CHAPTER 10

ERROR DETECTION AND

CORRECTION

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 Learning Outcomes
 Able to differentiate types of errors that
may occur during data transmission
 Able to determine how error of data can
be detected and corrected in data
transmission
 Able to understand the techniques that
being used for error detection and
correction.
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 Introduction
 The network must be able to transfer
data with acceptable of accuracy.
 Data can be corrupted during
transmission.
 Some application may require that
errors to be detected and corrected.

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 Types of Errors
 When bit flow from one point to another, they may
unpredictable changes because of interference.
 This interference can change the shape of the
signal
 2 types of errors
1. Single bit error
2. Burst error
Eg;- 1/100 s burst of impulse noise on transmission
with data rate 1200 bps, it might change all or some
of the 12 bits of information.

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 Single Bit Error
 Only ONE bit of a given data unit (such as
byte, character or packet) is changed from 0
>> 1 and 1 >>> 0.
 Ex 00000010 ( ASCII => start of text )
change to 00001010 ( ASCII => line feed )
 Occur in parallel transmission

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 Single Bit Error

10.1 Single-bit error

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 Burst Error
 It means that 2 or more bits in data unit have changed
from 1 to 0 or 0 to 1
 Occur in serial transmission
 Burst error does not necessarily mean the errors occur in
consecutive bits.
 The length of burst is measured from the 1st bit corrupted
bit to the last corrupted bit
 Duration of noise normally longer than the duration of 1
bit.
 When noise affects data it affects a set of bits.
 It depends on the data rate and duration of noise

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 Burst Error

10.2 Burst error of length 5

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 Error Detection
Redundancy
 The central concept in detecting or correcting
errors.
 Error detection mechanism that would send every data
unit twice
 In order to detect or correct error, we need to send some
extra bits with our data.
 Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which
means for detecting errors at the destination

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10.3 Redundancy
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 Detection Vs Correction
 Correction is more difficult than detection.
 In detection – only to see if any error has occurred.
 In correction we need required as below:-
 The exact number of bits that are corrupted and
importantly the location in the message.
 The number of errors and the size of message

Eg:- if we need to correct 1 error in 8-bit data unit,

it may have 8 possible error locations.

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 Forward error correction vs
Retransmission
 2 methods of error correction
a) Forward error correction
 process in which the receiver tries to guess the message
by using redundancy bits.
b) Retransmission
 Technique in which the receiver detects the

occurrence of an error and ask the sender to

resend the message

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 Coding
 Redundancy can be achieved through
various coding scheme.
 The sender adds redundant bits through a
process that create a relationship between
the two sets of bits to detect or correct errors
 Factors – ratio of redundant bits to the
data unit and the robustness of the process

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 Coding
 Coding scheme can be divided into two
 Block coding
 Convolution coding
 This subject only cover on block coding
scheme.

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 Modular Arithmetic
 Only limited range of integers, integers 0 to
N-1
 This is known as modulus N.

 Eg: Modulus 12 means that we use only the

integers 0 to 11.
 In Modulo N system, if number is > N, it
will divided by N and the remainder is the
result.
 If N is negative, it will change to positive
value.
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 Modular Arithmetic
 Adding
0+0=0 , 0+1=1, 1+0=1, 1+1 = 0
 Subtraction
0-0=0, 0-1=1, 1-0=1, 1-1=0

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 Modular Arithmetic
 XOR operation in modular arithmetic

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 Block Coding
 In block coding, our message divided
into blocks, each of k bits, called
datawords.
 We add r redundant bits to each
block to make the length n = k + r.
The resulting n-bit blocks are called
codewords.

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Figure 10.5 Datawords and codewords in block coding

10.21
 Error Detection
 How errors can be detected by using
block coding? If 2 conditions are met:-
 The receiver has a list of valid codewords.
 The original codeword has changed to
invalid one.
 Error detection code can detect only types
of errors for which it is designed; other
types of errors remain undetected.

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Figure 10.6 Process of error detection in block coding

10.23
 Example 10.2

Let us assume that k = 2 and n = 3. Table 10.1 shows the

list of datawords and codewords. Later, we will see how
to derive a codeword from a dataword.

Assume the sender encodes the dataword 01 as 011 and

sends it to the receiver. Consider the following cases:

1. The receiver receives 011. It is a valid codeword. The

receiver extracts the dataword 01 from it.

10.24
 Example 10.2 (continued)

2. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and

111 is received. This is not a valid codeword and is
discarded.

3. The codeword is corrupted during transmission, and

000 is received. This is a valid codeword. The receiver
incorrectly extracts the dataword 00. Two corrupted
bits have made the error undetectable.

10.25
Table 10.1 A code for error detection (Example 10.2)

10.26
 Error Correction
 It is more difficult than error detection
 Error detection, the receiver needs to know
only the received codeword is invalid
 But, in error correction the receiver need to
find (guess) the original codeword sent
 In other words, we need more redundant
bits for error correction than error
detection

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 Hamming Distance
 It is the central concept in coding for
error control.
 The Hamming Distance between two
words is the number differences
between the corresponding bits

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 Example 10.4

Let us find the Hamming distance between two pairs of

words.

1. The Hamming distance d(000, 011) is 2 because

2. The Hamming distance d(10101, 11110) is 3 because

10.29
 Minimum Hamming distance
 Although the hamming distance is being used
for error detection and correction
 It measurement that used for designing a
code is minimum hamming distance
 Minimum hamming distance (dmin) is the
smallest hamming distance all possible
pairs in a set of words.

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 Relationship Hamming distance and Errors

 When a codeword corrupted during

transmission, the hamming distance
between sent and received codeword is the
number of bits affected by error.
 In the other words, the hamming distance
between the received codeword and the sent
codeword is the number of bits that are
corrupted during transmission.

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 Example 10.5

Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding scheme

in Table 10.1.
Solution
We first find all Hamming distances.

The dmin in this case is 2.

10.32
 Example 10.6

Find the minimum Hamming distance of the coding scheme

in Table 10.2.

Solution
We first find all the Hamming distances.

The dmin in this case is 3.

10.33
 Minimum distance for error
detection
 In the Hamming distance able to detect error as s
error,
 The minimum distance between the valid codes
must be s +1
 To guarantee the detection of up to s error in all
cases, the minimum Hamming distance in a block

code must be dmin = s + 1 .

 eg:- If dmin = 3 the min erorr, s is 2

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 Linear Block Codes
 Today block codes is subset to linear block
codes.
 The nonlinear block codes for error detection
and correction is not widespread because
their structure make difficult to analyze and
implement.
 Linear block codes is a code in which the
exclusive OR (XOR) of two valid
codewords creates another valid
codeword
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 Error Detection-Linear Block
codes
 Three types of redundancy detection
method
1. Parity check
2. Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
3. Checksum

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 Error Detection-Linear Block
codes
Types of
redundancy
check

Parity Cyclic
Redundancy Checksum
Check Check (CRC)

Simple Parity 2 dimensional

Check parity check

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 Parity Check
 2 types of parity check
1. Simple Parity Check
2. 2 dimensional parity check

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 Simple Parity Check
 In parity check, a parity bit is added to
every data unit so that the total number
of 1s is even (or odd for odd-parity)
 Simple parity check can detect all
single-bit errors.
 It can detect burst errors only if the
total number of errors in each data unit is
odd
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 Simple Parity Check Code
 In this code, k-bit dataword is changed to n-
bit codeword when, n= k+1.
 An extra bit called parity bit is selected to
make the total number of 1s in the
dataword is EVEN.
 The minimum hamming distance for this
Simple Parity code is dmin = 2, which means
that this code is a single bit error detection
code
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 Simple Parity Check

10.5 Even-parity concept

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 Simple Parity Check
 Encoder Side
 Generator will take copy of k-bit dataword and

generates the parity bit. The codeword will be

created when
 codeword (n) = k(dataword) + 1 (parity bit)
 This parity bit make the number of 1s in the

codeword EVEN
 SYNDROME 0 = when the number of 1s in

codeword is EVEN
 SYNDROME 1 = when the number of 1s in

codeword is ODD
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 Example 1

Suppose the sender wants to send the word world. In

ASCII the five characters are coded as
1110111 1101111 1110010 1101100 1100100
The following shows the actual bits sent
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000 11001001

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 Simple Parity Check
 Decoder Side
 The syndrome will passed logic analyzer

 SYNDROME 0 = no error in the received

codeword. The data is ACCEPTED

 SYNDROME 1 = the data portion of the received

codeword is discarded. The data is NOT

Created/Accepted.
 Performance
 Only single bit error can be detected

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 Example 2

Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is received

by the receiver without being corrupted in
transmission.
11101110 11011110 11100100 11011000
11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes
up with even numbers (6, 6, 4, 4, 4). The data are
accepted.

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 Example 3

Now suppose the word world in Example 1 is

corrupted during transmission.
11111110 11011110 11101100 11011000
11001001
The receiver counts the 1s in each character and comes
up with even and odd numbers (7, 6, 5, 4, 4). The
receiver knows that the data are corrupted, discards
them, and asks for retransmission.

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 Two Dimensional Parity Check
 In two-dimensional parity check, a
block of bits is divided into rows and a
redundant row of bits is added to the
whole block
 The Hamming code for this category
is dmin = 3. It means that it can detect
error up to 2 or one single error.

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 Two dimensional parity check
 The integer of m >=3
 The relationship between m (the
number of check bits) and n is
n= 2m -1 and k = n-m.
 Eg:- m =3, then n=7 and k= 4. The
Hamming code is (7,4) with dmin = 3.

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Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.49
10.6 Two-dimensional parity
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Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.51
Figure 10.11 Two-dimensional parity-check code

10.52
 Example 4

Suppose the following block is sent:

10101001 00111001 11011101 11100111 10101010
However, it is hit by a burst noise of length 8, and some bits are
corrupted.
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010
When the receiver checks the parity bits, some of the bits do not
follow the even-parity rule and the whole block is discarded.
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010

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 Two Dimensional Parity Check
 Performance
 Hamming code can detect single bit error or
double error (min detection)
 How to solve?
- By slpitting burst error to several
codeword, 1 erorr for each codeword.
-They send one codeword at a time, we
arrange the codeword in a table and send
the bits in the table a column at a time
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 Cyclic code
 Codeword is cyclically shifted that
result to another codeword.
 Eg:- 1011000 is a codeword, then it
cyclically left-shifted to become
0110001 codeword
1011000

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 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)

10.7 CRC generator and checker

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Figure 10.14 CRC encoder and decoder

10.57
Figure 10.15 Division in CRC encoder

10.58
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Characteristics Descriptions
Encoder Take dataword and augmented with n – k number
of 0s . Then divide the augmented dataword by
divisor.
Decoder Same as division process as the encoder. The
remainder of division is syndrome.
If syndrome 0 = no errors, dataword is ACCEPTED
Otherwise it will be discarded
Divisor The divisor has n – k +1 bits which predefined or
all 0s.

The left most of the bit not needed because the

result of the operation ALWAYS 0s.

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 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
Characteristics Descriptions
Augmented It fixed in position with divisor bit shifting to the
Dataword right. 1 bit for each step
The divisor bits are aligned with the augmented
dataword
Remainder In encoder => the remainder will attached to the
dataword
In decoder => the remainder is equal to zero
means data is ACCEPTED otherwise it will be
discarded.
It normallly used as register in hardware
implementation

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 The CRC Encoder Generator

10.8 Binary division in a CRC generator

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 The CRC Decoder Generator

10.9 Binary division in CRC checker

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Figure 10.16 Division in the CRC decoder for two cases

10.63
 Polynomials
 How the cyclic code can be analyzed?
By using Polynomial
A pattern of 0s and 1s represented in polynomial with
coeffiecient of 0 and 1

10.10 A polynomial

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 Polynomials

10.11 A polynomial representing a divisor

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Figure 10.21 A polynomial to represent a binary word

10.66
 Polynomial
 Degree of polynomial is the highest power in the
polynomial
Eg:- The highest degree of polynomial is 7.

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 Polynomial
Shifting
 Shifting to the left
 adding extra 0s at the right most bit
 it can be accomplished by multiplying each term of
polynomial with Xm
 Shifting to the rights
deleting some the right most bits
It can be accomplished by dividing each term with the
polynomial by Xm
Shifting left 3 bits – 10011 =>10011000
x4+x+1 => x7+x4+x3
Shifting right 3 bits – 10011 => 10
x4+x+1 => x
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 Polynomial
The augmented dataword in CRC encoder under
polynomial form will SHIFTED the bits to the left
Eg:-
Dataword 1001 => x3+1, divisor = x3+x+1
To find the augmented dataword, it need to left-shifted
the dataword in 3 bits (multiplying the dataword with
x3) and become x6+x3

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Figure 10.22 CRC division using polynomials

10.70
Table 10.1 Standard polynomials
Name Polynomial Application

CRC-8 x8 + x2 + x + 1 ATM header

CRC-10 x10 + x9 + x5 + x4 + x 2 + 1 ATM AAL
ITU-16 x16 + x12 + x5 + 1 HDLC
x32 + x26 + x23 + x22 + x16 + x12 + x11 + x10
ITU-32 LANs
+ x8 + x7 + x5 + x4 + x2 + x + 1

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 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
 It can be implement in networks such as LAN and
WANS
 This error can be detected in data link and transport
layer in OSI model.
 Performance
 Advantages
- have a very good performance in detecting single bit,
double errors, odd number of errors and burst errors
- It can easily implemented in hardware and software.
- It can very fast in hardware implementation
- It can be applied in many networks

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 Checksum
 The checksum is used in the Internet by
several protocols although not at the data link
layer.
 It normally implement in network and
transport layer.
 It used based on redundancy.
 It used One’s complement – All the bits will
change to from 0 to 1 and from 1 to 0

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 Checksum

10.12 Checksum
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 Checksum

10.13 Data unit and checksum

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 Checksum
 The sender follows these steps:
 The unit is divided into k sections, each of
n bits
 All sections are added using one’s
complement to get the sum
 The sum is complemented and becomes
the checksum
 The checksum is sent with the data

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 Checksum
 The receiver follows these steps:
 The unit is divided into k sections, each of
n bits
 All sections are added using one’s
complement to get the sum
 The sum is complemented
 If the result is zero, the data are accepted:
otherwise, rejected

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 Example 7
Suppose the following block of 16 bits is to be sent using a checksum of 8
bits.
10101001 00111001
The numbers are added using one’s complement
10101001
00111001
------------
Sum 11100010 1’s complement

Checksum 00011101
The pattern sent is 10101001 00111001 00011101

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 Example 8
Now suppose the receiver receives the pattern sent in Example 7 and there is
no error.
10101001 00111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it will get all 1s, which, after
complementing, is all 0s and shows that there is no error.
10101001
00111001
00011101
Sum 11111111
Complement 00000000 means that the pattern is OK.

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 Example 9
Now suppose there is a burst error of length 5 that affects 4 bits.
10101111 11111001 00011101
When the receiver adds the three sections, it gets
10101111
11111001
00011101
Partial Sum 1 11000101
Carry 1
Sum 11000110
Complement 00111001 the pattern is corrupted.
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 Checksum
 Performance
 Advantage
 It can detect single, double and burst error but
 Less strong than CRC error checking capability
 Disadvantage
- If one value of one word increment and the value
of the another word is decrement by the same
amount- it make 2 errors cannot be detected
because the sum and checksum remain the same.
 Solution – each word multiplied by number (its
weight) that related to its position in the text.
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 Summary
Criteria Simple parity Two-dimensional Cyclic Checksum
check Parity check Redundancy
check

Approach of Linear block Linear block codes Linear block + Redundancy

coding scheme codes Cyclic code code

n = 2m -1
The Min. n=k+1
dmin = 3 NA NA
Hamming Code dmin = 2

Network and
Data link and
Implementation Data link layer Data link Transport
transport layer
layer

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 Summary
Criteria Simple parity Two- Cyclic Redundancy Checksum
check dimensional check
Parity check

•Single bit error, double

bit error, odd numbers •It can detect
•Single bit error and burst error any type of
•Single bit error
Performance and double bit •Faster in detecting errors
can be detect
error errors •Less strong
•Easy to implement in than CRC
hardware and software

Category of
network
LAN LAN LANs and WANs LAN

Software Software Hardware and

Application Software
Software

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End of Chapter 10

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