

Dispersive medium. Material in which the phase velocity of an ultrasonic wave varies
with frequency.

Display. Form in which ultrasonic data is presented for interpretation, generally on a

cathode ray tube. See A-scan, B-scan, C-scan and D-scan.

Distance amplitude correction (DAC). Change in amplification of ultrasonic signals to

provide equal amplitude from equal reflectors at different distances in the same material.

Distance amplitude curve. Curve constructed from the peak amplitude responses from
reflectors of equal area at different distances in the same material.

Distortional wave. See shear wave.

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Double bounce technique. See triple traverse technique.

Double crystal probe. Probe comprising two separate crystals in a single housing, one
acting as a transmitter and the other as a receiver. Note: Synonymous terms are twin
crystal probe and combined double probe.

Double probe technique. Ultrasonic testing technique using one probe for transmission
and the other for reception.

Double skip technique. Ultrasonic testing technique where the distance between the
point where the waves enter the body and the region under examination is twice the skip
distance.

Double transceiver technique. Ultrasonic testing technique involving the use of two
probes, each used simultaneously as a transmitter and a receiver.

Double traverse technique. Testing technique in which a beam of ultrasonic waves is

directed into a region of a body under examination after having been reflected by a
surface of the body. Note: A synonymous term is single bounce technique.

D-scan. Two-dimensional graphical projection onto a plane normal to the test surface
and to the projection of the beam direction on the test surface, showing the apparent
size and position of reflectors in the volume inspected by scanning an area of test
surface.

Dynamic range. Range of signal amplitude that can be handled by electronic or

ultrasonic equipment without overloading or excessive distortion and without being too
small for detection. Note: Usually expressed in decibels (dB).

Echo. Distinct pulse of ultrasonic energy reflected from any surface or discontinuity.

Electro-magnetic acoustic transducer (EMAT). Transducer in which eddy currents

are produced at a conducting surface adjacent to the transducer in the presence of a
static magnetic field, the interaction of the two fields producing a mechanical
deformation of the surface thereby generating ultrasonic vibrations and vice versa.
Note: Often referred to as an EMA transducer.

Electronic noise. Unwanted random signals that vary rapidly with time, caused by
electronic pick-up and thermal noise in the amplifier of the flaw detector.

Expanded time-base sweep. Increased speed of time-base spot sweep which enables
echoes from a selected region within the thickness or length of a body to be displayed in
greater detail on the screen of the ultrasonic flaw detector.

Far field. Region in an ultrasonic beam where the intensity is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance. Note: Sometimes referred to as the Fraunhofer region.

First critical angle. Angle of incidence of a longitudinal wave in one medium such that
the refracted longitudinal wave is 90° in the second medium, ie along the surface, only
the transverse wave being transmitted into the second medium.

Flat-bottom hole (FBH). Cylindrical blind hole with a flat bottom, the flat bottom being
used as the ultrasonic reflector.

Flat-bottom hole equivalent. Size of flat-bottomed hole which gives an ultrasonic

indication equal to that from the discontinuity, at the same range.

NDT4-51015
Glossary 5 Copyright © TWI Ltd
Flaw location scale. Specially graduated device that can be attached to a shear wave
probe which, in conjunction with the position of the flaw echo on the screen of the
cathode ray tube, gives a direct reading of the location of the discontinuity within the
body.

Focused probe. Probe incorporating an acoustic lens or a suitably curved crystal, so as

to produce focusing of the ultrasonic beam.

Frequency (f). Number of cycles or complete particle oscillations in one second,

expressed in hertz (Hz).

Fresnel region. See near field.

Full-skip technique. Ultrasonic testing technique whereby the inspection of a surface

region of a body is accomplished by using shear waves entering the same surface at a
point one skip distance away.

Gap scanning. Form of scanning in which the probe carrier follows the contour of the
material under examination but the probe, whilst not in direct contact with its surface, is
coupled to it through a layer or jet of liquid which is maintained between the surfaces of
the probe and the material.

Gate. Electronic means of monitoring a selected region of the cathode ray tube display
of an ultrasonic flaw detector.

Ghost echo. Indication arising from an incorrectly matched combination of pulse

repetition frequency and time base frequency.

Ghost images. See ghost echo.

Grass. Spatially random signals arising from the reflection of ultrasonic waves from
grain boundaries and/or microscopic reflectors in a material.

Half skip technique. Ultrasonic testing technique in which the inspection of a surface
region of a body is accomplished by using a shear wave beam entering from the opposite
surface at a point corresponding to the half skip-distance.

Hard face probe. Probe in which the contact surface is of a hard material, such as steel
or ceramic, to minimise wear.

Head wave. Shear wave generated by mode transformation when a compressed wave
travels at a grazing angle on a free solid surface. Note: In steel, the head wave is at
33°.

Holography (ultrasonic). Ultrasonic image from two transducers, the beams of which
are positioned to produce an interface pattern, usually on a liquid surface, which when
illuminated by laser light produces a visible indication of ultrasonic wave intensity
distribution.

Huygens’s principle. States that any finite source of sound is considered to be

constructed of an infinite number of point sources, with sound radiating out from each.

Immersion probe. Compressional wave probe designed to be used while immersed in a

liquid.

Immersion testing. Ultrasonic testing technique in which the material under test and
the probe(s) are immersed in a tank of water or other liquid.

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Indexing. Automatic measuring of probe position, usually electrically, to generate probe
position data that can be recorded.

Indirect scan. Use of surface(s) of a body to direct an ultrasonic beam into a particular
region of the body.

Interface. Transition region between two materials of different characteristic impedance

in acoustical contact.

Interface signal. Displayed ultrasonic signal arising from the part reflection of an
incident pulse at an interface.

Interface trigger. Interface signal used as the initiating point from which other timing
sequences (eg gate position) are referenced.

Internal echoes. Unwanted signals generated within an ultrasonic probe.

Irrotational wave. See compressional wave.

Lamb wave. Term applied to those modes of vibration which propagate in a plate. Note
1: A synonymous term is plate wave. Note 2: In general, both compressional and shear
elasticity are involved, together with plate thickness and frequency; also, the
propagation shows dispersion.

Lateral resolution. Ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give separate

indications from two reflectors having the same range within the sound beam. See also
range resolution.

Logarithmic amplifier. Amplifier where the output is related logarithmically to the

amplitude of the input signal.

Logarithmic decrement. For a damped train, the natural logarithm of the ratio of the
peak values of the amplitudes of two successive cycles.

Longitudinal wave. See compressional wave.

Love wave. Acoustical wave which propagates along a stratum bounded on both sides
by layers of material which differ from the stratum in their elastic properties. Note: The
particle displacement of the wave is parallel to the wave front and to the stratum.

Magnetostrictive effect/transducer. Transducer in which the application of a

magnetic field on the active element of the transducer produces mechanical deformation
of the active element, thereby generating ultrasonic vibrations and vice versa.

Maximum working range. Total distance over which a probe will transmit sufficient
energy to find the smallest reflector to be detected.

Mode conversion. See mode transformation.

Mode transformation. Process by which a wave of a given mode of propagation is

caused to generate waves of other modes by reflection or refraction at a surface
boundary.

Multiple echo. Repeated reflection of an ultrasonic pulse between two or more surfaces
or discontinuities in a body.

Multiplexer. Device for electrically connecting probes to channels in sequence.

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N-distance. Distance from the probe to the N-point (see BS M36).

N-point. Position in an ultrasonic beam where the intensity of sound on the beam axis
reaches a final maximum before beginning a uniform reduction with distance (ie far
zone; see BS M36).

Near field. Region in an ultrasonic beam subject to variations in intensity due to

diffraction effects, extending from the source of radiation to the last axial maximum in
intensity. Note: Synonymous terms are near zone and Fresnel region.

Near zone. See near field.

Normal probe. Probe from which waves propagate at 90° to its contact surface.

Opacity technique. Ultrasonic shear wave technique for the examination of thin plate
which makes use of the principle that if the plate thickness is less than a minimum
value, ultrasonic waves at a fixed angle and frequency are unable to propagate.

Operating frequency. Centre frequency of a pulse spectrum generated by an ultrasonic

probe. Note: The frequency is determined by a number of factors including the electrical
circuit connected to the probe, the thickness of the piezo-electric material and its
backing.

Parasitic echo. See spurious echo.

Piezo-electric effect/transducer. Transducer in which the application of an electric

field across the active element produces mechanical deformation of the active element
thereby generating ultrasonic vibrations and vice versa.

Pitch and catch technique. Ultrasonic testing technique involving the use of two
separate probes, one being used to transmit the ultrasonic energy into the body and the
other positioned so as to receive the reflected energy from a discontinuity. Note: In
variations of the technique, more than two probes may be used.

Plane wave. Wave in which points of the same phase lie on parallel plane surfaces.

Plate waves. See Lamb waves.

Poisson’s ratio. Ratio of transverse strain to tensile strain.

Primary scan axis. Major direction of probe scanning movement.

Probe. Electromechanical device, usually incorporating one or more ultrasonic crystals,

and functioning as a generator and/or receiver of ultrasonic waves.

Probe array. Array of probes which may comprise: (1) Probes in a mechanical holder
which scan together and are used sequentially, individually and/or in pairs. (2) A single
unit comprising probes used as in (1).

Probe face. Part of a probe through which ultrasonic waves are transmitted and
received.

Probe index. Point on a shear wave or surface wave probe through which the emergent
beam axis passes. Note: The index can vary slightly depending on the method of
measurement.

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Probe shoe. Shaped piece of solid material interposed between the probe and the
material under examination for the purpose of improving acoustical contact.

Probe shoe delay. Time taken for the transmitted ultrasonic wave to traverse the probe
shoe and to be reflected back to the ultrasonic crystal.

Proportional output. Output signal from ultrasonic or electronic equipment which is

proportional to the peak amplitude of an input ultrasonic pulse, such as a defect echo.

Pulse. Short electrical or acoustical wave train.

Pulse amplitude. Pulse height of a signal, usually base to peak, when displayed in an
A-scan.

Pulse duration. See pulse length.

Pulse echo technique. Technique in which the presence of a discontinuity in a material

is indicated by a reflection of pulses from it.

Pulse energy. Total energy associated with a single pulse.

Pulse envelope. Outline of a pulse indication.

Pulse length. Time interval between the leading and trailing edges of a pulse, usually
measured at the half-amplitude value. Note: Synonymous terms are pulse duration and
pulse width.

Pulse repetition frequency (PRF). Number of pulses transmitted per second.

Pulse width. See pulse length.

Quadruple traverse technique. Technique in which a beam of ultrasonic waves is

directed into a region of a body under examination, after having been reflected
successfully three times by surfaces of the body. Note: A synonymous term is triple
bounce technique.

Range resolution. Ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give separate

indications from two reflectors at similar range within the sound beam. See also lateral
resolution.

Rayleigh waves. Particular type of surface wave which propagates on the surface of a
body with effective penetration of less than a wavelength.

Reference piece. An aid to interpretation in the form of a test piece of the same
nominal composition, significant dimensions and shape as a particular object under
examination. Note: Such pieces may or may not contain natural or artificial
imperfections.

Reference standard. Artificially produced imperfection of predetermined dimensions,

usually a notch or hole, used for the sole purpose of establishing the test sensitivity of
the ultrasonic equipment.

Reflecting surface. Interface at which the ultrasonic beam encounters a change in

characteristic impedance.

Reflection coefficient. Ratio of reflected sound amplitude to incident sound amplitude

at a reflecting surface. Note: A synonymous term is reflection factor.

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Reflection factor. See reflection coefficient.

Reflection technique. Technique in which the presence of discontinuities in a material

is indicated by receiving the reflected energy from them.

Refracting prism. A prism, usually of plastic material, which when placed in acoustical
contact between an ultrasonic crystal and a body will cause ultrasonic waves to be
refracted at a known angle into that body.

Refractive index. Ratio of the velocity of an incident wave in one material to the
velocity of a refracted wave in a second material in acoustical contact with the first
material.

Reject (rejection). Reduction of grass by the elimination of all signals below a

predetermined amplitude. Note: A synonymous term is suppression.

Resolution. Ability of an ultrasonic flaw detection system to give separate indications of

discontinuities having nearly the same range and/or lateral position with respect to the
beam axis.

Resonance technique. Examination technique which involves varying the frequency of

ultrasonic waves to excite a maximum amplitude of vibration in a body, or part of a
body, generally for the purpose of determining thickness from one side only.

Reverberation time. Time required for the intensity of an unsustained vibration in a

closed system to decrease to one millionth of its initial value, eg by 60dB.

Ringing time. Time during which the mechanical vibrations of a crystal continue after
the electrical pulse has stopped.

Rotational wave. See shear wave.

Scale expansion. See expanded time-base sweep.

Scan pitch. Pitch or distance between lines of scan during passage of the probe(s) over
the scan area.

Scanning. Systematic relative displacement of the ultrasonic beam and the material
under test.

Scatter (ultrasonic). Energy reflected in a random way by small reflectors in the path
of a beam of ultrasonic waves (eg grain boundaries).

Schlieren system. Optical system used to display an ultrasonic beam visually, by

passing it through a transparent medium.

Screen marker. Small electronically generated pulses following one another at a preset
time interval, presented on a time-base sweep to provide a calibration less dependent on
the linearity of the time base.

Second critical angle. Angle of incidence of a longitudinal wave in one medium such
that the refracted transverse wave is at 90o, ie along the surface of the second medium.

Sensitivity. Ability of an ultrasonic system to identify a small reflector in the far

distance.

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Sequence number. In an automatic testing system, the order of connection of channels
and probes required to perform defined scans.

Shadow technique. Technique in which a discontinuity in a material is revealed by the

acoustical shadow it produces.

Shadow zone. Region in a body which cannot be reached by ultrasonic energy

travelling in a given direction, because of the shape of the body or a discontinuity in it.

Shear wave. Form of wave motion in which the particle displacement at each point in a
material is at right angles to the direction of propagation. Note: Synonymous terms are
distortional wave, rotational wave and transverse wave.

Shear wave probe. Probe for generating or detecting shear waves.

Short pulse. Pulse which has few (usually less than 1.5) cycles in the time interval over
which its amplitude exceeds half of its maximum amplitude.

Side lobe. Peak or pronounced shoulder in an ultrasonic beam lying to one side of the
main beam.

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). Ratio of the amplitude of an ultrasonic echo arising from
a discontinuity in a material to the amplitude of the average background noise.

Single bounce technique. See double traverse technique.

Single probe technique. Technique involving the use of a single crystal probe for both
transmitting and detecting ultrasonic waves.

Single traverse technique. Examination technique in which a beam of ultrasonic

waves is directed into a region of a body under examination without intermediate
reflection. Note: A synonymous term is direct scan.

Sizing technique. Technique which enables an estimate of the size of a discontinuity to

be made from its ultrasonic responses. Note: Examples of sizing techniques are 6dB
drop (half maximum) technique, 20dB drop technique and maximum amplitude
technique.

Skip distance. For a beam of shear waves entering a body, the distance measured over
the surface of the body between the probe index and the point where the beam axis
impinges on the surface after a single reflection from the opposite surface.

Snell’s law. States that the angle of refraction is a function of the angle of the incident
beam and the change in relative velocity between the two materials.

Soft-faced probe. Probe in which the contact surface is a flexible membrane and a
space between the crystal and membrane is filled with a liquid couplant.

Soft-tipped probe. Probe in which a thick flexible medium forms the coupling between
its crystal and the surface of the material under test.

Sound attenuation. Reduction in the level of sound intensity due to distortion, scatter
and beam spread.

Specific acoustic impedance. Property of a medium which determines the amount of

reflection that occurs at an interface with another medium. Note: It is defined
mathematically as the product of the density of the medium and the velocity of the wave
travelling through it.

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Specular reflection. A mirror-like reflection of an ultrasonic beam such that the angle
of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Spherical reflector. Surface of spherical or near spherical form, separating two media
of different characteristic impedance.

Spherical wave. Wave in which points of the same phase lie on the surfaces of
concentric spheres.

Spurious echo. Term used for any indication not obviously associated with a
discontinuity or boundary. Note: A synonymous term is parasitic echo.

Spurious indication. See spurious echo.

Stand-off. Block, usually of plastic material, which serves to separate the ultrasonic
crystal(s) from the surface of the test piece. Note: The use of such blocks is generally
confined to compression wave probes.

Stationary wave. Effect produced by the superposition of wave trains moving in

opposite directions with the formation of stationary nodes and antinodes.

Subsidiary maxima. Irregular fluctuations in the response of a small reflector as an

ultrasonic beam is scanned over it.

Suppression. See reject.

Surface noise. Unwanted signals at very short range, produced by ultrasonic waves
being reflected within the coupling film and from irregularities of the surface.

Surface preparation. Processing of a surface necessary to render it suitable for

providing good acoustical coupling for ultrasonic testing.

Surface wave. Ultrasonic wave which propagates on the surface of a body.

Surface wave probe. Probe for generating and/or detecting surface waves.

Swivel scan. Shear wave technique used to provide information about the form of a
previously located discontinuity, the probe(s) being positioned at a constant distance
from and directed at the discontinuity and rotated by an angle of up to 360o.

Tandem probe technique. Technique involving the use of two probes, one transmitting
the ultrasonic energy into the body and the other positioned to pick up any energy
reflected from a discontinuity. Note: The probes are usually scanned together at a fixed
separation and the technique is mostly used for the detection of vertically oriented,
through-wall, planar defects.

Test block. Piece of material capable of propagating ultrasonic waves and suitable for
assessing particular features of ultrasonic equipment performance.

Test surface. Surface of a piece of material through which ultrasonic waves pass.

Threshold. Minimum signal amplitude that is regarded as significant in a particular

ultrasonic examination.

Time base. Trace on the screen of a cathode ray tube which is generated in such a way
that distance along it is proportional to time.

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Time base range. Maximum ultrasonic path length that can be displayed on a particular
time base.

Time corrected gain. Facility of flaw detectors to represent flaws of equal reflective
size with the same screen amplitude, irrespective of their depth in the material.

Time marker. See screen marker.

Toe-in-semi-angle. Half the angle between the normals to the crystal faces in a twin
crystal probe.

Total attenuation. Diminution of intensity of a particular mode, with travel range, of an

ultrasonic beam of any form arising from the combined effects of absorption, scatter and
geometric beam spread.

Total internal reflection. Reflection which occurs when the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle and the reflection coefficient is unity.

Transceiver. Probe used to generate and detect ultrasonic energy.

Transducer. Electroacoustical device for converting electrical energy into acoustical

energy and vice versa.

Transmission coefficient. Ratio of ultrasonic wave intensity transmitted across an

interface to the total wave energy incident upon the interface.

Transmission point. Point on the time base which corresponds to the instant at which
ultrasonic energy enters the material under examination.

Transmission technique. Technique in which the quality of a material is assessed by

the intensity of the ultrasonic radiation incident on the receiving probe after the waves
have travelled through the material.

Transverse wave. See shear wave.

Trigger/alarm condition. Condition where the equipment indicates that a piece of

material is suspect.

Trigger/alarm level. Level at which the ultrasonic equipment is required to

differentiate between acceptable and suspect material.

Triple bounce technique. See quadruple traverse technique.

Triple traverse technique. Technique in which a beam of ultrasonic waves is directed

into a region of a body under examination after having been reflected successively by
two surfaces of the body. Note: A synonymous term is double bounce technique.

Twin crystal probe. See double crystal probe.

Ultrasonic frequency. Any frequency of vibration greater than the range of audibility of
the human ear, generally taken as greater than 20kHz.

Ultrasonic mode changer. Device which causes vibrations of a particular mode (eg
compressional) in one body to produce vibrations of another mode (eg shear) in another
body.

Wavelength (λ). Perpendicular distance between two wave fronts with a phase
difference of one complete period.

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Ultrasonic wave. Disturbance which travels through a material at ultrasonic frequency
by virtue of the elastic properties of that material.

Wedge (ultrasonic). Device placed between the probe and the test surface for the
purpose of causing ultrasonic waves to pass between the two at a particular angle.

Wetting Agent. Substance added to a coupling liquid to decrease its surface tension.

Young’s modulus of elasticity. In an elastic material, the ratio of tensile stress to

tensile strain.

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