12/1/2022

Staffing:
Selecting & Motivating People

BMAN 10011: Fundamentals of Management TODAY’S LECTURE

- Selecting People
- Motivating People
Dr. Masakatsu (Bob) Ono
[email protected]
AMBS 7.012

Why is selection important? Selection Process

• How much does it cost to replace a departing • Organisational needs analysis
member?
• Job analysis
− £30,614 (Oxford Economics)
− The figure contains 1) the cost of lost output while a • Job description & personnel specification
replaced employee gets up to speed, 2) the logistical
cost of hiring a new worker • Identify selection criteria & choose assessment methods

• Attract candidates (recruiting)

• Unfair selection results in lawsuits, bad publicity,
& loss of revenue • Administer assessment/selection methods (screening)

• Interpret results & make decision (selecting)

 12/1/2022

Job Analysis Importance of Job Analysis

• the systematic study of a job’s tasks, duties, and Produces… Used in…
responsibilities, and the knowledge, skills, and • Job description • Selection
abilities (KSAOs) needed to perform the job. • Job/personnel • Training
specification • Performance appraisal
• Two Main Questions • Job evaluation • Job design
1. What do people in a particular job do? (task)
• Compliance with legal
2. What human characteristics are
guidelines
necessary for a job? (person)
etc…
https://www.onetonline.org/

Job Description & Personnel Specification Employee Resourcing

• Job description (task) • Supply of suitable employees via recruitment
− What workers need to do and selection
− Key results to be achieved
− Compensation • Recruitment: process by which companies
− Positioning in an organisational structure attract qualified applicants
Type Features Examples
• Personnel Specification (person) Cheaper, quicker, but less Internal notices, word-of-
Internal
− Based on the job description variety? mouth, referrals
Expensive, takes longer,
− Specify the “ideal person,” identifying KSAOs Agencies, advertisements,
External “riskier” but could get a really
headhunters, career fairs
− essential vs. desirable characteristics good hire!
 12/1/2022

Employee Resourcing Errors in Selection Decisions

• Selection: Process of choosing applicants for False Negative True Positive
employment

Job Performance
 High
− Information obtained via screening process
(predictors) will be carefully examined to predict future
performance (criterion)

Low 
• Decision Making Techniques
− Systematic (e.g., multiple regression & multiple cutoff) True Negative False Positive
− Non-Systematic (aka. clinical approach)
Reject   Accept
Scores on Selection Tests

Employee Resourcing Selection Methods

Screening:
• What determines good selection methods: Process of reviewing
− Sensitivity: ability to differentiate candidates information about job
Pseudo Scientific applicants used to
− Reliability: consistency • Graphology select workers
− Validity: accuracy, measures what it should measure
− Fairness: not discriminating against certain groups
Scientific
Less Scientific
• Psychometric tests
• CVs & Application
• Work samples
Forms
• Structured
• References
interviews
• Unstructured
• Bio-data
interviews
• Assessment
CLASSIC centres
TRIO • SJTs
Reliable, not valid Neither reliable nor valid Reliable & valid
 12/1/2022

Applications & CVs Applications & CVs

• Generally used as a ’first wall’ • Multiple studies showing
name-based bias in the
• Advantages:
selection process
− Ethnicity
− Easy to use
− Gender
− Easy to compare
− Can be used repeatedly (CVs) • Solution?
− name-blind recruitment:
• Disadvantages:
− Time-bound
− May not be accurate
− Biased (e.g., candidates’ names)

References Interviews
• Usually obtained from current or past employers • The most popular selection method (Wilk & Cappelli,
• Advantages: 2003)

− Positive reactions − Only 1% of organisations never used any form of

− Method’s popularity
interviews
• Disadvantages:
− Extremely full of bias • Three types:
− Creates expectations of candidate if read before meeting 1. Unstructured interviews
• Other possible issues: 2. Semi-structured interviews
− Do reference writers know the job requirements? 3. Structured interviews
− Are they articulate?
− Do they even reply? – response rates as low as 35%
 12/1/2022

Interviews Unstructured Interviews

• Advantages: • A conversation between an employer and an
− Widely accepted by candidates applicant with not fixed set of questions or scoring
− Can extract lots of information guideline (Dipboye 1994; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998)
− Informal, low job relevance
− Often guided by “gut” feelings
• Disadvantages:
− Prone to a huge amount of bias – reliance on the
− Costly
interviewer’s personal (mis)beliefs about an ideal
− Candidates can lie candidate
− May induce stress (e.g., panel interviews) • We like those who are similar to us (e.g., racial similarity)
− Full of bias • Other bias: attractiveness, overweight, gender “mismatch” etc.

Are They Good Methods? Structured Interviews

• Usually with standardized questionnaires (based
Method Reliability Validity Fairness
on job description), trained interviewers, and
Applications & CVs little data little data poor evaluation
− All candidates are asked more or less the same
References poor poor very poor questions concerning work behaviours
− Better comparison possible
Unstructured Interview poor middling poor
• Two types
• The classic trio of selection methods are so poor − Situational: “verbal work samples” – future focus
− need to use more psychometrically sound methods (i.e., − Behavioural: describe past behaviours
scientific methods)
 12/1/2022

Sample Behavioural Questions Sample Situational Questions

• When dealing with customers, it is inevitable that you • Suppose that you were scheduled to work on
are going to get someone angry. Tell us about a time Saturday. A friend calls on Thursday and says
when a customer was angry at you. What did you do that you get to use a condo at the beach for
to fix the situation? free—but it has to be this weekend. What would
you do?
• The job of network engineer requires a good deal of
customer service. Tell us about your previous
• Imagine that you told a client that you would be
customer service.
there at 10:00 a.m. It is now 10:30 and there is
no way you will be finished with your current job
• This job involves persuading employees to follow our until 11:30. You are scheduled to meet another
safety rules. Tell us about a time in the past when you client for lunch at 12:00 and then be at another
had to persuade an employee to do something.
job at 1:15. How would you handle the situation?

Psychometric Tests Sample Cognitive Ability Test

• Standardised tests to assess our internal traits
that are designed to ensure reliability & validity

• Two kinds:
− Mental/cognitive ability: ability to process information
quickly & accurately
• Fairly stable after 18
• Highly reliable and valid
− Personality traits: style in which things are done
• Moderately stable after 30
• Moderately reliable and valid
 12/1/2022

Sample Cognitive Ability Test Work Samples

• Mini-trials of the job
− Asking candidates to do a simplified version of the job
− Not meant to analyse, just to mimic the job
− One of the more valid methods (especially when
combined with other tests)
• Examples:
Which statement must be true? − Written analysis
− Presentation
A. Tim lives in Tinyville.
B. Abby lives in Tinyville. − Group exercise
C. Abby’s apartment has one bedroom. − Role play
D. Big apartments have one bedroom.

Assessment Centres Are They Good Methods?

• Not a place! A term used to denote the use of
Method Reliability Validity Fairness
multiple assessments & methods on candidates,
being observed by trained assessors Structured Interview good good good
− Costly but very effective if designed well
moderate to moderate to
Psychometric Tests moderate
very high very high

• Assessment activities may include: Work Samples

not much
very high
thought to
data be good
− psychometric tests
Assessment Centre high* moderate good
− group discussion
− report writing *inter-rater reliability can be low

− role plays
 12/1/2022

Validity of Selection Methods Applicant Reactions

Method Validity Method Validity • Selection is two way street
Structured Interview .57 College grades .32 • What are the issues with too many tests? Too
Cognitive ability .51 References .29 few?
Job knowledge .48 Experience .27
• Candidates should always be briefed after
Work samples .39 Conscientiousness .24 application process, regardless of results
Assessment centers .38 Unstructured interviews .20

Biodata .34 Interest inventories .10

Integrity tests .34 Handwriting analysis .02

Situational judgment .34 Projective personality tests .00

Note. Values provided are corrected validity coefficients

Work Motivation
• Definition: the energy which drives people to
achieve an organisation’s objectives (Smith, 2011)

• Four main “classic” theories of motivation

1. Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)
TODAY’S LECTURE 2. Equity Theory (Adams)
- Selecting People 3. Expectancy Theory (Vroom)*
- Motivating People 4. Goal-Setting Theory (Locke)

*Won’t be covered in this lecture video

 12/1/2022

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• Developed by Abraham Maslow (1970) to • Self-Actualisation
describe general motivation • Esteem
− Scholars later applied it to work
• Love/Belonging
• Safety
• Main assumption: people are motivated by
• Physiological
unfulfilled needs
− Needs are intrinsic, hierarchically organised, and
universal to every person
− Certain needs have priority over others

Hierarchy of Needs: Implications Hierarchy of Needs: Evaluation

• Managers need to fulfil the needs so employees • Popularity & Common-Sense
can reach ‘desirable’ states (e.g., creativity, problem − We would not care about being a great problem-solver
solving) at work if we are starving and scared!
• Lack of consistent empirical support
1. Physiological & Safety: enough pay to afford basic − How do we test it?
needs (food & housing), feelings of safety
• One “assumption” is that it is universal &
2. Social: sense of belongingness
hierarchical
3. Esteem: being respected and having a sense of
− Does everyone have the same needs and in this order?
accomplishment
4. Self-actualisation is then reached
 12/1/2022

Equity Theory Equity Theory

• Developed by J Stacy Adams (1965) • Key concepts:
− Inputs: What we bring into the job (e.g., time, effort,
experience)
• Main assumption: People try to balance what
− Outputs: What we get out (e.g., pay, promotion,
they put into a job with what they get out of it recognition)
− Emphasis on social comparison – importance of
fairness at work • The person creates a ratio of inputs and
outputs, then compare it with that of others
• When we compare ourselves to others (e.g.,
colleagues) and perceive unfairness – therein lies
problems of motivation

What happens with inequity? Equity Theory: Implications

• When we experience inequity, we become • Can unfairness lead to positive outcomes?
dissatisfied and change our behaviours to resolve − If we overpay people (skew the ratio), they will be
it. Any examples? motivated to work more to balance the ratio
− Assumes that employees can view inputs objectively
− Unclear who the “other” is – is it always the same
person?
• Can lead to unfair practices at work…
 12/1/2022

Equity Theory: Evaluation Expectancy Theory

• Some empirical support • Developed by Vroom (1964)
− Majority of the studies focus on monetary rewards, • Main assumption: people can quantify
ignoring social/intangible rewards motivation / people are motivated by clear effort-
− Strong support for underpayment & overpayment in reward links
labs, but less so in fields (i.e., at work)
• Considered as a rationalistic theory
• Unclear on how we consider inputs, outputs, &
− Is it really accurate? – little initial discussion of biases
others and human capacity to calculate motivation forces
• On motivation…
− decreased pay = decreased motivation
− increased pay = increased motivation (?)

Expectancy Theory Expectancy Theory: Implication

• Motivational Force (MF) = V × I × E • Work to optimise employees’ expectancy,
− Valence: strength of a person’s preference (i.e., instrumentality, valence
desirability) for a particular outcome − Clear links between effort, performance, & outcomes
− Instrumentality: perceived relationship between • Organisations and their managers play the key
performance & the attainment of a certain outcome
role in the followings:
− Expectancy: perceived relationship between
− Instrumentality (performance-outcome link)
individual’s effort and performance V = VALENCE
“Do I want / like it?”
• Creating transparent systems for compensation & bonuses
− Expectancy (effort-performance link)
Effort Performance Outcome
• Providing effective training & feedback

E = EXPECTANCY I = INSTRUMENTALITY
“Will my effort mean “Will my actions amount to
anything?” anything?”
 12/1/2022

Expectancy Theory: Evaluation Goal-Setting Theory

• Some empirical support that VIE can strongly • A “newer” theory of motivation developed by
influence work motivation (Van Erde & Thierry, 1996) Locke (1968)
• Can predict within-person variation, but not − Simple
between person differences − More scientific support than others (Pinder, 1984)
− Within: motivation for different tasks for the same • Main assumption: people are motivated to work
person by setting goals
− Between: motivation across different people − goals direct and focus work behaviour
• Calls into a question whether we can reduce
humans to equations –
− Are we always rational and predictable?

Goal-Setting Theory: Implication Goal-Setting Theory: Evaluation

• To effectively motivate people, goals should be… • Scientifically-supported & popular among
− Specific – for more concentrated behaviour organisations
− Measurable − The theory is strong and well applied into practice (Pinder,
1984)
− Attainable – difficult but realistic
− Very practical for organisations
− Relevant – to your work and organisational goals
• Cheap, easy to understand, easily applicable
− Time-bound • 79% of British companies use some form of goal setting (Institute
of Personnel Management)

• Ensure that people are committed to goals • Some unanswered questions…

− Are there multiple goals?
− Goals should be set in a participate way
− Any individual differences that affect how people set
− Delegated goals are just as effective
goals?
 12/1/2022

Are goals always positive? Reading & Self-Test

• We tend to see goals and motivation as always • Smith (2011)
positive…but is there a darker side? − Chapter 7: Staffing – Selecting, Developing
and Motivating People
(pp. 165-176; 182-188)
• Goals may encourage unethical work behaviours
in order to achieve them
− We become blind to the moral salience of a situation
• Self-test 5 posted on BlackBoard
(ethical blindness) − Answers are also available
− Strong emphasis of goals can serve as justification of
unethical behaviour