Computer

▪ The word computer comes from the word “compute”,

which means, “to calculate”

▪ Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can

perform arithmetic operations at high speed

▪ A computer is also called a data processor because it can

store, process, and retrieve data whenever desired
The activity of processing data using a computer is called
data processing
Data

Capture Data

Manipulate Data

Output Results

Information
Data is raw material used as input and information is
processed data obtained as output of data processing
Characteristics of Computers

1) Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it

automatically without human interventions

2) Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs

very fast, usually measured in microseconds (10-6),
nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds (10-12)

3) Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high

and the degree of its accuracy depends upon its design.
Computer errors caused due to incorrect input data or
unreliable programs are often referred to as Garbage-
In-Garbage-Out (GIGO)

(Continued on next slide)

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Characteristics of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

4) Power of Remembering: Computer can store and

recall any amount of information because of its
secondary storage capability. It forgets or looses
certain information only when it is asked to do so.
5) No I.Q.: A computer does only what it is programmed
to do. It cannot take its own decision in this regard

6) No Feelings: Computers are devoid of emotions. Their

judgement is based on the instructions given to them in
the form of programs that are written by us (human
beings)
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Evolution of Computers

▪ Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding

machine in 1642
▪ Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first
calculator for multiplication in 1671
▪ Keyboard machines originated in the United States
around 1880
▪ Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept
of punched cards that were extensively used as input
media until late 1970s
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Evolution of Computers
(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of

modern digital computers

▪ He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822

▪ He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in

1842 for performing basic arithmetic functions

▪ His efforts established a number of principles that

are fundamental to the design of any digital
computer
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Some Well Known Early Computers

▪ The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

▪ The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)
▪ The ENIAC (1943-46)
▪ The EDVAC (1946-52)
▪ The EDSAC (1947-49)
▪ Manchester Mark I (1948)
▪ The UNIVAC I (1951)

Ref Page 03 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 7/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Computer Generations

▪ “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It

provides a framework for the growth of computer industry

▪ Originally it was used to distinguish between various

hardware technologies, but now it has been extended to
include both hardware and software

▪ Till today, there are five computer generations

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 05 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 8/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Key hardware Key software Key Some

Generation
representative
(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

First ▪ Vacuum tubes ▪ Machine and ▪ Bulky in size ▪ ENIAC

(1942-1955) ▪ Electromagnetic assembly ▪ Highly unreliable ▪ EDVAC
relay memory languages ▪ Limited commercial ▪ EDSAC
▪ Punched cards ▪ Stored program use and costly ▪ UNIVAC I
secondary storage concept ▪ Difficult commercial ▪ IBM 701
▪ Mostly scientific production
applications ▪ Difficult to use
Second ▪ Transistors ▪ Batch operating ▪ Faster, smaller, more ▪ Honeywell 400
(1955-1964) ▪ Magnetic cores system reliable and easier to ▪ IBM 7030
memory ▪ High-level program than previous ▪ CDC 1604
▪ Magnetic tapes programming generation systems
▪ UNIVAC LARC
▪ Disks for secondary languages ▪ Commercial production
storage ▪ Scientific and was still difficult and
commercial costly
applications

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 9/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Third ▪ ICs with SSI and ▪ Timesharing ▪ Faster, smaller, more ▪ IBM 360/370
(1964-1975) MSI technologies operating reliable, easier and ▪ PDP-8
▪ Larger magnetic system cheaper to produce
▪ PDP-11
cores memory ▪ Standardization ▪ Commercially, easier ▪ CDC 6600
▪ Larger capacity of high-level to use, and easier to
disks and programming upgrade than
magnetic tapes languages previous generation
secondary ▪ Unbundling of systems
storage software from ▪ Scientific, commercial
▪ Minicomputers; hardware and interactive on-
upward line applications
compatible family
of computers

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 10/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) Technologies technologies characteristics systems

Fourth ▪ ICs with VLSI ▪ Operating systems for ▪ Small, affordable, ▪ IBM PC and
(1975-1989) technology PCs with GUI and reliable, and easy its clones
▪ Microprocessors; multiple windows on a to use PCs ▪ Apple II
semiconductor memory single terminal screen ▪ More powerful ▪ TRS-80
▪ Larger capacity hard ▪ Multiprocessing OS and reliable ▪ VAX 9000
disks as in-built with concurrent mainframe
programming systems and ▪ CRAY-1
secondary storage
languages supercomputers ▪ CRAY-2
▪ Magnetic tapes and
floppy disks as portable ▪ UNIX operating system ▪ Totally general ▪ CRAY-X/MP
storage media with C programming purpose machines
▪ Personal computers language ▪ Easier to produce
▪ Supercomputers based ▪ Object-oriented design commercially
on parallel vector and programming ▪ Easier to upgrade
processing and ▪ PC, Network-based, ▪ Rapid software
symmetric and supercomputing development
multiprocessing applications possible
technologies
▪ Spread of high-speed
computer networks

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 11/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Computer Generations
(Continued from previous slide..)

Generation Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.

(Period) technologies technologies characteristics systems

Fifth ▪ ICs with ULSI ▪ Micro-kernel based, ▪ Portable computers ▪ IBM notebooks
(1989- technology multithreading, ▪ Powerful, cheaper, ▪ Pentium PCs
Present) ▪ Larger capacity distributed OS reliable, and easier ▪ SUN
main memory, ▪ Parallel to use desktop Workstations
hard disks with programming machines ▪ IBM SP/2
RAID support libraries like MPI & ▪ Powerful
PVM ▪ SGI Origin 2000
▪ Optical disks as supercomputers
portable read-only ▪ JAVA ▪ PARAM 10000
▪ High uptime due to
storage media ▪ World Wide Web hot-pluggable
▪ Notebooks, ▪ Multimedia, components
powerful desktop Internet ▪ Totally general
PCs and applications purpose machines
workstations
▪ More complex ▪ Easier to produce
▪ Powerful servers, supercomputing commercially,
supercomputers applications easier to upgrade
▪ Internet ▪ Rapid software
▪ Cluster computing development
possible

Ref Page 13 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 12/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Electronic Devices Used in Computers of Different Generations

(a) A Vacuum Tube (b) A Transistor (c) An IC Chip

Ref Page 07 Chapter 1: Introduction to Computers Slide 13/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

▪ Inputting. The process of entering data and instructions

into the computer system

▪ Storing. Saving data and instructions to make them

readily available for initial or additional processing
whenever required

▪ Processing. Performing arithmetic operations (add,

subtract, multiply, divide, etc.) or logical operations
(comparisons like equal to, less than, greater than, etc.)
on data to convert them into useful information

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 14

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

The Five Basic Operations of a Computer System

▪ Outputting. The process of producing useful information

or results for the user such as a printed report or visual
display

▪ Controlling. Directing the manner and sequence in which

all of the above operations are performed

Ref. Page 15 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 15

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Basic Organization of a Computer System

Storage Unit

Secondary
Storage

Program Input Output Information

and Unit Unit (Results)
Data Primary
Storage

Control
Unit
Indicates flow of
instructions and data
Arithmetic Indicates the control
Logic Unit exercised by the
control unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 16

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Input Unit

An input unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:

1. It accepts (or reads) instructions and data from outside

world
2. It converts these instructions and data in computer
acceptable form
3. It supplies the converted instructions and data to the
computer system for further processing

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 17

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Output Unit

An output unit of a computer system performs the

following functions:

1. It accepts the results produced by the computer, which

are in coded form and hence, cannot be easily
understood by us
2. It converts these coded results to human acceptable
(readable) form
3. It supplies the converted results to outside world

Ref. Page 16 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 18

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Storage Unit

The storage unit of a computer system holds (or stores)

the following :

1. Data and instructions required for processing (received

from input devices)
2. Intermediate results of processing
3. Final results of processing, before they are released to
an output device

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 9/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Two Types of Storage

▪ Primary storage

▪ Used to hold running program instructions

▪ Used to hold data, intermediate results, and
results of ongoing processing of job(s)
▪ Fast in operation
▪ Small Capacity
▪ Expensive
▪ Volatile (looses data on power dissipation)

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 10/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Two Types of Storage

(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Secondary storage

▪ Used to hold stored program instructions

▪ Used to hold data and information of stored jobs
▪ Slower than primary storage
▪ Large Capacity
▪ Lot cheaper that primary storage
▪ Retains data even without power

Ref. Page 17 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 11/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place

where the actual executions of instructions takes place during
processing operation

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 12/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Control Unit (CU)

Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates

the operations of all other components of the computer
system

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 13/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

C
Tehn
etS
raylstPerm
ocC
es
osnicnegpU
t nit (CPU)

Arithmetic Central
Logic Unit Control Unit = Processing
+ (CU)
(ALU) Unit (CPU)

▪ It is the brain of a computer system

▪ It is responsible for controlling the operations of

all other units of a computer system

Ref. Page 18 Chapter 2: Basic Computer Organization Slide 14/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Basic Processor & Memory Architecture

of a Computer System
ROM PROM Flash
Main Memory (RAM)

Cache
Memory

Accumulato
Decode r register
r I/
Program General- O
control register purpose register
D
Instruction General- E
register purpose V
register I
Memory
address register C
E
Memory buffer
S
register
Input/Output
register
General- General-purpose
purpose register register

Control Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit

Central Processing Unit
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

▪ The brain of a computer system

▪ Performs all major calculations and comparisons
▪ Activates and controls the operations of other units of a
computer system
▪ Two basic components are
▪ Control Unit (CU)
▪ Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

▪ No other single component of a computer determines

its overall performance as much as the CPU

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 4/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Control Unit (CU)

▪ One of the two basic components of CPU

▪ Acts as the central nervous system of a computer
system
▪ Selects and interprets program instructions, and
coordinates execution
▪ Has some special purpose registers and a decoder to
perform these activities

Ref Page 101 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 5/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

▪ One of the two basic components of CPU.

▪ Actual execution of instructions takes place in ALU
▪ Has some special purpose registers
▪ Has necessary circuitry to carry out all the
arithmetic and logic operations included in the CPU
instruction set

Ref Page 103 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 6/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Instruction Set

▪ CPU has built-in ability to execute a particular set of machine

instructions, called its instruction set
▪ Most CPUs have 200 or more instructions (such as add,
subtract, compare, etc.) in their instruction set
▪ CPUs made by different manufacturers have different
instruction sets
▪ Manufacturers tend to group their CPUs into “families” having
similar instruction sets
▪ New CPU whose instruction set includes instruction set of its
predecessor CPU is said to be backward compatible with its
predecessor

Ref Page 111 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 20/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Random Access Memory (RAM)

▪ Primary storage of a computer is often referred to as RAM

because of its random access capability
▪ RAM chips are volatile memory
▪ A computer’s motherboard is designed in a manner that
the memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more
memory chips
▪ The additional RAM chips, which plug into special sockets
on the motherboard, are known as single-in-line memory
modules (SIMMs)

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 21/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Read Only Memory (ROM)

▪ ROM a non-volatile memory chip

▪ Data stored in a ROM can only be read and used – they
cannot be changed
▪ ROMs are mainly used to store programs and data, which
do not change and are frequently used. For example,
system boot program

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 22/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Types of ROMs
Type Usage
Data is burnt by the manufacturer
Manufacturer-programmed
of the electronic equipment in
ROM
which it is used.

User-programmed ROM
or The user can load and store
“read-only” programs and data in
Programmable ROM
it
(PROM)

The user can erase information

stored in it and the chip can be
Erasable PROM (EPROM)
reprogrammed to store new
information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 112 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 23/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Types of ROMs
(Continued from previous slide..)

Type Usage

A type of EPROM chip in which the

Ultra Violet EPROM stored information is erased by
(UVEPROM) exposing the chip for some time
to ultra-violet light

Electrically EPROM
(EEPROM) A type of EPROM chip in which the
or stored information is erased by
using high voltage electric pulses
Flash memory

Ref Page 113 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 24/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Cache Memory

▪ It is commonly used for minimizing the memory-

processor speed mismatch.
▪ It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU
and main memory whose access time is closer to the
processing speed of the CPU.
▪ It is used to temporarily store very active data and
instructions during processing.

Cache is pronounced as “cash”

Ref Page 113 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 25/27

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Key Words/Phrases

Ref Page 114 Chapter 7: Processor and Memory Slide 26/27

Chegter 08

S®eon ry S I
flge · vie
Com1puter Fundamientals - Pradeep K. Sinh1a & Pmi Sinha
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Learning Objectives

In this chapter you will learn about:

▪ Secondary storage devices and their need

▪ Classification of commonly used secondary storage
devices
▪ Difference between sequential and direct access
storage devices
▪ Basic principles of operation, types, and uses of
popular secondary storage devices such as magnetic
tape, magnetic disk, and optical disk

(Continued on next slide)

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 2/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Learning Objectives
(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Commonly used mass storage devices

▪ Introduction to other related concepts such as RAID,
Jukebox, storage hierarchy, etc.

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 3/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Limitations of Primary Storage

▪ Limited capacity because the cost per bit of storage

is high
▪ Volatile - data stored in it is lost when the electric
power is turned off or interrupted

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 4/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Secondary Storage

▪ Used in a computer system to overcome the limitations

of primary storage
▪ Has virtually unlimited capacity because the cost per bit
of storage is very low
▪ Has an operating speed far slower than that of the
primary storage
▪ Used to store large volumes of data on a permanent
basis
▪ Also known as auxiliary memory

Ref Page 117 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 5/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Classification of Commonly Used Secondary

Storage Devices
Secondary Storage
Devices

Sequential Access Direct Access Devices

Device

Magnetic Tape

Magnetic Optical Disks Memory Storage

Disks Devices

Flash Memory
Floppy Hard CD-ROM WORM Card
CD-RW DVD Drive
Disk Disks (CD-R)

Zip Disk Disk Pack Winchester Disk

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 6/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Sequential-access Storage Devices

▪ Arrival at the desired storage location may be preceded

by sequencing through other locations
▪ Data can only be retrieved in the same sequence in which
it is stored
▪ Access time varies according to the storage location of
the information being accessed
▪ Suitable for sequential processing applications where
most, if not all, of the data records need to be processed
one after another
▪ Magnetic tape is a typical example of such a storage
device

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 7/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Direct-access Storage Devices

▪ Devices where any storage location may be selected

and accessed at random
▪ Permits access to individual information in a more
direct or immediate manner
▪ Approximately equal access time is required for
accessing information from any storage location
▪ Suitable for direct processing applications such as on-
line ticket booking systems, on-line banking systems
▪ Magnetic, optical, and magneto-optical disks are
typical examples of such a storage device

Ref Page 118 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 8/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Magnetic Tape Basics

▪ Commonly used sequential-access secondary storage

device
▪ Physically, the tape medium is a plastic ribbon, which
is usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet
long
▪ Plastic ribbon is coated with a magnetizable recording
material such as iron-oxide or chromium dioxide
▪ Data are recorded on the tape in the form of tiny
invisible magnetized and non-magnetized spots
(representing 1s and 0s) on its coated surface
▪ Tape ribbon is stored in reels or a small cartridge or
cassette

Ref Page 119 Chapter 8: Secondary Storage Devices Slide 9/98

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 2/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

I/O Devices

▪ Provide means of communication between a computer

and outer world
▪ Also known as peripheral devices because they
surround the CPU and memory of a computer system
▪ Input devices are used to enter data from the outside
world into primary storage
▪ Output devices supply results of processing from
primary storage to users

Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 3/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Role of I/O Devices

Input Results of
data CPU processing
Input Output
from and in human
Devices Devices
external Memory acceptable
world form

Input data coded Processed data

in internal form in internal form

Ref Page 148 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 4/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Commonly Used Input Devices

▪ Keyboard devices
▪ Point-and-draw devices
▪ Data scanning devices
▪ Digitizer
▪ Electronic cards based devices
▪ Speech recognition devices
▪ Vision based devices

Ref Page 149 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 5/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Keyboard Devices

▪ Allow data entry into a computer system by pressing a

set of keys (labeled buttons) neatly mounted on a
keyboard connected to a computer system
▪ 101-keys QWERTY keyboard is most popular

Ref Page 149 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 6/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Point-and-Draw Devices

▪ Used to rapidly point to and select a graphic icon or

menu item from multiple options displayed on the
Graphical User Interface (GUI) of a screen
▪ Used to create graphic elements on the screen such as
lines, curves, and freehand shapes
▪ Some commonly used point-and-draw devices are
mouse, track ball, joy stick, light pen, and touch screen
?
/

Ref Page 149 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 7/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Mouse

Commonly used in personal computers and workstations

Ref Page 150 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 9/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Trackball

Click buttons

Ball to be
rolled with
fingers

Commonly used in laptop (notebook) computers

Ref Page 151 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 10/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Joystick

Click button

Stick

Light
Ball
indicator Socket

Commonly used for video games, flight simulators,

training simulators, and for controlling industrial robots

Ref Page 152 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 11/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Electronic Pen

▪ Pen-based point-and-draw device

▪ Used to directly point with it on the screen to select
menu items or icons or directly draw graphics on the
screen
▪ Can write with it on a special pad for direct input of
written information to a system
▪ Pressure on tip of a side button is used to cause same
action as right-button-click of a mouse

Ref Page 152 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 12/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Touch Screen

▪ Most simple, intuitive, and easiest to learn of all input

devices
▪ Enables users to choose from available options by simply
touching with their finger the desired icon or menu item
displayed on the screen
▪ Most preferred human-computer interface used in
information kiosks (unattended interactive information
systems such as automatic teller machine or ATM)

Ref Page 152 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 13/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Data Scanning Devices

▪ Input devices that enable direct data entry into a computer

system from source documents
▪ Eliminate the need to key in text data into the computer
▪ Due to reduced human effort in data entry, they improve
data accuracy and also increase the timeliness of the
information processed
▪ Demand high quality of input documents
▪ Some data scanning devices are also capable of recognizing
marks or characters
▪ Form design and ink specification usually becomes more
critical for accuracy

Ref Page 153 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 14/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Image Scanner

▪ Input device that translates paper documents into an

electronic format for storage in a computer
▪ Electronic format of a scanned image is its bit map
representation
▪ Stored image can be altered or manipulated with an
image-processing software

Ref Page 153 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 15/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Two Common Types of Image Scanners

A flat-bed scanner A hand-held scanner

Ref Page 153 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 16/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) Device

▪ Scanner equipped with a character recognition software

(called OCR software) that converts the bit map images
of characters to equivalent ASCII codes
▪ Enables word processing of input text and also requires
less storage for storing the document as text rather than
an image
▪ OCR software is extremely complex because it is difficult
to make a computer recognize an unlimited number of
typefaces and fonts
▪ Two standard OCR fonts are OCR-A (American standard)
and OCR-B (European standard)

Ref Page 154 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 17/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

▪ Scanner capable of recognizing a pre-specified type of

mark by pencil or pen
▪ Very useful for grading tests with objective type
questions, or for any input data that is of a choice or
selection nature
▪ Technique used for recognition of marks involves focusing
a light on the page being scanned and detecting the
reflected light pattern from the marks

Ref Page 159 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 18/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Commonly Used Output Devices

▪ Monitors
▪ Printers
▪ Plotters
▪ Screen image projector
▪ Voice response systems

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 19/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Types of Output

▪ Soft-copy output
▪ Not produced on a paper or some material that can be touched
and carried for being shown to others
▪ Temporary in nature and vanish after use
▪ Examples are output displayed on a terminal screen or spoken out
by a voice response system
▪ Hard-copy output
▪ Produced on a paper or some material that can be touched and
carried for being shown to others
▪ Permanent in nature and can be kept in paper files or can be
looked at a later time when the person is not using the computer
▪ Examples are output produced by printers or plotters on paper

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 20/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Monitors

▪ Monitors are the most popular output devices used for

producing soft-copy output
▪ Display the output on a television like screen
▪ Monitor associated with a keyboard is called a video
display terminal (VDT). It is the most popular I/O
device

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 21/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Monitors

Monitor

Keyboard

A video display terminal consists of a monitor and a keyboard

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 22/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Types of Monitors

▪ Cathode-ray-tube (CRT) monitors look like a television

and are normally used with non-portable computer
systems
▪ Flat-panel monitors are thinner and lighter and are
commonly used with portable computer systems like
notebook computers. Now they are also used with non-
portable desktop computer systems because they
occupy less table space.

Ref Page 160 Chapter 9: Input-Output Devices Slide 23/58

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Printers

Most common output devices for producing hard-copy

output

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Dot-Matrix Printers

▪ Character printers that form characters and all kinds of

images as a pattern of dots
▪ Print many special characters, different sizes of print and
graphics such as charts and graphs
▪ Impact printers can be used for generating multiple copies
by using carbon paper or its equivalent
▪ Slow, with speeds usually ranging between 30 to 600
characters per second
▪ Cheap in both initial cost and cost of operation

Ref Page 172 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 2/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Software

▪ Hardware refers to the physical devices of a

computer system.
▪ Software refers to a collection of programs
▪ Program is a sequence of instructions written in a
language that can be understood by a computer
▪ Software package is a group of programs that solve
a specific problem or perform a specific type of job

Ref Page 172 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 3/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Relationship Between Hardware and

Software

▪ Both hardware and software are necessary for a

computer to do useful job. They are complementary
to each other
▪ Same hardware can be loaded with different software
to make a computer system perform different types
of jobs
▪ Except for upgrades, hardware is normally a one-
time expense, whereas software is a continuing
expense
▪ Upgrades refer to renewing or changing components
like increasing the main memory, or hard disk
capacities, or adding speakers, modems, etc.

Ref Page 173 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 4/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Types of Software

Most software can be divided into two major categories:

▪ System software are designed to control the
operation and extend the processing capability of a
computer system
▪ Application software are designed to solve a
specific problem or to do a specific task

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

System Software

▪ Make the operation of a computer system more effective

and efficient

▪ Help hardware components work together and provide

support for the development and execution of application
software

▪ Programs included in a system software package are

called system programs and programmers who
prepare them are called system programmers

▪ Examples of system software are operating systems,

programming language translators, utility programs, and
communications software

Ref Page 173 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 6/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Application Software

▪ Solve a specific problem or do a specific task

▪ Programs included in an application software
package are called application programs and the
programmers who prepare them are called
application programmers
▪ Examples of application software are word
processing, inventory management, preparation of
tax returns, banking, etc.

Ref Page 174 Chapter 10: Computer Software Slide 7/17

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

To
L hg
eicIa
nlte
Srynsettem Architecture

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 8/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

The Internet

HARDWARE
(Physical devices/components
of the computer system)

SYSTEM SOFTWARE
(Software that constitute the operating and
programming environment of the computer system)

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
(Software that do a specific task or solve a specific problem)

USERS
(Normally interact with the system via the user
interface provided by the application software)

Relationship among hardware, system software, application software, and users of a

computer system.

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 9/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

The Internet
▪ The Internet is a network of computers that links many
different types of computers all over the world
▪ Network of networks sharing a common mechanism for
addressing (identifying) computers, and a common set of
communication protocols
▪ Evolved from the basic ideas of ARPANET (the first WAN
that had only four sites in 1969) for interconnecting
computers
▪ Initially used only by research organizations and
universities to share and exchange information

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 10

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

The Internet
(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ In 1989, the US Government lifted restrictions on the use

of the Internet and allowed it to be used for commercial
purposes as well
▪ Internet has rapidly grown and continues to grow at a
rapid pace
▪ Interconnects more than 30,000 networks, allowing more
than 10 million computers and more than 50 million
computer users in more than 150 countries to
communicate with each other

Ref. Page 358 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 11

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Basic Services of the Internet

▪ Electronic Mail (e-mail): Allows user to send a mail

(message) to another Internet user in any part of the
world in a near-real-time manner
▪ File Transfer Protocol (FTP): Allows user to move a
file from one computer to another on the Internet
▪ Telnet: Allows user to log in to another computer
somewhere on the Internet
▪ Usenet News: Allows group of users to exchange their
views/ideas/information

Ref. Page 359 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 12

/16
 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Electronic Mail

▪ E-mail is a rapid and productive communication tool

because:
▪ Faster than paper mail
▪ Unlike telephone, the persons communicating with
each other need not be available at the same time
▪ Unlike fax documents, e-mail documents can be
stored in a computer and be easily edited using
editing programs
ks

Ref. Page 361 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 13/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

WWW Browsers

WWW browser is a special software loaded on a web client

computer that normally provides following navigation
facilities to users:
▪ Does not require a user to remotely log in to a web
server computer or to log out again when done
▪ Allows user to visit the server computer’s web site and
to access information stored on it by specifying its URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) address

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

WWW Browsers
(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Allows user to create and maintain a personal

hotlist of favorite URL addresses of server
computers that user is likely to frequently visit in
future
▪ Allows user to download information in various
formats from server computers to user’s own
computer

Ref. Page 362 Chapter 18: The Internet Slide 15/16

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Uses of the Internet

Some important current strategic uses of the Internet

are:
▪ On-line communication
▪ Software sharing
▪ Exchange of views on topics of common interest
▪ Posting of information of general interest
▪ Product promotion
▪ Feedback about products
▪ Customer support service
▪ On-line journals and magazines
▪ On-line shopping
▪ World-wide video conferencing

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 2/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Computer Classification

▪ Traditionally, computers were classified by their size,

processing speed, and cost
▪ Based on these factors, computers were classified as
microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes, and
supercomputers
▪ However, with rapidly changing technology, this
classification is no more relevant
▪ Today, computers are classified based on their mode of
use

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 3/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Types of Computers

Based on their mode of use, computers are classified as:

▪ Notebook computers
▪ Personal computers
▪ Workstations
▪ Mainframe systems
▪ Supercomputers
▪ Clients and servers
▪ Handheld computers

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 4/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Notebook Computers

▪ Portable computers mainly meant for use by people who

need computing resource wherever they go
▪ Approximately of the size of an 8½ x 11 inch notebook and
can easily fit inside a briefcase
▪ Weigh around 2 kg only.
▪ Comfortably placed on ones lap while being used. Hence,
they are also called laptop PC
▪ Lid with display screen is foldable in a manner that when
not in use it can be folded to flush with keyboard to
convert the system into notebook form

(Continued on next slide)

Ref. Page 381 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 5/26

(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Designed to operate with chargeable batteries

▪ Mostly used for word processing, spreadsheet
computing, data entry, and power point presentations
▪ Normally run MS-DOS or MS WINDOWS operating
system
▪ Some manufacturers are also offering models with
GNU/Linux or its distributions
▪ Each device of laptop is designed to use little power and
remain suspended if not used

Ref. Page 382 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 6/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Personal Computers (PCs)

▪ Non-portable, general-purpose computer that fits on a

normal size office table
▪ Designed to meet personal computing needs of
individuals
▪ Often used by children and adults for education and
entertainment also
▪ Generally used by one person at a time, supports
multitasking
▪ Two common models of PCs are desktop model and
tower model
▪ Popular OS are MS-DOS, MS-Windows, Windows-NT,
Linux, and UNIX

Ref. Page 382 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 7/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Common PC Models

Monitor

System
Unit Mouse

Mouse

Keyboard
(a) Desktop model (b) Tower model

Ref. Page 383 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 9/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Workstations

▪ Powerful desktop computer designed to meet the

computing needs of engineers, architects, and other
professionals
▪ Provides greater processing power, larger storage, and
better graphics display facility than PCs
▪ Commonly used for computer-aided design, multimedia
applications, simulation of complex scientific and
engineering problems, and visualization
▪ Generally run the UNIX operating system or a variation of
it
▪ Operating system is generally designed to support
multiuser environment

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Mainframe Systems

▪ Mainly used by large organizations as banks, insurance

companies, hospitals, railways, etc.
▪ Used for data handling and information processing
requirements
▪ Used in such environments where a large number of
users need to share a common computing facility
▪ Oriented to input/output-bound applications

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Mainframe Systems
(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Typically consist of a host computer, front-end

computer, back-end computer, console terminals,
magnetic disk drives, tape drives, magnetic tape
library, user terminals, printers, and plotters
▪ Typical mainframe system looks like a row of large file
cabinets and needs a large room
▪ Smaller configuration (slower host and subordinate
computers, lesser storage space, and fewer user
terminals) is often referred to as a minicomputer
system

Ref. Page 385 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 12/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Mainframe Computer Systems

SYSTEM ROOM (Entry restricted to system administrators and maintenance staff)

Magnetic Tape Library
Magnetic
Disk Drives
Magnetic
Tape
Drive
Back-end
Processor
Plotter

Host Processor Printer

Console

Front-end
Processor

User Terminal User Terminal User Terminal

USERS ROOM (Entry restricted to authorized users)

Ref. Page 385 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 13/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Supercomputers

▪ Most powerful and most expensive computers available at

a given time.
▪ Primarily used for processing complex scientific
applications that require enormous processing power
▪ Well known supercomputing applications include:
▪ Analysis of large volumes of seismic data
▪ Simulation of airflow around an aircraft
▪ Crash simulation of the design of an automobile
▪ Solving complex structure engineering problems
▪ Weather forecasting

(Continued on next slide)

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Supercomputers
(Continued from previous slide..)

▪ Supercomputers also support multiprogramming

▪ Supercomputers primarily address processor-bound
applications

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Parallel Processing Systems

▪ Use multiprocessing and parallel processing

technologies to solve complex problems faster
▪ Also known as parallel computers or parallel processing
systems
▪ Modern supercomputers employ hundreds of
processors and are also known as massively parallel
processors

Ref. Page 387 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 16/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Client and Server Computers

▪ Client-server computing environment has multiple

clients, one/more servers, and a network
▪ Client is a PC/workstation with user-friendly interface
running client processes that send service requests to
the server
▪ Server is generally a relatively large computer that
manages a shared resource and provides a set of
shared user services to the clients
▪ Server runs the server process that services client
requests for use of managed resources
▪ Network may be a single LAN or WAN or an internet
work

Ref. Page 387 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 17/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Client-Server Computing

▪ Involves splitting an application into tasks and putting

each task on computer where it can be handled most
efficiently
▪ Computers and operating systems of a client and a
server may be different
▪ Common for one server to use the services of another
server, and hence act both as client and server
▪ Concept of client and server computers is purely role-
based and may change dynamically as the role of a
computer changes

Ref. Page 387 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 18/26

 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

Client-Server Computing Environment

PC (Client)
PC (Client) File
Server
LAN or WAN or an
Internet of Networks

PC (Client)

Database
Server

Workstation
(Client)
Workstation
(Client)

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 Computer Fundamentals: Pradeep K. Sinha & Priti Sinha

▪ Small computing device that can be used by holding in

hand, also known as palmtop
▪ Size, weight, and design are such that it can be used
comfortably by holding in hand
▪ Types of Handheld are:
▪ Tablet PC: Miniaturized laptop with light weight, screen
flip, handwriting and voice recognition
▪ PDA/Pocket PC: Acts as PIM device with LCD touch
screen, pen for handwriting recognition, PC based
synchronization, and optionally mobile phone services
▪ Smartphone: Fully functional mobile phone with
computing power, voice centric, do not have a touch
screen and are smaller than PDA

Ref. Page 389 Chapter 20: Classification of Computers Slide 20/26