CH 23 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL II

Intended Learning Outcomes – after this lecture you will learn:

1. Calculate potential through the field and Gauss’s law
2. Calculate potential by breaking up a charge distribution into sum of point charges
3. Equipotential surfaces and their implications on conductors
4. Calculate the field from the potential

Calculate Electric Potential of a System (if 𝐸𝐸�⃗ can be found readily, e.g. using Gauss’s law)
𝑏𝑏 𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ≡ 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = � �𝑬𝑬⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = − � �𝑬𝑬⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗
𝑎𝑎 𝑏𝑏

Potential of a Workdone by electric Workdone by external force to

relative to b force to move one unit move one unit charge from b
charge from a to b to a
∞ 𝑎𝑎
If take 𝑉𝑉 to be zero at infinity, 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = ∫𝑎𝑎 �𝑬𝑬⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = − ∫∞ ��⃗
𝑬𝑬 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗

Potential of a Charged Conducting Sphere Example 23.6 and 23.8

Outside sphere, 𝑟𝑟 > 𝑅𝑅:
Again ��⃗
𝑬𝑬 radially outward
∞ ∞
1 𝑞𝑞 1 𝑞𝑞 ∞ 1 𝑞𝑞
�⃗ ⃗
𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟) − 𝑉𝑉(∞) = � 𝑬𝑬 ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � =
2
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟
same as a point charge 𝑞𝑞 located at the center of the sphere
Inside sphere, 𝑟𝑟 < 𝑅𝑅:
�𝑬𝑬⃗ = 0 (why?), 𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑉𝑉(𝑅𝑅) =
1 𝑞𝑞
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑅𝑅
, the constant value at the
surface
inside and on the surface
of the sphere, the
potential is the same and
∝ 1/𝑅𝑅
on the sphere’s surface,
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑉𝑉/𝑅𝑅

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 1

Corona Discharge
If 𝐸𝐸 too large, air molecules will be
ionized, leading to an electric
breakdown
Sharp conductor (𝑅𝑅 small) – large E at
the same potential, easier to cause
breakdown
http://thefutureofthings.com/upload/image/articles/2007/ionic-wind/corona-discharge.jpg

Consequences:
1. Lightning rods have round shape at the tip
2. The larger the metal sphere in a van de Graaff generator, the higher 𝑉𝑉 it can build up

Demonstration:

Corona discharge of van de Graff generator using a fluorescent tube

Oppositely Charged Parallel Plates Example 23.9

Already know: E uniform between plates if they are infinitely
large
𝑏𝑏
�⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = � 𝑬𝑬
𝑦𝑦
In particular, 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 > 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 , consistent with direction of ��⃗
𝑬𝑬
if (arbitrarily) set 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = 0, then 𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 and 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 = 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 2

Infinite Charged Conducting Cylinder Example 23.10
Already know: 𝐸𝐸 = 0 inside cylinder, and radially outward outside
cylinder
Inside cylinder: 𝑉𝑉 constant and equals to the value on the surface (just
like the case of conducting sphere)
Outside:
∞ ∞
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 ∞
𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟) = 𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟) − 𝑉𝑉(∞) = � 𝑬𝑬�⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ln ? ?
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟

cannot choose 𝑉𝑉(∞) = 0, true in cases where charge distribution extends to infinity
If choose 𝑉𝑉(𝑅𝑅) = 0 (on the cylinder surface) instead
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 𝑅𝑅
𝑉𝑉(𝑟𝑟) = − � 𝑬𝑬 �⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = − � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ln < 0
𝑅𝑅 𝑅𝑅 2𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 2𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟

𝑏𝑏
��⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ to calculate 𝑉𝑉 because 𝐸𝐸 can be found easily using
In the above examples, 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ∫𝑎𝑎 𝑬𝑬
1 𝑞𝑞
Gauss’s law. Otherwise we go back to 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 ∑ 𝑟𝑟 𝑖𝑖 , assuming 𝑉𝑉(∞) = 0.
0 𝑖𝑖

A Ring of Charge Example 23.11

1 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 1 𝑄𝑄 1 𝑄𝑄
𝑉𝑉 = � = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 √𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑎2
1 𝑄𝑄
as 𝑥𝑥 → ∞, ring is just like a point charge, 𝑉𝑉 = 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖 𝑥𝑥
0
compare to calculating E, no need to find vector sum

A Finite Line of Charge Example 23.12

𝑄𝑄
Charge of segment 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = �2𝑎𝑎� 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
1 𝑄𝑄 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = may try
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 2𝑎𝑎 �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
Wolfram Alpha
1 𝑄𝑄 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
⟹ 𝑉𝑉 = �
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 2𝑎𝑎 −𝑎𝑎 �𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑦𝑦 2
1 𝑄𝑄 √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑎
= ln � �
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 2𝑎𝑎 √𝑎𝑎2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑎𝑎

Question: does this result make sense for an infinitely long line, 𝑎𝑎 → ∞?

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 3

Equipotential Surface
Electric field is a vector field, visualized as vectors (electric field lines)
Potential is a scalar field, visualized as equipotential surfaces (on which every point has the
same potential), c.f. a contour plot

Properties of equipotential surfaces

1. No work is done when a test charge moves along an equipotential surface
2. Consequently field lines must be perpendicular to equipotential surfaces
3. Field lines go from high potential to low potential surfaces
4. A positive test charge “falls” from high potential to low potential, c.f. a mass fall down the
hill
5. Equipotential surfaces closer together if electric field is stronger, c.f. a steeper hill
No two equipotential surfaces of different potential can cross (otherwise the potential is not
uniquely defined at the crossing point). But what happens at the center of (c) above?
𝐸𝐸 need not be constant on the same equipotential surface

Conductor Revisited
Consider a conductor of arbitrary shape, which may have a cavity inside. It may carry a surplus
charge, but there is no free charge inside the cavity. It is assumed to be in electrostatic condition
(no net current).
We already know from studying ��⃗ 𝑬𝑬 that
1. Inside the solid conductor (not including the cavity), �𝑬𝑬⃗ = 0
�⃗ perpendicular to surface
2. On the conductor surfaces (inner and outer), 𝑬𝑬

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 4

Claim: The potential anywhere on the surfaces, inside the conductor, and inside the cavity
are all the same

To prove it:
1. Any two points a and b on the surfaces (both inside and outside), 𝐸𝐸∥ = 0, potential difference
between them 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = ∫ 𝐸𝐸∥ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0
�⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = 0
2. Any two points inside the conductor (not including the cavity), 𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = ∫ 𝑬𝑬
already seen points 1 and 2 in a metal sphere
3. Inside the cavity, prove by contradiction:
- Inner surface A is equipotential, 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴
- Assume a point P inside the cavity has different
potential 𝑽𝑽𝑷𝑷 ≠ 𝑽𝑽𝑨𝑨 . Construct an equipotential
surface B through P
- B cannot touch surface A (why?)
- Anywhere between A and B, �𝑬𝑬⃗ must point either from
A to B if 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 > 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵 , or B to A if 𝑉𝑉𝐴𝐴 < 𝑉𝑉𝐵𝐵
- Construct a Gaussian surface sitting between surfaces
A and B. It has non-zero flux but encloses no charge,
a contradiction!!

Potential Gradient – electric field from potential

𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎
𝑉𝑉𝑎𝑎 − 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏 = � 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − � �𝑬𝑬⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗
𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏
��⃗ ⋅ 𝑑𝑑𝒍𝒍⃗ = −(𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)
True for any path and any endpoints, ∴ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝑬𝑬
If vary 𝑥𝑥 but hold 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧 constant, 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 0 𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 Differentiate
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = −𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ⇒ 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑉𝑉(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) as if 𝑦𝑦
Likewise and 𝑧𝑧 are constant 𝑥𝑥
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = − , 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = − 𝑦𝑦
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕

Therefore
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
��⃗
𝑬𝑬 = − � 𝒊𝒊̂ + 𝒋𝒋⃗ + �𝒌𝒌⃗� ≡ −∇𝑉𝑉
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕
∇≡ 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝒊𝒊̂ + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝒋𝒋⃗ + 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 �𝒌𝒌⃗ is called the gradient operator, or grad
∇𝑉𝑉 (a vector !!) is called the potential gradient, i.e., the rate of change of 𝑉𝑉
already know that 𝐸𝐸 stronger in places where equipotential surfaces are closer

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 5

Example 23.14
We previous found that for 𝑃𝑃 along the axis,
1 𝑄𝑄
𝑉𝑉 =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 √𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑎2
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝑄𝑄𝑄𝑄
𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 = − = , 𝐸𝐸𝑦𝑦 = 𝐸𝐸𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑎𝑎2 )3⁄2
2

if 𝑉𝑉 depend on 𝑥𝑥 only, then �𝑬𝑬⃗ is along the 𝑥𝑥 direction,

�⃗ = 𝐸𝐸𝑥𝑥 𝒊𝒊̂. Likewise for 𝑦𝑦 and 𝑧𝑧.
𝑬𝑬

Likewise if 𝑉𝑉 depends on radial distance 𝑟𝑟 only, then �𝑬𝑬⃗ is radially outward/inward,

��⃗ = 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 𝒓𝒓� = −(𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕⁄𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕)𝒓𝒓�
𝑬𝑬
e.g. for a point charge
1 𝑞𝑞 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝑞𝑞
𝑉𝑉 = ⇒ 𝐸𝐸𝑟𝑟 = − =
4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 4𝜋𝜋𝜖𝜖0 𝑟𝑟 2

Question: Suppose 𝑉𝑉(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 3 + 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷, where 𝐴𝐴, 𝐵𝐵, 𝐶𝐶 and 𝐷𝐷 are positive
constants. Which of the followings is/are correct?
1) Increase 𝐴𝐴 will increase the magnitude of 𝑬𝑬 ��⃗ at all points;
2) Increase 𝐴𝐴 will decrease the magnitude of �𝑬𝑬⃗ at all points;
3) ��⃗
𝑬𝑬 has no 𝑧𝑧 component;
��⃗ at the origin is zero.
4) 𝑬𝑬

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 6

Appendix I Summary on a conductor
Inside bracket are information (electrostatic condition / Gauss’s law / result stated in the
corresponding colored box) needed to prove that result

Cavity has no free Cavity has free charge

charge
Outer surface Inside Inner Inside Inner surface Inside
conductor surface cavity cavity
Surplus Yes No No Yes
charge (Gauss’s law (Gauss’s law (Gauss’s (induced)
and ∎ box) and ∎ box) law and ∎
box)

Field ⊥ to surface Zero Zero Zero ⊥ to surface Non-

(electrostatic) (electrostatic) (∎ box) (∎ box) (electrostatic) zero

Potential Everywhere the same Can be different

(∎ box) (∎ box) (Gauss’s law)

Make sure you understand and know how to prove each result.

Appendix II Geometric meaning of 𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨𝐨

You don’t need to know this for the purpose of this course. It may be hazardous to
your health unless you are really eager to know it in this stage. Otherwise you can
wait until you take a course on multivariable calculus.

𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) is a scalar function of position

Consider a surface 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐. In the vicinity of a point on the surface, the geometry is
an infinitesimal plane. Without loss of generality, take the normal direction to be the z axis.
Since 𝜙𝜙(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑧𝑧) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 on the plane,
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= = 0, ∇𝜙𝜙 = �,
𝒌𝒌
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Conclusion: ∇𝜙𝜙 is the rate of change of 𝜙𝜙 along the direction normal to the constant 𝜙𝜙 surface.
�
𝒌𝒌

𝒊𝒊̂ 𝒋𝒋̂

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 7

Appendix III Doing integration with Wolfram Alpha
It gives you not only the result, but the steps also, all from your smart phone
a) b)

c)

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 8

Clicker Questions

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 9

Ans: Q23.10) C, Q23.11) D, Q23.12) B

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 10

Video Solutions of Textbook Examples for this Lecture

PHYS1114 Lecture 6 Electric Potential II P. 11