Hindawi

International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

Volume 2022, Article ID 2171471, 14 pages
https://doi.org/10.1155/2022/2171471

Research Article
Dynamic Characteristics of LOX/Kerosene Variable Thrust Liquid
Rocket Engine Test System Based on General Modular
Simulation Method

Qingdong Su ,1,2 Jinjin Wang ,1 Mingxia Yan,1,2 Zhensheng Sun,1 Weifeng Huang,2
and Bailin Zha 3
1
Missile Engineering College, Rocket Force University of Engineering, Xi’an 710025, China
2
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
3
Project Management Center, Beijing 100085, China

Correspondence should be addressed to Jinjin Wang; [email protected] and Bailin Zha; [email protected]

Received 21 August 2022; Revised 16 November 2022; Accepted 29 November 2022; Published 15 December 2022

Academic Editor: Jinyang Xu

Copyright © 2022 Qingdong Su et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

For the research demand of reusable LOX/kerosene variable thrust liquid rocket engine, a test system with electric displacement
pumps is designed and a multidisciplinary modular dynamic simulation method based on AMESim platform is used to analyze
the system. The method comprehensively considers the characteristics of complex components in the engine and realizes the
fast module assembly and variable step size solution. Considering the combustion model of thrust chamber, the positive
displacement pump model with complex leakage channels, and the cooling jacket heat transfer model, the component dynamic
equations are deduced and the final model simulation results reveal that the system has a smooth ignition, stage turning, and
shutdown process. The thrust can reach 6900 N in high working condition and the variable thrust ratio is 5 : 1. The dynamic
characteristics of the system show that the performance error of main pump components is less than 5%, the maximum
average temperature rise of the thrust chamber coolant is about 28°C, and the time of stage adjustment is within 300 ms, which
mean the overall design of the system is reasonable. Although the accumulation of LOX before kerosene injection can
adversely affect the temperature of the thrust chamber, large pressure pulses do not occur due to the ignitor’s duty flame.
Moreover, the pintle injectors based on PID control can effectively stabilize the pressure drop at lower conditions. The system
and the simulation method provide important support for the actual engine test and the general LRE dynamic characteristics
analysis.

1. Introduction has shown perfect performance and received unprece-

dented attention [4].
The liquid rocket engine (LRE) is the main power for At present, a test system of the LRE provides the similar
rockets and missiles. With the opening of space explora- working state in the actual flight process and gives the direct
tion policies, the demand for the development of reusable support for parameters confirmation and technical verifica-
LRE is increasing in recent years [1, 2]. Among them, the tion of the thrust chamber and other components [5]. How-
liquid oxygen (LOX)/kerosene rocket engine has been ever, the actual test is still time-consuming, costly, and
widely studied and applied in China and Russia for a long dangerous, so the combination of simulation and test is an
time, mainly due to their outstanding advantages in den- important research method for the new LRE [6]. In the pre-
sity specific impulse [3]. Recently, the LOX/kerosene research stage, the dynamic characteristic simulation can be
rocket engine (“Merlin”) deployed on reusable “Falcon” used to design the system structure and evaluate the time
rockets developed by the SpaceX company in America sequence. In the verification stage, the simulation is an
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
2 International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

important method for parameter adjustment, time sequence method, the dynamic characteristic model of the test system
optimization, and fault analysis. In the equipment stage, it is established on the AMESim platform. The input parame-
can also be used for health monitoring and linear or nonlin- ters are derived from the actual engineering parameters and
ear intelligent control research [7, 8]. the test results in cold condition. The two-phase characteris-
In the early stages of research on LRE and its test system tics of the cryogenic LOX pipelines and the fine structure of
characteristics, some basic ordinary differential equations pumps are considered in the model, and the heat transfer
make up the special programs. Typical examples are the characteristics of the thrust chamber are calculated. Then,
start-up process model of the Agena rocket engine in US the dynamic performance of the system under pretest condi-
Air Force Rocket Propulsion Laboratory [9], the neural net- tion and variable thrust conditions is analyzed, and finally,
work program for the Space Shuttle Main Engine (SSME) the guiding conclusion for further implementation of igni-
start-up characteristics in Lewis Research Center [10], tion test is given.
dynamic characteristic simulation program for LE-5 and
LE-7 engines, [11] and so on. Besides, Zhang et al. compiled 2. Engine Test System
the static/dynamic model of the YF-20 LRE based on
MATLAB, and a BP neural network was used to analyze 2.1. Working Medium Supply System. The structure of the
the failure [12]. But these special programs rely on clear data test system is shown in Figure 1, and the main parameters
formats and transfer relationships, which can be briefly sum- are listed in Table 1. The medium supply system consists
marized as “one machine, one program.” These nongeneric of 6 subsystems, which provide the LRE with a variety of
simulation methods cannot meet the requirements of rapid working fluids such as LOX, kerosene, coolant, control gas,
tasks on complex system simulation. oxygen, and hydrogen for ignition torch. The water is used
With the development of software engineering technol- as the cooling medium, and the repeated ignition relies on
ogy, general simulation programs have become the main an electronic ignition torch.
research direction. Li et al. reviewed the technological prog- Kerosene subsystem: kerosene is pressurized by the pis-
ress of the dynamic characteristics simulation, and the result ton pump and fed into the injection unit through the main
can be summarized as “graphical interface, independent valve and one-way valve from the tank. The flow is con-
simulation environment, metamodel abstraction, and high trolled by adjusting the frequency converter of the pump.
reusability” [13]. Some representative achievements are Ger- LOX subsystem: the subsystem consists of an adiabatic
man DRL company modular engine analysis system [14], tank, a pump, a mass flowmeter, and some pipelines. LOX
ROCETS in NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and its is pressurized by a three-row piston pump, and the flow is
improved software ESAY5x [15], CARINS in French [16], regulated by the pump frequency conversion.
and Japan LE-7A Engine MPI parallel software REDS [17]. Hydrogen subsystem: the subsystem provides fuel for the
In terms of commercial platforms, there are EcosimPro of ignition torch and includes a hydrogen cylinder group, a
Spain’s EAI Company, the aerospace propulsion system sim- globe valve, a pressure reducing valve, a sonic nozzle, and
ulation module ESPSS [18] jointly developed by the Euro- a flashback preventer. The flow is controlled by an automatic
pean Space Agency, AMESim of Siemens company [19], pressure-reducing valve and a sonic nozzle.
and so on. China’s National University of Defense Technol- Oxygen subsystem: the subsystem provides oxidant for
ogy [20], Beihang University [21], and Xi’an Aerospace Pro- the ignition torch, and its structure is similar to the hydro-
pulsion Institute [22] have developed a variety of general gen subsystem.
simulation software based on the C language or Simulink Nitrogen subsystem: the subsystem can provide control
tools. Recently, a software based on the Modelica language gas and purge gas.
Mworks [23] has been used in some LRE programs, which Coolant subsystem: the subsystem provides coolant for
significantly improved the engineering efficiency. However, the thrust chamber and helps to cool down the exhaust
except for AMESim, most of those platforms are in the ini- emission system and reduce the noise. The flow is controlled
tial stage of small-scale application. by adjusting the rotational speed of the centrifugal pump.
As a powerful system simulation software, AMESim has
the SSME and RL-10A models in its liquid propulsion 2.2. Thrust Chamber. The thrust chamber is the main test
library. Based on the AMESim platform, Li [24] and Zheng objective. According to the task document, the theoretical
et al. [25] did some research on the dynamic characteristics condition in the first pretest is offset from optimal mixing
of an expansion cycle LOX/methane engine. Zhang et al. ratio. The pretest condition refers to the test condition with
[26] conducted a research on the cryogenic wind tunnel, in low mixing ratio and total flow, which means that the tem-
which dynamic characteristics of the liquid nitrogen supply perature and pressure of the combustion chamber are low
system were analyzed. Liu et al. [27] and Cui et al. [28] con- under this condition. The pretest indicators are as follows:
ducted the systematic modeling of the electric pump LOX/ the thrust is about 4000~4500 N, the chamber pressure is
kerosene engine, which further confirmed the reliability of 3 MPa, and the temperature is 2000 K.
the method. Based on the fixed pressure, the theoretical temperature,
Aiming at the requirements of the ground test of the specific impulse, products, and other parameters under dif-
reusable variable thrust LRE, an LOX/kerosene engine test ferent mixing ratios can be obtained by chemical equilib-
system with electric positive displacement pumps is rium calculation (CEA). The thermodynamic results are
designed. Based on the modular modeling and simulation shown in Table 2 with a mixing ratio of 1.3.
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 3

The relationship among flow m, _ throat area At , and 2.3. Measurement and Control Methods. The main measured
combustion chamber pressure Pc are derived from the spe- parameters are the pressure, flow, and temperature of some
cific impulse I sp and characteristic velocity C∗ . nodes shown in Figure 1. The thrust test bench, as the main
component for measurement, consists of slide rails, fixtures,
F and strain-type thrust sensors. The engine is horizontally
_ =
m , arranged, and sensors and control valves are located at the
I sp
ð1Þ front of the bench.
_ ∗
mC Figure 4 shows the main sequence of start-up and shut-
At = : down of the system, which is verified by the adjustment test
Pc
in cold state.
The ignition torch works first to establish the on-duty
The total flow in the pretest condition is 2.03 kg/s, and
flame, and the time difference between the backflow of the
the diameter of the throat is 36.24 mm. Then, the flow of
propellant circuit, the emptying valve, and the main valve
LOX and kerosene can be determined by the mixing ratio.
is set to be 50 ms to prevent the system from overpressure.
Considering implementation issues, the diameter of the
throat is set to 36 mm and the expansion ratio is 5.
3. Numerical Model
The geometric parameters such as the volume and diam-
eter of the combustion chamber are related to the character- The former Soviet Union/Russian scholars conducted an in-
istic length (L∗ = 2m) and relative flow density depth research on engine mathematical theory [29]. They
(r−s = 1:8 × 10−3 Pc ). deduced the basic dynamic equations of the LRE, verifying
that it is important to apply system simulations before the
V c = L∗ At , actual ignition test. Based on the IRC method [30], some
rffiffiffiffiffiffiffi sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi detailed dynamic models such as pipelines, thermal compo-
4Ac 4m _ ð2Þ nents, pumps, valves, and throttling elements of the engine
Dc = = :
π π rs test system are established. The ignition torch and gas blow-
ing components are simplified in the simulation.
The minimum volume V c is 2.036 L, and the minimum 3.1. Pipeline Numerical Model. According to the target for
diameter Dc is 68.7 mm. The final parameters of the thrust low-frequency analysis of the system, the main pipelines of
chamber constrained by the lower limit of the total volume LOX, kerosene, and coolant are set as C, IR, or R elements
are shown in Table 3. [30]. These elements consider the capacitive, inertial, and
As shown in Figure 2, the profile of the thrust chamber resistive properties, respectively.
can be divided into a circle contraction section and a bell- The equations of pressure and temperature considering
shaped nozzle. Considering the test requirements on ground the heat exchange are
and high altitude, the nozzle is divided into two sections  
according to the expansion ratio of 5 (D1 = 80mm) and 50 dp 1 dρ dT
= βeff +α ,
(D2 = 254mm). The front section has a milled groove regen- dt ρ dt dt
erative cooling structure made of copper (CuCr1Zr), and the ð4Þ
tail section is a nozzle cooled by radiation. dT dhin+∑dmhi − h∑dmi α ⋅ T dp
= + ,
The gas residence time is as follows: dt cp ⋅ ρ ⋅ V eff cp ⋅ ρ dt

mc pV pVM where ρ is the density, ∑dmi is the total input mass flow,
τs = = c c = c c c: ð3Þ ∑dmhi is the input total enthalpy, βeff is the combined bulk
m_ _
Rc T c m _
R0 T c m
modulus, V eff is the effective volume, and dhin is the heat
exchange between the pipeline and the outside.
In the equation, R0 is the general gas constant, and the
Considering the elasticity of fluid and pipeline wall, the
average molar mass of the gas M c is 16.275 kg/mol. So, the
combined bulk modulus is
gas residence time is about 6.27 ms, which conforms to the
design requirement (1~8 ms). !−1
The head of the thrust chamber has a structure with 8 1 wcomp
βeff = + : ð5Þ
coaxial centrifugal injectors. As shown in Figure 3, the βfluid 1 + wcomp ⋅ ðp − p0 Þ
high-pressure kerosene is sprayed through the outer annular
seam, and the ignition torch is assembled in the center. In the equation, βfluid is the fluid elastic modulus that
In order to get more deep adjustment of the thrust, the
changes with temperature. wcomp is the compliance parame-
injector is further modified to a stepper motor-driven pintle
injector. The actuating mechanism automatically adjusts the ter of pipeline wall, and its value is the reciprocal of the elas-
oxidant and fuel injection based on the feedback parameters tic modulus βwall . p0 is the reference pressure.
(injection pressure drop ratio), which are output by the PID The effective volume of the pipeline is
controller. These measures can keep the chamber in good  Ã
atomization and combustion state. V eff = V ⋅ 1 + wcomp ⋅ ðp − p0 Þ : ð6Þ
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
4 International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

Heat exchange of the pipeline is a function of heat For the gas nozzle, the mass flow is
exchange coefficient kth , pipe diameter D, pipe length le , sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
and temperature difference 2 ⋅ Pup ⋅ ρup
_ = Cq ⋅ A ⋅ Ψ ⋅
m , ð12Þ
kdp
dhin = kth ⋅ π ⋅ D ⋅ le ⋅ ðT ex − T Þ: ð7Þ
where kdp is the pressure loss coefficient and Ψ is the flow
For a long pipeline, considering its frequency response function.
and fluid inertia, the flow derivative is corrected by the fric- When the nozzle is not clogged, Ψ leads equation (12) to
tion term corresponding to the frequency. The function of equation (9). When clogged, it is a one-dimensional com-
flow derivative is pressible flow, and Ψ is related to the pressure ratio:
8 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
∂Q A ∂P ff ⋅ Q2 ⋅ sign ðQÞ >
> 1 pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
= − g ⋅ A ⋅ sin ðθÞ − , ð8Þ >
> 2γs
< 1 − γs ⋅ η − η η > ηcr ,
1+γs
∂t ρ ∂x 2⋅D⋅A >
Ψ= ð13Þ
>
> rffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi  
where A is the cross-sectional area, which is a function of >
> γs 2γs γs /1−γs
>
: 1+γ ⋅ η ≤ ηcr :
pressure in the elastic state, θ is the inclination angle s γs + 1
between the pipeline and the horizontal plane, and ff is the
coefficient of friction. In the equation, γs is the isentropic heat factor in non-
Besides, the two-phase characteristics of the LOX cryo- ideal gas state, η is the current pressure ratio, and ηcr is the
genic pipelines are also considered [31], which further critical pressure ratio.
improve the accuracy of the numerical model. In the two-phase flow, Ψ and ηcr are corrected by the
3.2. Thermal Component Model. The thermal components HEM-ω method [31]. When the flow is in a supercooled
mainly include injectors, combustion chamber, nozzle, and state, the model degenerates into a general incompressible
cooling jacket. fluid model.
The injector is mainly composed of a cavity and a nozzle, In the combustion chamber, a zero-dimensional pre-
which can be regarded as a combination of a C unit (cavity) mixed combustion model with a fixed time delay [30] is used
and R unit (nozzle). The corresponding parameter differ- to simulate the low-frequency dynamic characteristics. The
ences such as specific heat, viscosity, and bulk modulus in model is based on the assumptions of adiabatic, uniform,
supercooled liquid, two-phase, superheated gas, and super- and ignoring liquid phase volume. The combustion model
critical medium are considered. For a liquid nozzle, the mass of the thrust chamber is established by the super component
flow m _ is on AMESim platform, which realizes the fast interpolation
and solution.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi The mixed gas in the combustion chamber conforms to
2 ⋅ jΔPj the law of mass conservation.
_ = ρ ⋅ cq ⋅ A ⋅
m , ð9Þ
ρ
dmc
_ o ðt − τ Þ + m
=m _ f ðt − τ Þ − m
_ out ,
dt
where cq is the flow coefficient and A is the cross-sectional ð14Þ
dρ 1 dmc
area of orifice. If cq is a constant, the above equation has = ⋅ :
an infinite gradient at the origin, so the numerical model for- dt V c dt
mat needs to be improved as follows:
In the equation, τ is the time delay parameter, and V c is
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi the volume of the combustion chamber.
Dh 2jΔPj According to the state equation of ideal gas, the mixing
λ= ⋅ ,
ν ρ ratio in the combustion chamber is
ð10Þ
 
2λ dK À Á RT
cq = cqmax ⋅ tanh , = ð1 + K Þ dmo − K × dm f ⋅ : ð15Þ
λcrit dt Pc V c

where λ is the flow parameter, ν is the kinematic viscosity, In the equation, dmo and dm f are the mass flow of oxi-
and cqmax is a constant. cq varies approximately linearly with dant and fuel, respectively.
ΔP. The fluid Reynolds number is Re = cq ⋅ λ. There are 10 main reactants and products involved in
The model uses upstream parameters, so the enthalpy the combustion reaction, such as CO, CO2, and H2O. A mul-
flow is tidimension thermodynamic database is generated by the
auto CEA program, and the interpolation covers the pres-
À Á sure range of 0~10 MPa and the mixing ratio of 0~500. As
_ ⋅ h Pup , T up :
dmh = m ð11Þ a result, the mass fraction of each component and the
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 5

Liquid
nitrogen
F

Kerosene
F

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Nitrogen

Coolant
F

Primary medium Temperature sensor/indicator

Blow off gas
Pressure sensor/indicator
Handle globe valve
Pressure gauge
Pneumatic globe valve Temperature sensor

Pneumatic pressure reducing valve Pressure sensor

Manual pressure regulator One-way valve

Orifice flowmeter Filter

F Flowmeter Safety valve

Figure 1: The structure diagram of the LRE test system.

Table 1: Main parameters of the test system.

The dynamic equation of the combustion chamber pres-
Parameters Flow (kg/s) Pressure (MPa) Accuracy sure is
Kerosene 2.5 5 1.5%
LOX 3.5 5 1.5%
dPc RT dmc P d ðRTÞ Pc dVc
Hydrogen 0.05 5 1% = ⋅ + c ⋅ − ⋅ : ð17Þ
Oxygen 0.1 5 1%
dt Vc dt RT dt V c dt
Nitrogen 1.5 5 1%
Coolant 2.5 2 1% Nozzle is a key component to convert the combustion
energy into mechanical energy, and it accelerates the gas
temperature of the mixture can be quickly calculated, and flow and generates thrust. The outlet of the combustion
the calorific value of the gas RT can be obtained: chamber is directly connected to the nozzle, so the flow
out of the combustion chamber m _ out is equal to that of the
nozzle m_ nozzle . Considering the real gas effect and energy
RT = RTðK, Pc Þ: ð16Þ loss, the calculation equation of nozzle flow under the
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
6 International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

Table 2: Thermodynamic parameters of the thrust chamber in pretest condition.

Parameters Combustion chamber Throat Exit

Temperature T (K) 2010.7 1753.2 1037.4
Characteristic velocity C∗ (m/s) 1521.5
Theoretical specific impulse I sp (m/s) 2212.6
Expansion ratio 4.55

Table 3: Design parameters of the thrust chamber.

Parameters Symbol Unit Value

Total flow _
m kg/s 2.0
Mixing ratio μ 1.3
Liquid oxygen flow mo kg/s 1.13
Kerosene flow mf kg/s 0.87
Chamber pressure MPa 3
Expansion ratio ε 5
Throat diameter Dt mm 36 Thrust chamber Tail nozzle
Exit diameter De mm 80.5
Chamber diameter Dc mm 140 Figure 2: The structure schematic of the thrust chamber.
Chamber length Lc mm 280
Ideal thrust F N 4440.66 the one-dimensional jet. According to the nozzle flow sepa-
ration standard in reference [32], the separation position is
assumption of frozen flow is calculated to improve the calculation accuracy of thrust.
As for the water-cooled jacket, the Bartz method [30] is
pup adopted to calculate the heat transfer on the gas side, and
_ nozzle = At ⋅ C q ⋅ C m ⋅ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
m : ð18Þ the heat exchange model of jacket flow [28] is used to calcu-
T up
late the heat transfer between the wall and the coolant.
The upstream parameters are used in the calculation.
When the loss of total pressure and total temperature is 3.3. Pump Model. The flow is controlled by fixed orifices,
not considered, pup and T up are equivalent to Pc and T in flowmeters, and pumps. There are three different pumps in
the combustion chamber, respectively. the system: LOX pump, kerosene pump, and coolant pump.
The enthalpy flow is the same as equation (11). Cm is the The LOX pump is a BP type three-row piston pump,
nozzle’s flow parameter: composed of a pump body, cylinder liners, pistons, liquid
outlet valves, liquid inlet valves, some sealers, and other
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
2ρup ⋅ T up components. The numerical model based on AMESim plat-
Cm = Ψ: ð19Þ form [33] takes into account factors such as fine compo-
pup nents, mechanical inertia, and sealing gap. The volume
flow is
The engine thrust considering the environmental pres-
sure is
 !
Δp 3 3 ecc 2 v+ + v −
_ nozzle ve + ðpe − pa ÞAe :
F=m ð20Þ Q=− rc πd p 1 + + r c πdp , ð22Þ
12μlc 2 rc 2

In the equation, ve is the exhaust velocity.

8 sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi vu
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!1−γsffi where Δp is the pressure difference between the front and
>
> pup u rear of the piston, rc is the radial clearance, d p is the outer
> 2 p
>
>
> ⋅ ⋅ t1 − dn η > ηcr , diameter of the piston, lc is the contact length, μ is the aver-
< 1 − γs ρup pup
ve = ð21Þ age hydrodynamic viscosity, ecc is the eccentricity of the pis-
>
> sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ton, and v+ and v− are the sleeve and piston speed,
>
> 2 pup
>
> ⋅ η ≤ ηcr : respectively.
: 1 + γs ρup The kerosene pump is a piston pump with an axial swash
plate. Its structure is similar to other piston pumps, but there
The nozzle model also considers the gas separation of are special sealing structures such as sliding shoes and valve
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 7

Basic Depth regulation

fixed injector Ignition torch pintle injection

Figure 3: The head structure of the thrust chamber.

Oxygen pump

Oxygen precooling valve

Oxygen main valve

Kerosene pump

Kerosene return valve

Kerosene main valve

Pre-cooling and filling section Start/work section Shutdown/blowout section

Figure 4: Working sequence of the test system.

plates. The numerical model is The coolant pump is a centrifugal Suter pump [8], and
its parameters are corrected according to the measured rated
dpni β ⋅ ð−Q−∑dvoli Þ dT head, flow, rotational speed, and efficiency. The power of
= + βα ni , each pump comes from a variable speed motor, which is a
dt ðv0 +∑voli Þ dt ð23Þ
functional numerical model in AMESim library.
Q = Qnini + Qnouti + Qnlspi + Qnlpci + Qnlbpp ,
3.4. Valve Model. Almost all valve models in the system can
where the voli is the sum of the constant volume and the be equivalent to variable-section orifices, which are same as
variable volume of each chamber. The pressure change is equation (9) and equation (12). The safety valve adopts a
determined by the total flow Q, which consists of the inlet self-defined logic model judged by pressure signal. The
flow Qnini , the outlet flow Qnouti , and the external leakage dynamic characteristics of the valve are fitted through the
flow Qnlspi , Qnlpci , and Qnlbpp . first-order time lag to meet the accuracy requirements.
The cavity of the kerosene pump is variable, and its out-
let and inlet flow are calculated by the orifice flow in equa- 4. Simulation and Verification
tion (9). The leakage model has three external leakage
channels, which consists of piston-cylinder, swash plate-slip- 4.1. Simulation Model and Component Parameter
per, and sleeve-distribution plate. The average flow and effi- Verification. Based on the theory of modular modeling
ciency are [34], a dynamic simulation model of the LRE test system is
established on the AMESim platform, and the structure is
QTh = displ × ω, shown in Figure 5. Variable input and output interfaces are
ð24Þ inserted into all component models, which can automati-
Qmean
ηvol = : cally perform variable check when the models are connected
QTh to each other. This method greatly improves the efficiency of
program debugging. The main sequence and variable values
In the equation, displ is the theoretical displacement of of the system are controlled by piecewise functions. The
the pump and ω is the rotation speed. whole model contains 135 state variables, corresponding to
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8 International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

Oxygen main valve Kerosene main valve

RP-1 LOX Water
k k
1 + 𝜏s A3 1 + 𝜏s B1
Cu RUN
STATS
Pre-cooling valve Return valve
k k CH4 O2 C2H4 C2H6 CO
1 + 𝜏s A2 1 + 𝜏s B2

Pre-cooling state judgment Kerosene pump

k CO2 H H2 H2O OH
A1
x>y

k
B3
y

1 + 𝜏s

Oxygen pump Safety valve Evacuation valve for precooling process

k
1 + 𝜏s A4
A2

A1

T
P m P

Manual globe valve Flowmeter

P

A3
k
Return valve
Manual globe valve Main valve
A4
k

Exhaust valve
k

k
k
Discharge valve

O
Safety valve

F
Manual globe valve
k

P m P T

Flowmeter
k

B1
Ch
k

B3 Manual globe valve Main valve

B2
Ct

Ct

Ct

Ct

Ct
Return valve
k

Figure 5: The structure diagram of the LRE test system.

Table 4: Parameters of the main pipelines. Table 5: Measured performance parameters of pumps.

Parameters LOX Kerosene Coolant Parameters LOX Kerosene Coolant

Pump inlet (mm) 76.1 76.1 42.4 Rated displacement (L) 0.25 0.125 /
Pump outlet (mm) 42.4 42.4 42.4 Rated flow (L/min) 185 175 133.33
Propellant return (mm) 50 42.4 42.4 Rotational speed (rpm) 740 1400 2900
Exhaust pipeline (mm) 25 / / Rated pressure (MPa) 10 10 2
Overflow pipeline (mm) 20 20 / Volumetric efficiency 83.7% 82% 94%

135 dynamic equations, which can be solved by a variable The main structure and performance parameters are shown
step integral solver. The method avoids the dilemma of the in Table 5, most of which are obtained from actual tests.
traditional “Runge-Kutta” method in discontinuities of sys- As shown in Figure 6 and Table 6, the three-row piston
tem equations. pump model consists of three main submodels: the rotation
The main pipeline parameters are shown in Table 4, and translational mechanical model, the piston model, and
where the elastic modulus of the pipeline wall is considered the switch valve model. These parameters about cylinder,
in the numerical model. Subtracting the wall thickness, the shaft inertia, dead zone, and key leakage gaps are considered.
inner diameter of the main propellant inlet pipeline is The contact length of the piston and cylinder is 67 mm and
65.9 mm, and the inner diameter of the outlet pipeline is the piston stroke is 62 mm. The volumetric efficiency of the
32.4 mm. pump drops to about 87.6% under the simulated condition
The pump models mainly include three-row piston of 740 rpm and 10 MPa backpressure, which is slightly
pump, swash plate axial piston pump, and centrifugal pump. higher than the actual measurement. The model error is
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 9

Fz1 [N]
fi1 [°] 5 Valve plate-cyl1
fi2 [°] Data processing module A y
Swash plate loads

3
B
fi3 [°]

Fz2 [N]
fi1 [°] B-fluid outlet z
Angles of cylinders [°] Piston 1
fi1 [°]
beta [°] Swash plate angle [°] Valve plate-cyl2
4
Piston forces [N] A
Fz1 [N] B

Fz3 [N]
Fz2 [N] fi2 [°] Piston 2
fi2 [°]
Fz3 [N]
1 Valve plate-cyl3
y
A
B
2 x
fi3 [°] Piston 3
fi3 [°] A-fluid inlet
6

beta [°]
𝜃

Moment of inertia

Figure 6: The LOX three-row piston pump model (left) and kerosene piston pump (right).

Table 6: Partial model parameters for pump simulation. 2.4 1.0

Parameters LOX Kerosene

2.3 0.8

Volumetric efficiency
Piston diameter (mm) 40 26
Number of pistons 3 9 Flow (kg/s)
2.2 0.6
Piston clearance (mm) 0.065 0.035
Piston eccentricity 0 0 2.1 0.4

2.0 0.2
about 4% related to the actual piston eccentricity and other
structural parameters.
1.9 0.0
The main input parameters of the kerosene piston pump
0 5 10
model are swash plate angle (16.7°), valve plate clearance
Load pressure (MPa)
(0.02 mm), piston/barrel clearance (0.035 mm), and slipper
clearance (0.0175 mm). As shown in Figure 6, the model Simulated flow
considers parameters such as unloading grooves and swash Measured flow
plate structures. The real flow test at 1400 rpm shows that Simulated efficiency
Measured efficiency
the model error is less than 2.1%, and more results are
shown in Figure 7. Figure 7: The verification of kerosene piston pump model.
To ensure the simulation accuracy, the geometric dimen-
sions of other components are consistent with the actual
parameters, and the valve flow coefficient and other data
are calibrated according to the rated parameters in the level is 4024 N (90.62% of that in perfect theoretical combus-
manufacturing process. The elastic modulus of the pipeline tion and expansion flow), and the fluctuation range is about
wall and the thermal conductivity of the material are 5%. The results prove that the thrust fluctuation is mainly
referred to the AMESim material library and the chemical caused by the pump pressure pulsation, pipeline elasticity,
kinetics database (National Institute of Standards and Tech- propellant inertia, and compressibility. Compared with the
nology, NIST). pump outlet, the pulsation of the thrust chamber is attenu-
ated to a certain extent, which is beneficial to the working
4.2. Preliminary Verification of Results. The model accuracy condition of the test system.
is checked by the components cold test and the design Figure 9 depicts that the average temperature is 1973 K
parameters, and the dynamic model of the test system is (temperature statistics with 1 s as the sliding window) and
solved. The main parameters such as thrust, flow, combus- the absolute pressure is about 2.9 MPa in the combustion
tion chamber temperature, pressure, mixing ratio, and heat chamber. The fluctuation range of pressure is
transfer under the pretest are shown in Figures 8–10. 2.83~2.98 MPa, and the main frequency is 13.65 Hz. The
Figure 8 shows that in the stable section (the stable error of the pressure extreme value compared with the sys-
speeds of the kerosene and LOX pumps are 590 and tem scheme is 5.67%, and the average error is less than
271 rpm, respectively), the average total flow is 1.96 kg/s, 3.3%. The mixing ratio in the stable section is about 1.3,
and the fluctuation range is about 1.5%, which is basically which is in line with the expectation. There exist slight tem-
consistent with the target value. The average thrust at sea perature and pressure fluctuations in Figure 9, which is due
 9305, 2022, 1, Downloaded from https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1155/2022/2171471 by Cochrane Netherlands, Wiley Online Library on [28/06/2024]. See the Terms and Conditions (https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/terms-and-conditions) on Wiley Online Library for rules of use; OA articles are governed by the applicable Creative Commons License
10 International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

5000 5 4000 8

4000 4
3000 6

Temperature (K)
Total flow (kg/s)

Pressure (MPa)
Thrust (N)

3000 3
2000 4
2000 2

1000 2
1000 1

0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s) Time (s)

Thrust Temperature
Total flow Pressure

Figure 8: The thrust and total flow of the pretest condition. Figure 11: The start-up process in variable thrust conditions.

to the positive displacement pumps of LOX and kerosene

4000 4 have inherent pressure and flow pulsation in the process of
operation. Meanwhile, there are damping and volume effects
3
of complex pipelines and nozzles. The combined effect
3000 3 causes the fluctuation in the flow of each propellant, which
directly leads to the oscillation of the mixing ratio in the
2
2000 2 combustion chamber. When the mixing ratio is between 1
and 3, the mixing ratio is the main reason for the change
1
of temperature. In other word, the pump speed as an input
1000 1 parameter determines the LOX and kerosene flow, which
in turn changes the mixing ratio and total flow, and ulti-
0 0 0 mately determines the variation in temperature and pressure
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 of the combustion chamber.
Time (s) The cooling and heat exchange of the thrust chamber are
shown in Figure 10. The simulated flow of the coolant is
Temperature (K)
Pressure (MPa)
about 2.03 kg/s, and the average temperature rise is about
Mixing ratio 28°C, which meets the design requirements. The heat flux
density of the thrust chamber throat is the largest, about
Figure 9: Thermal conditions of the combustion chamber. 21 MW/m2. Meanwhile, the specific impulse is about 208 s
under the pretest condition.

5. Results and Discussion

50
Based on the system model in pretest condition, the control
45 variables such as time sequence and parameters are adjusted
Coolant temperature (°C)

Heat flux density

20 to obtain characteristics of the engine test system under

(MW/m2)

40 start-up, shutdown, and variable thrust conditions. The

35 10 pressure of the combustion chamber as the main control
variable includes four stages: 5 MPa, 3 MPa, 2 MPa, and
30 0 1 MPa, and the mixing ratio in steady state is set to 2.67.
During the actual test process, the control system can
–100
–80
–60
–40
–20
0
20
40

25 slightly adjust the pump speed and the flow area of valves
Axial distance (mm)
20
according to the combustion chamber pressure and mixing
ratio to achieve precise control of thrust.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (s) 5.1. Start-Up Process. The start-up process under variable
thrust conditions is shown in Figure 11. The oxygen main
Coolant outlet temperature
Coolant inlet temperature
valve is opened and the ignition torch is ignited at 0 s. After
the propellant filling process (about 0.7 s), the thrust cham-
Figure 10: The diagram of the thrust chamber cooling and the ber reaches the rated temperature and pressure, and the
nozzle heat exchange. transition process of ignition delay is about 200 ms.
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International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 11

4000 3.5 3.0 3.0 100

3.0 2.5 2.5 80

3000
2.5
Temperature (K)

Pressure (MPa)
2.0 2.0
2.0 60
2000 1.5 1.5
1.5
40
1.0 1.0
1.0
1000
0.5 0.5 20
0.5

0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Time (s) Time (s)
Temperature Flow of kerosene (kg/s)
Pressure Flow of LOX (kg/s)
Mixing ratio
Figure 12: The start-up process of the pretest condition.
Figure 14: Propellant flow at the moment of start-up process in
4000 3.5 variable thrust conditions.
3.0
3000
2.5
Temperature (K)

Pressure (MPa)

4000 3.0
2.0
2000 2.5
1.5 3000
Temperature (K)

Pressure (MPa)
2.0
1.0
1000
0.5 2000 1.5

0 0.0 1.0
5.50 5.75 6.00 6.25 6.50 1000
Time (s) 0.5

Temperature 0 0.0
Pressure 12.50 12.75 13.00 13.25 13.50
Time (s)
Figure 13: Shutdown process in pretest condition.
Temperature
Pressure

The first stage pressure (4.8 MPa) and theoretical tem- Figure 15: Shutdown process in variable thrust condition.
perature (3654 K) are relatively high, but the impact of start-
ing shock is small thanks to the resistance of the pipelines Figure 14 shows the start-up transient process of LOX
under high flow conditions. On the other hand, the mixing and kerosene flow under pretest condition. During the pres-
ratio in the pretest condition is 1.3 and the stable tempera- sure generation in the thrust chamber, there is a brief jump
ture is about 2000 K. The early injection of liquid oxygen in the LOX injection flow, which is caused by the pressure
leads to the increase of the actual mixing ratio and the short jump triggered by the instantaneous ignition. The magni-
temperature shock (Figure 12). The rated value is restored tude of the pressure fluctuation depends on the leakage of
after about 190 ms, indicating a smooth start-up process. the propellant pumps, the elasticity of pipelines, and the
In addition, it is observed that the temperature and pressure compressibility of the propellant. Due to the inherent flow
of the combustion chamber oscillated slightly, which is due characteristics of the positive displacement pumps, the stable
to the large effect of the gas temperature on the mixing ratio operation of the electric pump allows the propellant flow to
near the oil-rich combustion operating point (temperature is reach the rated value around 240 ms after ignition.
highly sensitive to low mixing ratio). The positive displace-
ment pumps have inherent periodic pulsations, which will
directly lead to significant fluctuations in the mixing ratio, 5.2. Shutdown Process. Figures 13 and 15 show the shutdown
and thus promote the changes in the combustion chamber process of the pretest and variable thrust test conditions. The
temperature and pressure under the pretest condition. transition time is about 80~100 ms, and the impulse fluctua-
Meanwhile, for the combustion chamber and nozzle with tion is very small. The main reason is that the thrust cham-
fixed sizes, the changes in temperature and total flow lead ber is cooled by water and the shutdown valve is close to the
to similar periodic changes in pressure. The phenomenon head of the thrust chamber, which effectively avoids the res-
can also be seen in Figure 13. idue of unburned propellant.
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12 International Journal of Aerospace Engineering

4000 6 Measurement value

1
5 P P
3000
Temperature (K)

Pressure (MPa)
4

k
s
2000 3 +

–
2

x
y
1000
1 +
– k

–
0 0 + Target value
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 + k P.I.D.
Time (s) +
k k
Temperature Controller
Pressure
Figure 18: The PID control structure and function simulation
Figure 16: Temperature and pressure changes of the combustion model of the pintle injector.
chamber in variable thrust condition.
0.7
8000 5
256s 0.6
7000

Injection pressure drop ratio

4
6000 0.5
Total flow (kg/s)

5000
Thrust (N)

3 0.4
241s
4000
2 0.3
3000 230s
2000 0.2
207s 1
1000 0.1
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0.0
Time (s) 1 2 3 4
Working conditions
Thrust
Total flow Kerosene pressure drop ratio
Kerosene pressure drop ratio control
Figure 17: Thrust/specific impulse and total flow change in the LOX pressure drop ratio
process of variable thrust. LOX pressure drop ratio control

Figure 19: Injection pressure drop ratio of the thrust chamber.

It is worth noting that the LOX main valve closing is
delayed by about 50 ms compared to the kerosene circuit,
which causes the temperature of the thrust chamber briefly The change process of thrust, specific impulse, and total
climb at the moment of shutdown in the pretest condition flow of the engine is shown in Figure 17. The thrust is syn-
(<3200 K). chronized with the flow regulation transition process. Under
the minimum thrust condition, the propellant pump is at
5.3. Variable Thrust Process. The variable thrust test process 12.2% (LOX) and 7% (kerosene) of full flow output, respec-
is carried out under operating conditions close to the opti- tively. The total flow is gradually reduced from 2.7 kg/s to
mum mixing ratio. Figure 16 shows that the temperature 0.6 kg/s. The corresponding LOX flow is reduced from
of the thrust chamber decreases slightly during the whole 1.97 kg/s (492 rpm of pump speed) to 0.43 kg/s (99 rpm of
process, and the pressure of each stage is about 4.8 MPa, pump speed), and the kerosene flow is reduced from
2.9 MPa, 1.9 MPa, and 1.0 MPa, respectively. The results 0.73 kg/s (578 rpm of pump speed) to 0.17 kg/s (118 rpm of
confirm that the flow control is relatively synchronous, the pump speed).
state transition is smooth, and the adjustment response time Considering the risk that the pressure drop of the injec-
is about 300 ms. tor is too low to ensure normal combustion under low work-
Figure 17 shows that the variable range of the thrust is ing conditions, a special injector is designed for the depth
about 5 : 1. In the test process, taking the high working con- variable thrust working conditions. The pintle injector is
dition of 6900 N (specific impulse 256 s) as the standard driven by a stepper motor, and its PID control structure
point, the thrust of each stage drops to 4000 N (58%), and function simulation model are shown in Figure 18.
2600 N (37.6%), and 1200 N (17.4%, specific impulse The model parameters are derived from modular testing of
207 s), respectively. the system inertia. Based on the injector model, the oxidant
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International Journal of Aerospace Engineering 13

and fuel injection areas can be automatically adjusted Besides, the model is more detailed considering the
according to the combustion chamber pressure and the ratio complex flow, heat exchange, and combustion
of injection pressure drop. problems
Figure 19 compares the average pressure drop ratio at
each stage before and after the use of the pintle injector in (3) The safety margin of the test system meets the actual
the 5 : 1 variable thrust process. Without taking control, the usage requirements. By controlling the cumulative
pressure drop ratio decreases significantly as the engine amount of LOX and kerosene propellant, the short-
working condition decreases. The pressure drop ratio of term (190 ms) adverse effect of LOX accumulation
the LOX injection with fixed injectors rapidly decreases from on the temperature of the thrust chamber can be
45% to 12%, while the kerosene injector also gradually effectively avoided
decreases, and even the pressure drop ratio of the third (4) The variable thrust process can be changed by
and fourth stages is less than 5%, which may lead to unstable adjusting the propellant supply, and the electric
phenomenon such as surge during the combustion process. pumps have a prominent advantage in the adjust-
On the contrary, the histogram of the dotted line in ment of test conditions. The use of pintle injector
Figure 19 shows that better pressure drop ratio control can based on PID control is helpful to further improve
be achieved by pintle injectors with adjustable cross section the deep variable thrust test capability of the system
areas. Compared with the fixed injector, the pressure drop
ratio of the kerosene pintle injector always remains stable
at about 20%, which can well avoid the risk of unstable com- Data Availability
bustion in the combustion chamber. Moreover, the pressure
drop ratio of the LOX pintle injector gradually decreases as The data used to support the findings of this study are avail-
the reduction of working conditions and eventually also sta- able from the corresponding authors upon request.
bilizes around 20%.
The target value of the pressure drop ratio (20% in the Conflicts of Interest
test) is set by the PID controller, as shown in Figure 18,
which means the pintle injector with PID controller is useful The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interests.
to adjust and stabilize the injection pressure drop ratio in the
depth variable thrust LRE, thus avoiding the adverse effects
of the pressure drop ratio on the engine. Therefore, the Acknowledgments
model is of great value for the regulation and control of deep This work is supported by the Fundamental Research Pro-
variable thrust engines in the future. ject (No. 20195208003).

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