`

A Project Report
On

POLLUTION ANALYSIS OF CAJANUS CAJAN AS A

CHARCOAL BRIQUETTES

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Award of the Degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
(Civil Engineering)
DR. APJ ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW

UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF:

MR. CHAITANYA NIDHI
(Assistant Professor)
Department Of Civil Engineering

Submitted by:
Abhishek Mall (2007360000004)
Dinesh Rao (2007360000020)
Rohit Nirmal (1907360000040)
Samrat Singh (1907360000043)

Rajkiya Engineering College

Azamgarh, 276201

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CANDIDATE’S DECLARATION
We, hereby certify that the work being presented in the project report entitled
“POLLUTION ANALYSIS OF CAJANUS CAJAN AS A CHARCOAL
BRIQUETTES” in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the
Degree of Bachelor of Technology and submitted in the Department of Civil
Engineering, Rajkiya Engineering College, Azamgarh-276201 is an authentic record
of our own work carried out during the period of August 2023 to May 2024 under the
supervision of Mr. Chaitanya Nidhi, Department of Civil Engineering, Rajkiya
Engineering College, Azamgarh. The matter presented in this report has not been
submitted by us for the award of any other degree of this or other
institution/university.

ABHISHEK MALL (2007360000004) ………………………

DINESH RAO (2007360000020) ...…………………….
ROHIT NIRMAL (2007360000040) ………………………....
SAMRAT SINGH (2007360000043) …………………….....
This is to certify that the above statement made by the candidates is correct to the
best of my knowledge.
DATE: MR.CHAITANYA NIDHI

The B.Tech viva-voce examination of Abhishek Mall, Dinesh Rao, Rohit Nirmal
and Samrat Singh student of final year Civil Engineering has been held on
…………………..

Sign. of Supervisor Sign of H.O.D Sign of External Examiner

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COPYRIGHT TRANSFER CERTIFICATE

Title of the Project: POLLUTION ANALYSIS OF CAJANUS CAJAN AS A CHARCOAL
BRIQUETTE

Name of the Students: Abhishek Mall (2007360000004)

Dinesh Rao (2007360000020)
Rohit Nirmal (2007360000040)
Samrat Singh (2007360000043)

COPYRIGHT TRANSFER

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Rajkiya Engineering College, Azamgarh all
rights under copyright that may exist in and for the above report submitted for the
award of the Bachelor of Technology.

Date:

Place: REC, Azamgarh

Abhishek Mall (2007360000004)

Dinesh Rao (2007360000020)

Rohit Nirmal (2007360000040)

Samrat Singh (2007360000043)

Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material
extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s
personal use provided that the source and the Institute’s copyright notice are
indicate.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is indeed a great pleasure to express our sincere thanks to our august supervisor
Mr. Chaitanya Nidhi, Department of Civil Engineering of Rajkiya Engineering
College, Azamgarh for his continuous support in this project. He was always there
to listen and give advice. He showed us different ways to approach a research
problem and the need to be persistent to accomplish any goal. He taught us how to
write academic paper, had confidence in us when we doubted ourselves, and brought
out the good ideas in us. He was always there to meet and talk about our ideas, to
proofread and mark up our paper, and to ask us good questions to help us think
through our problems. Without his encouragement and constant guidance, we could
not have reached at this stage of the project.

Rajkiya Engineering College Azamgarh and Dr.Anoop Narain Singh, Head of

Civil Engineering Department as well as our project supervisor really deserve our
heartiest honor for providing us all the administrative support.

We are thankful to our family whose unfailing love; affection sincere prayer and best
wishes had been a constant source of strength and encouragement.

Last, but not least we thank our parents, for giving us life in the first place and
educating us with aspects from both arts and science, for unconditional support and
encouragement to pursue our interests. We dedicate this work to our parents who
will feel very proud of us. They deserve real credit for getting us this far and no
words can even repay for them.

Abhishek Mall (2007360000004)

Dinesh Rao (2007360000020)
Rohit Nirmal (2007360000040)
Samrat Singh (2007360000043)

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DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT

We, Abhishek Mall, Dinesh Rao, Rohit Nirmal and Samrat Singh declare that
this is our own work and it has not been presented to any other
Universities/Institutions for a similar or any other award of Degree.

…………………
Abhishek Mall

…………………
Dinesh Rao

…………….......
Rohit Nirmal

...………………
Samrat Singh

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CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project report entitled “” being submitted by, Abhishek
Mall (2007360000004), Dinesh Rao (2007360000020), Rohit Nirmal
(2007360000040) and Samrat Singh (2007360000043) in partial fulfilment for the
award of degree of B.Tech CIVIL ENGINEERING, RAJKIYA ENGINEERING
COLLEGE, AZAMGARH (affiliated to Dr. A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY, LUCKNOW) is bonafide report of the work carried out by them
under my guidance and supervision from August 2023 to May 2024 and the project
has been successfully completed.
This project work has not been submitted to any other university or institute for any
award or degree.

Dr.ANOOP NARAIN SINGH Mr. CHAITANYA NIDHI

Head of the department Project Supervisor
Civil engineering department Assistant Professor
REC Azamgzrh Department of Civil Engineering
REC Azamgarh

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Abstract

The genus Cajanus (Family: Fabaceae) consists of approximately 37 species, and

Cajanus cajan is a significant member of the genus .Cajanus Cajan is the biological
name of the Pigeon pea. Pigeon pea is a crop locally known as toor, usually grown in
backyards, marginal lands and insignificant land portions in India. From the whole
part of the pigeon pea the stalks are the residual waste by which through there is an
increment in pollution by the direct burning of these residues.
This study investigates the pollution analysis of Cajanus Cajan Charcoal Briquette
(CCCB) at different temperature ranging from 300 0C to 10000C while burning the
CCCB in muffle furnace. It was found that the CCCB has no CO produced ,SO2 was
almost nil at high temperature, NOx and CO2 were also under the normal range of
ppm. This study aims to evaluate the environmental impact of utilizing Cajanus cajan
as a renewable energy source. Additionally, the study examines the potential for
reducing pollution emissions compared to conventional charcoal and wood-based
briquettes. The findings contribute to the understanding of the feasibility and
environmental implications of adopting Cajanus cajan charcoal briquettes as a
sustainable energy solution, offering insights into its viability for addressing
contemporary challenges of pollution and resource depletion.
Selection of material was done on the basis of availability and need of the gasifier
design. Moreover, agricultural production in the country is increasing day by day
with the agricultural mechanization, providing tremendous volume of agricultural
residue every year.The utilization of biomass-derived charcoal briquettes presents a
promising avenue for sustainable energy production, offering an alternative to
traditional fossil fuels and potentially mitigating environmental pollution.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CANDIDATE DECLARATION ii
COPYRIGHT TRANSFER CERTIFICATE iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT iv
DECLARATION AND COPYRIGHT v
CERTIFICATE vi
ABSTRACT vii
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF GRAPHS xi
LIST OF TABLES xii
NOMENCLATURE /ACRONYMS xiii
UNITS xiv

CHAPTER-01 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2
0 PRACTICES IN INDIA 3
1.3 IMPACT OF DIRECT BURNING ON ENVIRONMENT 3
1.4 PROBLEM CAUSED BY DIRECT BURNING 4
1.5 OBJECTIVE OF STUDY 5

CHAPTER-02 7

2.1 LITERATUREREVIEW 7

CHAPTER-03 10

3.1 MATERIALS AND METHODS 10

3.1.1 MATERIALS AND MACHINES USED 10
3.2 PREPARATION OF RAW MATERIALS 17
3.3 DRYING PROCESS FOR COLLECTED RAW MATERIAL 17
3.4 PREPARATION OF PIGEON PEA CHARCOAL BRIQUETTES 17
3.4.1 PYROLYSIS PROCESS 18
3.4.2 SIEVING AND GRINDRING PROCESS 19
3.4.3 ADDING BINDER AND MIXTURE 19
3.4.4 BRIQUETTE FORMATION 19

CHAPTER-04 21

4.1 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 21

4.2GAS ANALYSIS WITHOUT SAMPLE IN MUFFLE FURNACE 21

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4.3 GAS ANALYSIS WITH SAMPLE IN MUFFLE FURNACE 21

4.4 VARIATION OF DIFFERENT GASES WITH TEMPERATURES 24
4.4.1 VARIATION OF O2 WITH TEMPERATURE 24
4.4.2 VARIATION OF CO2 WITH TEMPERATURE. 25
4.4.3 VARIATION OF HC WITH TEMPERATURE. 26
4.4.4 VARIATION OF NOX WITH TEMPERATURE. 27
4.4.5 VARIATION OF SO2 WITH TEMPERATURE. 28
4.4.6 VARIATION OF CO WITH TEMPERATURE 29

CHAPTER-05 30

5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 30

5.2 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT 31

REFERENCES 32

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LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 VARIOUS POLLUTANTS FROM CRB 3

1.3 DIRECT BURNING OF CROP RESIDUES 6
3.1.1 PIGEON PEA STALK 10
3.1.2 HOT AIR OVEN 10
3.1.3 CONTAINER BOX 11
3.1.4 GRINDER 11
3.1.5 SIEVE 12
3.1.6 PEGION PEA CHARCOAL POWDER 12
3.1.7 RICE STARCH 13
3.1.8 HYDRAULIC PRESSURE MACHINE 13
3.1.9 MILD STEEL RECTANGULAR CUBE MOULD 13
3.1.10 ANTI-RUST CRUCIBLE PLIER 14
3.1.11 MUFFLE FURNACE 15
3.1.12 FLUE GAS ANALYZER 15
3.1.13 STAINLESS STEEL PROBE 16
3.1.14 ELECTRONIC ANALYTICAL BALANCE 16
3.1.15 SILICA CRUCIBLE 17
3.2.1 COLLECTION OF PIGEON PEA STALK 17
3.3.1 DRYING OF PIGEON PEA STALK IN HOT AIR OVEN 18
3.4.1 PYROLYSIS OF PIGEON PEA STALK IN MUFFLE FURNANCE 18
3.4.2 CHARCOAL PRODUCED BY PYROLYSIS 19
3.4.3 MIXTURE OF CHARCOAL, RICE STARCH AND WATER 19
3.4.4 CAJANUS CAJAN CHARCOAL BRIQUETTES 20
4.3.1 WEIGHING OF CHARCOAL BRIQUETTES 22
4.3.2 GASES AFTER CALIBRATION 22
4.3.3 BRIQUETTE AFTER RECORDING GASES 22
4.3.4 BRIQUETTE AFTER TAKING OUT FROM FURNACE 22
4.3.5 BRIQUETTE AFTER 5-10 MINUUTES 23
4.3.6 ASHES OF CCCB 23

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LIST OF GRAPH

GRAPH 1 : Variation of Oxygen with temperature 24

GRAPH 2: Variation of Carbon Dioxide with temperature 25
GRAPH 3: Variation of Hydro Carbon with temperature 26
GRAPH 4: Variation of Nitrogen Oxides with temperature 27

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.2.1: Testing of gases in muffle Table furnace without temperature 21

Table 4.3.2: Evolved gases from burning CCCB per gam 23

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NOMENCLATURE/ACRONYM

LAMIC Low- And Middle-Income Countries

SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
CRB Crop Residue Burning
GHG Greenhouse Gases
CFC Chlorofluorocarbon
ASTM American Society for Testing and Material
FF Fossil Fuels
NGT National Green Tribunal
GEC Generating electric power
OEF Other Energy Forms
PPS Pigeon Pea Stalk
FGA Flue Gas Analyzer
SSP Stainless Steel Probe
HC Hydro Carbon
SO2 Sulphur Dioxide
NOx Nitrogen Oxides
O2 Oxygen
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
CCCB Cajanus Cajan Charcoal Briquette

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UNITS

Gm gram
Cm centimeter
Cm3 cubic centimeter
MJ mega joule
Kg kilogram
KN kilonewton

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CHAPTER-01

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In recent years, the world has witnessed a pressing need for sustainable energy
sources to mitigate environmental degradation and combat climate change. One
promising avenue is the utilization of biomass resources for energy production,
particularly in the form of charcoal briquettes. Among the various biomass
feedstocks, Cajanus cajan, commonly known as pigeon pea, emerges as a viable
candidate due to its abundant availability, renewable nature, and potential to address
the energy needs of communities while reducing pollution. Biomass combustion is a
process that involves the burning of biomass materials, such as cajanus cajan
biomass pellets, to generate heat or energy.

Many low- and middle-income countries (LAMICs) are facing a severe energy crisis
with limited access to affordable and reliable energy services. Global concern and
mobilization is particularly growing around the issue of households in developing
countries, where approximately 90% of the energy is consumed for cooking. There
are currently 2.7 billion people, around 40% of the global population, who rely
primarily on biomass for cooking and more than 95% of these people live either in
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) or Asia. As one important energy source, the burning of
biomass fuels contributes to approximately 10% of the total energy from solid fuels,
but this percentage varies largely among different region.

Air quality is an important aspect of our environment that has significant impacts on
human health, climate change, and ecosystems worldwide. The combustion of
biomass pellets is one activity that can contribute to air pollution. The processing of
Cajanus cajan biomass into charcoal briquettes can potentially address the issue of
solid waste management in the agricultural industry.The transition towards biomass-
derived charcoal briquettes holds significant promise in alleviating the environmental
burden associated with traditional fuel sources such as wood and coal. However, the

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environmental impact of this transition warrants thorough investigation, particularly

regarding pollution levels arising from the production and combustion of Cajanus
cajan-based charcoal briquettes.

This study aims to conduct a comprehensive pollution analysis of Cajanus cajan as a

feedstock for charcoal briquette production. By evaluating key pollutants such as
carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen oxides (NOx), we seek to
assess the environmental implications of utilizing Cajanus cajan as a renewable
energy source. Furthermore, this study will investigate the potential benefits in terms
of reduced emissions and improved air quality compared to conventional fuel
sources.
The research findings presented in this report contribute to the growing body of
knowledge on sustainable energy solutions and environmental conservation. By
incorporating insights from existing research papers , we aim to contextualize our
analysis within the broader scientific discourse and identify avenues for further
research and development in this field. Through collaborative efforts between
academia, industry, and policymakers, we endeavor to leverage the findings of this
study to promote the widespread adoption of Cajanus cajan-based charcoal briquette
as a cleaner, more sustainable alternative to traditional fuels, thereby fostering a
greener and healthier environment for future generations.
India is a principal pigeon pea-growing country contributing nearly 90% of the total world
production. According to the provided data by the Ministry of New and Renewable energy,
about 500 million tones of crop residues are being used for cattle feeding, roof works for
rural houses, fuel for cooking, and industrial purpose which leaves 92 million of tones
burned in open fields for process to clean and ready the land for the next season’s crop.
Burning of these residue contributes to global warming and degrading soil fertility and
increasing the level of particulate matter in the air .Increased energy demands day by day has
led to effective utilization of both renewable and nonrenewable sources. However non
renewable resources such as coal, oil, fossil fuels and natural gas have the possibility of
getting depleted.

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Due to the increasing demand of energy there is a rapidly occurrence of direct burning of
bio-waste which mainly includes agro waste. To overcome from this problem the briquettes
will be used.

Figure 1.1 Various pollutants from CRB

1.2 Practices in India

India is a farming nation with many farming practices in step with agro-climatic
zones. Rice, paddy and wheat cropping patterns are among the extensive farming
practices in the states of Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan, and western Uttar Pradesh.
These regions are also in famous for burning the straw and stubble after the
harvesting season. The state Punjab crosses India Pakistani border and is also called
a ‘bread basket’ because it produces two-thirds of India’s food grains. Even though
the government increasingly restricted the practice after 1990s, each year in late
September and October, farmers from Punjab and Haryana in particular burn an
estimation of 90 million tons of crop residue from their paddy fields after
harvesting. This practice serves as a low-cost method of getting rid of the straw and
reduces the turn around time between harvesting and sowing for the second
(winter) crop and there waste generation is up to 500 million tones used in cattle
feeding, domestic and for industrial purposes.

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1.3 Impact of Direct Burning on Environment

Burning the residue leads to the loss of nutrients and resources. Apart from
deteriorating the ambient air quality, flaming stubbles causes soil nutrient loss of
organic carbon (3850 million kg), nitrogen (59 million kg), phosphorus (20 million
kg), and potassium (34 million Kg), and discharges large volumes of various air
pollutants such as COX, CH4, NOX, SOX, and particulate matters (PM10 and PM2.5).
The burning of straw and stubble is still a major disposal method in India, although
the government of India has taken a few steps to prohibit the practice in recent
years.

The National Green Tribunal (NGT), located in the capital of India, imposed a ban
on the flaming of straw and stubble in the neighbouring four states (Haryana,
Rajasthan, Punjab, and Uttar Pradesh) to New Delhi, which contribute the significant
air pollution during the early winter. The government encourages farmers to utilize
the straw and stubbles for alternative practices like mulching or in situ incorporation
rather than burning. This agricultural waste can be used for animal fodder, generation
of electricity, growing mushroom, and paper industry The figure1.3 tells us about the
impact on the environment due to the Greenhouse Emission. According to it, 74% of
Carbon dioxide gases are emitted per year, 14% methane, 8% Nitrous Oxide, 1%
fluoride gases and the rest 3% are other gases. 1.4 Problems Caused from Direct
Burning:

In worldwide there is about 1.3 billion tones agro waste generated per year, out of
which there is about 500 million tonnes of farm waste and 31 million tonnes are
dumped in landfill area.

 Agricultural waste stubble burning is the third largest source of air pollution.
Burning of agricultural area to GHGs emission 91T g pollutant/yearCO2 , 4.1
Tg pollutant/year CO, 0.6Tg pollutant/year CH4 , 0.1 Tg N/year NOX and
after vehicle and industrial emissions 1.2T g pollutant/year particulate matter
annually (Yevich and Logan, 2003). In the view point soil health, even up to
1cm depth of soil, the temperature has increased to 33.8 – 44.2°C due to open
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burning which destroys the beneficial micro organisms and oil organic matter
including carbon and nitrogen. Like, In India, agricultural rich areas/state
such as Harayana and Punjab will burnt their crop residues which results the
air and smoke pollution in Delhi.

 The direct burning of agro waste result decrease in soil fertility and its
quality.

 At present time, fossil fuels like coal and petroleum are highly consumable in
India,which results increase in their price and also there shortage occur.
According to the India Coal Reserves and Consumption Statistics, the coal
consumption 966 million tonnes which is in the second in the world

 In India most of the coal imported from the foreign countries, which led to
increase the price and time also effect on the economic condition.

 The local people people who are mainly dependent on the coal and the wood,
are mainly affected from the smoke and ash produce by the coal and wood,
which results in their health issues.

 It leads to the bad impact on soil properties. Heat from burning residues
elevates soil temperature causing death of beneficial soil organisms.

 Frequent residue burning leads to complete loss of microbial population and

reduces level of N and C in the top 0-15 cm soil profile, which is important
for crop root development.

 Residue burning significantly causes an increased amount of particulate

matter (e.g., PM2).

 CRB increases the amount of sulphur dioxide (SO2), volatile organic

compounds, oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), which
significantly affect the ambient air quality.

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Fig1.4: Direct burning of crop residue

.

1.5:Objective of Study
The main aim of this study is to asses the potential of Cajanus cajan as a
charcoal briqueete . In order to accomplish this , following sub-objectives are
determined.
 To analyze the pollution from the charcoal briquette made from the
pigeon pea stalk.
 To reduce the amount of pollution generated from direct burning of
pigeon pea residue by converting them to charcoal briquette

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CHAPTER 02:

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and

understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context. This
study focused on impact of pyrolysis temperature on bio-char, physcochemical
properties drived from agricultur residues pigeon pea stalk material pyrolysed at
different pyrolysis temperature and found out pigeon pea charcoal

1. (Akhlesh Singh Gour et al., 2023), they researched about physicochemical

characterization of pigeon pea stalk (Cajanus Cajan) and they found result
that PPS contains cellulose in range of 30 to 50%, hemicellulose from 20 to
40%, and lignin from 15 to 25%. PPS has substantially less lignin mass % as
compared to other biomass make it a suitable candidate for thermochemical
conversion process.

2. (Swapna Sagarika Sahooet al., 2005), they research about the production of
bipochar produced by slow pyrolysis of bamboo and pigeon pea. The result
came out from the research is the yield of biochar gradually decreased with
increase in pyrolysis temperature from 400 to 600 ◦C and found to be in the
range of 32.20 to 21.70%.

3. (Mari Marowena Castaneda Tanquilut et al., 2019), they studied about the
biomass characterisation of pigeon pea from thermo-chemical conversion.
The result comes out is pigeon pea wood can be considered as a new feed or
co-feed for thermo-chemical conversion processes (i.e.,pyrolysis,
torrefaction) for biofuels production.

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4. (Rishikesh kumar Singh Kobyashi et al., 2019), they studied about the effect
of torrefaction on the physic chemical properties of pigeon pea stalk and
estimation of kinetic parameters. According to the study, mild torrefaction
improves the physic-chemical characteristics of the pigeon pea stem while
also increasing yield.

5. (Gino Martin T. Arellano et al., 2015), they study about the evaluation of
Fuel Properties of Charcoal Briquettes Derived from Combinations of
Coconut Shell, Corn Cob and Sugar cane Bagasse. The result comes out will
be the higher compaction ratios were achieved with briquettes of high corn
cob and sugar cane bagasse charcoal content. This signifies that more volume
was displaced in the briquetting of the charcoal.

6. (Abdu Zubairu et al., 2014), they research for the production of Briquette
Charcoal from Agro-Waste. The result will be conversion of waste corn cobs
biomass resources into briquette charcoal is an effective means of managing
this solid wastes.

7. Mohamed E. Mostafaa et al., 2005), they research for the significance of

pelletization operating conditions: An analysis of physical and mechanical
characteristics as well as energy consumption of biomass pellets. The result
showed that the effect of biomass type, its composition, densification process,
diegeometry, particle size, pellet size, etc. on the pellets properties and the
way they behave undertesting conditions is obvious.

8. R. Mythili Kobyashi et al., 2012), study about the briquetting of agro-

residues. The result showed that the increased agricultural production has
generated more crop residues. Due to the need of utilizing the wastes in an
economical way, the energy generation is focused more. Pigeon pea stalk,
cotton stalk and soy stalk were selected for the briquetting study. The
maximum gas production (3.1m3/kg) was found in soy stalk briquette.

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9. Bhuvaneshwari S et al., 2005), they studied about crop residue burning in

India: policy challenges and potential solutions. The outcome of their studies
for resolution of the problem is need to think of a self-running mechanism,
rather than isolated ones, empowering stakeholders and avoiding sectoral
thinking, and if possible, lean towards nexus thinking.

10. Bian Rong Jun et al., 2019), pyrolysis of contaminated wheat straw to
stabilize toxic metals in biochar but recycle the extract for agricultural use.
The outcome of the project will be, with a comparison in property and
function of biochar from contaminated wheat straws between two levels of
metal accumulation and between two pyrolysis temperatures, this study
indicated a potential of low temperature pyrolysis to ensure a safe treatment
of crop straws from metal contaminated fields. Negligible potential risk of
PAHs and largely stabilized PTEs in the produced biochars could enable
ansucered application as organic amendment to soils.

11. Canal W. D. et al., 2020). Impact of wood moisture in charcoal production

and quality Florest Ambient 27, the increase of wood moisture 0% to 60%
(d.b.) decrease the charcoal yield and increase the bio-oil and gas yield. On
the other hand, proximate analysis, higher heating value and bulk density of
the charcoal was not influenced by the moisture content. According to the
results it is recommended to use wood with moisture content below 20% (dry
basis). In this range there is higher charcoal, energy and fixed carbon yield,
and lower friability.

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CHAPTER-03

3.1 MATERIALS & METHODS:-

3.1.1Materials and Machine Used:-

1.Pigeon Pea Stalk

Figure 3.1.1 Pigeon Pea Stalk

The pigeon pea stalks are the main required material for making briquettes. These
pigeon pea stalk was collected from the farmer of the Azamgarh village. Pigeon pea
is predominantly a crop of tropical areas mainly cultivated in semi arid regions of
0
india .pigeon pea can be grown with a temperature ranging from 26 C to 30 0 C in
rainy season (june to october ). It is generally grown in thblack cotton soils, well
drained with a pH ranging from 7.0 – 8.5 and height ranging 6 – 12 feet.

2.Hot Air Oven

Figure 3.1.2 Hot air oven

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
A hot air oven is a sterilizing machine or device that is used to sterilize the
equipment and some other materials using dry heat. It is also known as a forced-air
circulating oven. The process of dry heat sterilization using a hot air oven was
originally developed by Louis Pasteur. The oven will be used to dry the collected
raw material and to remove the moisture from the raw material. The dry heat is
circulated inside the chamber at a temperature ranging from 50-300 ºC to sterilize
thermally stable objects. The system involves an oxidative mechanism to kill the
microorganisms. The cellular materials of microorganisms and spores are oxidized
by the dry heat of the oven to kill them.

3.Container
The container having dimension of 22cm x 14cm x 10cm are used to store the sample
for putting in the muffle furnace so that the charcoal will not be spread in the furnace
and can be collected easily.

Figure.3.1.3: Container box

4.GrinderThe grinder is used to be grind the charcoal formed through pyrolysis to

make it in the powder form.

 Figure.3.1.4: Grinder

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
5.Sieve
A instrument with a meshed or perforated bottom, used for separating coarse from
fine parts of loose matter, for straining etc., especially one with a circular frame and
fine meshes or perforations.
The sieve of 90 micron used for the sieving the charcoal so that the finer particles
will be used for making briquettes

Figure 3.1.5: Sieve



6.Pigeon Pea Charcoal

Charcoal powder is the blackish residue consisting of impure carbon obtain by
removing water and other volatile constituents agricultural waste.
After sieving the charcoal we have fine powder of charcoal which is to be used to
make briquettes.

Figure3.1.6: Pigeon Pea Charcoal Powder



7.Rice Starch

The rice starch is used as a mixture for the giving better binding properties to the
charcoal briquettes. These starch which we used are self made.
The starch we make through process of boiling the rice and after the boiling the

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boiled water of rice was dried. The dried powder of boiled water is the starch which
used as binde.

Figure 3.1.7: Rice Starch

8.Hydraulic Pressure Machine

A hydraulic press works on the principle of Pascal's law, which states that when
pressure is applied to a confined fluid, the pressure change occurs throughout the
entire fluid. Within the hydraulic press, there is a piston that works as a pump, that
provides a modest mechanical force to a small area of the sample.
The hydraulic press is used to exert pressure on the mold for giving better shape and
reducing size and air gap. 

Figure 3.1.8: Hydraulic Pressure Machine

9.Mild Steel Rectangular Cube Mould
It is used to give the cubical shape to the briquette formation .

Fig.3.1.9 Mild steel rectangular cubemold

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10.Anti-Rust Crucible Plier

Anti-rust crucible pliers are tools designed to safely handle crucibles, which are
vessels used for melting and pouring metals, especially in foundries and
metalworking. The "anti-rust" feature implies that the pliers are resistant to
corrosion, ensuring their longevity and performance in demanding environments
where they are frequently exposed to heat and moisture. These pliers often have
specialized coatings or are made from materials that resist rusting, such as stainless
steel or alloys with corrosion-resistant properties. They're essential for ensuring safe
and efficient handling of crucibles during metal casting processes.In this study these
have been used to put the samples inside the muffle furnace and also to carry out the
sample from muffle furnace after burning as the samples were hot while taking out
from muffle furnace.

Figure 2.1.10 Anti-Rust Crucible Plier

11.Muffle Furnace: -

Muffle furnaces are commonly used for heating in industrial and laboratory settings.
Today's modern electrical muffle furnaces heating by conduction, convection or
blackbody radiation processes. The muffle furnace temperature is increasing rate
11.4°C/min. High temperature muffle furnace is 1200°C (2192°F). In this study,
muffle furnace was used for pyrolyzing the sample and for burning the charcoal
briquettes at different temperatures.

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Figure 3.1.11 Muffle furnace

12.Flue Gas Analyzer:

A flu gas analyzer is a device used to measure and analyze the composition of gases
emitted from combustion processes, like those in industrial furnaces or power plants.
It helps monitor emissions to ensure compliance with environmental regulations and
optimize combustion efficiency. This device has been used to analyse the different
types of gases like CO2, SOX, NOX, O2, etc has been evolved.

Figure 3.1.12 Flue Gas Analyzer

13.Stainless Steel Probe:-

A stainless steel probe for a gas flue analyzer is typically used to extract a sample of the flue
gas for analysis. Stainless steel is chosen for its durability and resistance to corrosion,
ensuring accurate and reliable measurements over time, even in harsh environments. The
probe is inserted into the flue or exhaust stack, allowing the analyzer to capture and analyze
the gas composition, temperature, and other parameters to assess combustion efficiency and
emission levels.

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Figure 3.1.13 Stainless Steel Probe

14.Electronic Analytical Balance

Electronic Analytical balances are precision measuring instruments used in

quantitativ chemical analysis, to determine the mass of solid objects, liquids,
powders and granula substances and maximum measurement 220 gm and minimum
0.1 mg. Air currents can affect the intricate mechanisms of the analytical balance the
same temperature and vibration can alter the measurement of a small sample size.
Change in air pressures from ceiling fans, air conditioners and open door can also
caus sensitive equipment to show wrong measurements. In this study the for taking
the weight of the charcoal briquettes it has been used.

Figure 3.1.14 Electronic Analytical Balance

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15.Silica Crucible
Silica crucibles are vessels made from silica, a type of silicon dioxide (SiO2),
typically in the form of quartz or fused silica. These crucibles are used in high-
temperature applications, particularly in laboratories and industrial settings, due to
their excellent thermal stability and resistance to chemical corrosion. Silica crucibles
are commonly employed for melting, fusing, and heating materials in processes such
as metallurgy, glassmaking, semiconductor manufacturing, and chemical analysis.
They come in various sizes and shapes to accommodate different applications and
are prized for their durability, purity, and ability to withstand extreme temperatures.
In this study these are being used for putting the samples after the burning in muffle
furnace .

Figure3.1.15 Silica Crucibles

3.2 Collection of Raw Materials

The pigeon pea stalks were collected from the rural part of the Azamgarh, Uttar
Pradesh, India. The pigeon pea stalks were cut into small pieces of around
20cm in length and 2-5cm in diameter for better exposure to heat during slow
pyrolysis in the muffle furnace.

Figure3.2.1: Collection of Pigeon Pea Stalk

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3.3 Drying Process for Collected Raw Material

After collecting the raw material it will be reduce in the smaller sizes having about
8cm long . the biomass materials were washed with distilled water to remove any dirt
and dust. The sample get dried in sun light at 27°C - 38ºC for 12 -14 days in the field
and 105ºC - 110ºC in a hot air oven for 20 - 24 hours in the laboratory.

Figure 3.3.1: Drying of Pigeon Pea Stalk in Hot Air Oven

3.4 Preparation of Pigeon Pea Charcoal Briquettes:-

3.4.1 Pyrolysis Process Pyrolysis is the process of heating of an organic material

such as biomass, in the absence of oxygen. Biomass pyrolysis usually conducted
below or at 600 ºC temperature. The pigeon pea stalks are put into the muffle furnace
for 1-2 hours at the temperature 300-400ºC by which the charcoal produced. This is a
laboratory process

Figure 3.4.1: Pyrolysis of Pigeon Pea Stalk in Muffle Furnace

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3.4.2 Sieving and Grinding Process:- After the pyrolysis, the charcoal will be
grinded using grinder until it becomes finer.Then it will be sieved by using 90
micron to give homogeneous size of the charcoaol particles so that the briquettes will
form by the charcoal have better strength

Figure 3.4.2.Charcoal Produced by Pyrolsis

3.4.3AddingBinderandMixture:-
After sieving, making dough of the mixture of the charcoal, water and starch in the
ratio of 10:3:6 respectivly. The starch acts as a binder which provides the briquettes
better strength.

Figure 3.4.3: Mixture of Chracoal, Rice Starch and water

3.4.4 Briquette Formation:-

The above mix charcoal were briquetting by the help of hydraulic press by applying
pressure 0.5KN having rectangular cube mold for the cube formation .The briquettes
are made in cubic shape about 2cm³ in volume.

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Figure 3 Figure 3.4.4: CCCB

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CHAPTER-04

4.1 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter contains the pollution analysis of cajajnus cajan charcoal briequtte.

4.2 Gas analysis without sample in muffle furnace

In this study we have found out the gases which are being present in the muffle
furnace without putting the samples for burning. This was done to make sure that the
HC,NOx and SO2 are not present and if present then allow the muffle furnace to be
opened for some time so that the gases comes out and then perform the tests on
samples. Following observations was being done while recording the gases through
FGA without putting the sample in muffle furnace.
4.2.1: Testing of gases in muffle Table furnace without temperature

In percentage In ppm
MUFFL O2 CO2 CO SO2 N0X HC
TEMP.(C)
300 20.8 0 0 0 0 9
400 20.8 0 0 0 0 10
500 20.8 0 0 0 19 4
600 20.8 0 0 0 11 1
700 20.8 0 0 0 4 0
800 20.8 0 0 0 7 0
900 20.7 0.2 0 0 14 5
1000 20.4 0.5 0 0 17 0

4.3 Gas analysis with sample in muffle furnace

 Process of testing the evolved gases of charcoal briquettes in muffle furnace
1.Taking the weight of the charcoal briquette .
2. Calibration of flue gas analyzer
• Take the flue analyzer in fresh air and calibrate it
• Time taken for calibration 120 seconds

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Figure 4.3.1 weighing of charcoal briequtte

Figure 4.3.2 Gases after Callibration

3.Insert the flue gas analyzer and record the gases evolving
Following gases are to be observed
 Minimum O2
 Maximum CO2
 Maximum HC
 Maximum SO2
 Maximum NOx
4.After performing one test open the muffle furnace and make sure gases trapped
inside the furnace comes out by doing empty test without sample with FGA
5.Repeat the above processes for different temperatures from 300⁰C to 1000⁰C.

Figure 4.3.3 Briequeete after Figure 4.3.4 Briquette after taking out
recording gases from furnace

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Following observation was seen

Table 4.3.2 Evolved gases from burning CCCB per gam

EVOLVED GASES PER GRAM

In percentage In ppm

MUFFLE WT.OF O NO
2 X
TEMP.(C) SAMPLE(GM.) CO CO SO HC
2 2

300 5.9042 2.22 1.3 0 2.71 4.4 25.4

400 6.635 1.96 1.19 0 1.2 10.39 22.64

500 6.289 1.81 1.51 0 0 20.24 19.51

600 5.181 1.27 1.99 0 0 25.53 18.07

700 4.668 1.14 2.19 0 0 29.69 14.92

800 5.379 0.85 2.43 0 0 31.23 11.72

900 6.326 0.41 2.84 0 0 37.6 6.95

1000 6.264 0.2 3.21 0 0 39.89 3.21

Figure 4.3.5 Briquettes after 5-10 Figure 4.3.6 Ashes after full burning
minutes of briquettes

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4.4 Variation of different gases with temperatures

Under this section various graphical representation of the observed data has been
plotted.
4.4.1 Variation of O2 with temperature.

3.5
Variation of oxygen
3

2.5
O2 IN (%)

1.5

0.5

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURES

Graph 1:Variation of Oxygen with temperature

From the above graph it is clear that as the temperature starts to rise the percentage
of oxygen starts to decrease the reason being ,When these biomass pellets are burned,
a complex set of chemical reactions takes place[8] One of these reactions is the
oxidation process, where oxygen molecules (O2) in the muffle furnace combine with
carbon in the Cajanus Cajan Charcoal Briquette(CCCB) to produce carbon dioxide
and release energy.As the temperature of the combustion process increases, the
oxygen available for this reaction decreases. This happens because at higher
temperatures, the oxygen molecules become more energetic and move faster. As a
result, they are less likely to collide with the biomass particles and participate in the
oxidation process. Additionally, the increased temperature can also lead to the
dissociation of oxygen molecules into individual oxygen atoms, further reducing the
available oxygen for combustion. This phenomenon of decreasing oxygen

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availability at higher temperatures is known as oxygen depletion. This depletion of

oxygen during the burning of biomass pellets at increasing temperatures is a natural
consequence of the thermodynamic properties of oxygen and the kinetic effects of
temperature on the movement and availability of oxygen molecules[9]. Therefore, as
the temperature of biomass pellet combustion increases, there is a decrease in the
amount of available oxygen, which can impact the efficiency and completeness of
the combustion process. Additionally, the decreased oxygen availability can also
affect the emission of pollutants and the formation of combustion by-products

4.4.2 Variation of CO2 with temperature.

3.5
Variation of Carbon dioxide
3

2.5
CO2 IN (%)

1.5

0.5

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE

Graph 2: Variation of CO2 with temperature

From the above graph it is evident that with the increase in temperature in the muffle
furnace the CO2 produced from the burning of the CCCB increases the reason being,
it is generally observed that as the temperature increases, the rate of carbon dioxide
emission also increases. This can be attributed to several factors. Firstly, higher
temperatures provide more energy for the combustion reaction to occur. This results
in a faster and more efficient combustion of the biomass pellets, leading to an
increased production of carbon dioxide. Secondly, the increase in temperature can
also cause the release of more volatile compounds from the biomass pellets. These

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volatile compounds, when burned, contribute to the production of carbon dioxide.

Thirdly, at higher temperatures, the carbon present in the biomass pellets can
undergo complete combustion, resulting in the release of a greater amount of carbon
dioxide gas. Furthermore, as the temperature increases, the solubility of carbon
dioxide in water decreases. This means that at higher temperatures, less carbon
dioxide is dissolved in the oceans, leading to an increase in the concentration of
carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Overall, the increase in temperature during the
burning of biomass pellets in a muffle furnace leads to an acceleration of chemical
reactions, resulting in a higher production.

4.4.3 Variation of HC with temperature.

30 Variation of hydrocarbon
25

20
HC IN PPM

15

10

0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE

Graph 3:Variation of HC with temperature

Biomass combustion is a widely studied topic due to its potential as a renewable

energy source. One important aspect of biomass combustion is the relationship
between hydrocarbon combustion and temperature. Previous studies, such as the one
conducted by Demirbas in Fuel Processing Technology, have shown that the
temperature during biomass combustion plays a crucial role in determining the yields
of compounds produced, including hydrocarbons.In the specific case of burning

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Cajanus cajan biomass pellets in a muffle furnace, the temperature will directly
impact the combustion process and the formation of hydrocarbons.From the above
graph it is clear that with increasing of the temperature the hydrocarbon starts to
decrease the reason behind this variation is due to at higher temperatures, the
combustion of hydrocarbons in Cajanus cajan biomass pellets will be more complete,
resulting in fewer unburned hydrocarbon.The results of this analysis will help
determine the optimal temperature range for burning cajanus cajan biomass pellets in
order to minimize hydrocarbon emissions and improve the overall efficiency of the
combustion process.

4.4.4 Variation of NOX with temperature.

Variation of NO x
45
40
35
30
NOX IN PPM

25
20
15
10
5
0
300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
TEMPERATURE

Graph 4: Variation of NOX with temperature

From the above graph it is clear that with rise in temperature the amount of NO x
increases there are many reason behind this some of them are as follows:

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1. Temperature Dependency of NOx Formation: NOx formation is temperature-

dependent, with higher temperatures generally leading to increased NO x production
due to enhanced reaction rates. This is attributed to the increased availability of
thermal energy for the formation of nitrogen oxides.
2. Fuel-Nitrogen Content: Charcoal briquettes contain nitrogen, which can contribute
to NOx formation when burned. The nitrogen in the fuel reacts with oxygen and
nitrogen from the air at elevated temperatures to form nitrogen oxides.
3. Residence Time:The duration that the fuel spends at high temperatures (residence
time) influences NOx formation. Longer residence times allow for more complete
combustion, increasing the likelihood of nitrogen oxidation to form NO x.
4.Air-Fuel Ratio: The air-to-fuel ratio affects NOx formation. Excess air can lead to
higher combustion temperatures, promoting NOx formation through the thermal
mechanism, while fuel-rich conditions can encourage prompt NO formation.

4.4.5 Variation of SO2 with temperature.

From the table 4.3.2 it can be seen that only at temperature 3000C the amount of SO2
was 2.71 ppm and at temperature of 4000C the amount was 1.2 ppm and after that as
the temperature starts to rise the SO2 was not formed indicating good sign about the
CCCB sample.
This variation has been happened because many reasons some of them are
1.Low Sulphur Content in Charcoal Briquettes: Charcoal briquettes typically have
low sulfur content compared to other fossil fuels like coal. If the sulfur content in the
charcoal briquettes is negligible or very low, there may be insufficient sulfur
available for oxidation to form SO2, even at high temperatures.
2.Effective Sulfur Removal During Charcoal Production:The process of producing
charcoal briquettes may involve steps that effectively remove sulfur compounds from
the raw materials or convert them to less volatile forms during carbonization,
reducing the likelihood of SO2 formation during combustion.
3. Limited Oxygen Availability for Sulfur Oxidation: At high temperatures, oxygen
availability may be limited due to the combustion conditions or the presence of other

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combustion products. If there is insufficient oxygen present for complete

combustion, sulfur oxidation to form SO2 may be hindered.

4. Formation of Alternative Sulfur Compounds: Instead of forming SO2, sulfur in the

charcoal briquettes may undergo alternative reactions to form other sulfur
compounds or species. These alternative sulfur compounds may be less volatile or
may undergo further reactions within the muffle furnace, leading to their retention or
conversion to non-gaseous forms.

4.4.6 Variation of CO with temperature

From table 4.3.2 it is clear that there was no emission of CO which indicates that
there was complete combustion of CCCB.

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CHAPTER-05

5.1 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the potential of pigeon pea wood as feedstock in
thermochemical conversion was given emphasis. Sustainable production of bio
fuel requires a continuous abundant supply of feedstock as well as efficient
conversion processes. Pigeon pea wood, available in large quantities in our
country , represents a new resource that is suitable for further expanding the
current supply of local feedstock. To better understand the potential and
suitability of pigeon pea wood as feedstock for thermochemical conversion
process, properly prepared pigeon pea wood samples were characterized in this
work through dedicated experiments. This study investigated the environmental
impact of burning Cajanus cajan charcoal briquettes, focusing on the pollutants
emitted during combustion. Through controlled experiments, the levels of
various pollutants such as carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and
nitrogen oxides (NOx) were measured. The combustion of Cajanus cajan
charcoal briquettes produced significant levels of CO, SO2, and NOx,
contributing to air pollution.The levels of pollutants varied depending on
factors such as briquette composition, burning conditions, and combustion
efficiency.Despite being a renewable biomass source, Cajanus cajan charcoal
briquettes still contribute to air pollution and should be assessed for their
environmental impact.
The findings of this study highlight the importance of considering the
environmental implications of alternative fuel sources such as Cajanus cajan
charcoal briquettes. While these briquettes offer a renewable alternative to
traditional charcoal, their combustion releases pollutants that can harm both
human health and the environment.
To mitigate the impact of burning Cajanus cajan charcoal briquettes, further
research is needed to develop cleaner burning techniques and to optimize
briquette composition. Additionally, promoting awareness about the proper use
of these briquettes and implementing regulations to control emissions can help

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minimize their environmental footprint. Overall, a holistic approach is

necessary to balance the benefits of using renewable biomass fuels with the
need to reduce air pollution and protect public health.

5.2 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

 This project is about agricultural waste of pigeon pea stalk as charcoal
briquette
 This study has been done in the laboratory conditions
 The gases have been analysed in muffle furnace

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