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Table of Contents
Subject Page #
Fastener Material Selection
Strength 1
Materials
Carbon Steel 3
Stainless Steel 3
Heat Treatment 4
Platings and Coatings 7
Screw Thread Fundamentals 8
Strength of Threads 10
Galling 10
Corrosion 11
High Temperature Effects 13
Joint Design 14
Tension Control in a Bolted Joint
Torque Control 16
Torque and Turn Control 18
Stretch Control 19
Direct Tension Control 20
The Reuse of Fasteners 21
Structural Bolts 21
Standards 21
Metric System 23
Common Specifications for Use with Fasteners 24
Appendix 25

Disclaimer: The material provided in this guide is advisory only and use is completely voluntary. Fastenal
strives to present the information in an accurate manner, but we do not guarantee its completeness or validity.
This information is subject to change at any time, without notice. Fastenal makes no representations or
warranties, express or implied, in connection with the information. Any use or application of this information
will be at the users sole risk and responsibility. Fastenal will not be responsible for any loss, claims or damages
arising out of the use or application of this information, regardless of whether the same may be known or
foreseeable.

Any questions, comments or concerns may be directed to the Fastenal Company Engineering
Department at (507) 454-5374, or e-mail us at [email protected]

S7028
Rev. 4
 Fastener Material Selection
Selecting the right fastener material from the vast array of materials available can appear to be a
daunting task; however, with some basic knowledge and understanding, a well thought out evaluation can
be made.

Strength
Most fastener applications are designed to support or transmit some form of externally applied
load. If the strength of the fastener is the only concern, there is usually no need to look beyond carbon
steel. Over 90% of all fasteners are made of carbon steel. In general, considering the cost of raw
materials, non-ferrous, should be considered only when a special application is required.

Tensile Strength
The most widely associated mechanical property associated with standard threaded fasteners is
tensile strength. Tensile strength is the maximum, tension-applied load the fastener can support prior to
or coinciding with its fracture.
Tensile load a fastener can withstand is determined by the formula
P = S t x As Example (see appendix for St and As values)
where ¾-10 x 7” SAE J429 Grade 5 HCS
P = tensile load (lb., N) St = 120,000 psi
St = tensile strength (psi, MPa) As = 0.3340 sq. in
As = tensile stress area (sq. in, sq. mm) P = 120,000 psi x 0.3340 sq. in
P = 40,080 lb.

For this relationship, a significant consideration must be given to the definition of the tensile stress area,
As. When a standard threaded fastener fails in pure tension, it is designed to fracture in the threaded
portion. For this reason, the tensile stress area is calculated through an empirical formula involving the
nominal diameter of the fastener and the thread pitch. Tables stating this area are provided for you in the
appendix.

Proof Load
The proof load represents the usable strength range for certain standard fasteners. By definition,
the proof load is an applied tensile load that the fastener must support without permanent deformation. In
other words, the bolt returns to its original shape once the load is removed.
Figure 1 illustrates a typical stress-strain relationship of a bolt as a tension load is applied. The
steel possesses a certain amount of elasticity as it is stretched. If the load is removed and the fastener is
still within the elastic range, the fastener will always return to its original shape. If, however, the load
applied causes the fastener to be brought past its yield point, it now enters the plastic range. Here, the
steel is no longer able to return to its original shape if the load is removed. The yield strength is the point
at which permanent elongation occurs. If we would continue to apply a load, we would reach a point of
maximum stress known as the ultimate tensile strength. Past this point, the fastener begins to “neck” and
elongate further with a reduction in stress. Additional stretching will ultimately cause the fastener to
break at the tensile point.
Elastic Plastic
Ultimate
T Range Range
Tensile
(Proof Load)
e Strength
n Yield
s Point
i Failure
o (Tensile Point)
n

Change in Length

1
Figure 1 Tensile Stress-Strain Diagram

2
Shear Strength
Shear strength is defined as the maximum load that can be supported prior to fracture, when
applied at a right angle to the fastener’s axis. A load occurring in one transverse plane is known as single
shear. Double shear is a load applied in two planes where the fastener could be cut into three pieces.
Figure 2 is an example of double shear.
For most standard threaded fasteners, shear strength is not a specification even though the
fastener may be commonly used in shear applications. While shear testing of blind rivets is a well-
standardized procedure which calls for a single shear test fixture, the testing technique of threaded
fasteners is not as well designed. Most procedures use a double shear fixture, but variations in the test
fixture designs cause a wide scatter in measured shear strengths.
To determine the shear strength of the material, the total cross-sectional area of the shear plane is
important. For shear planes through the threads, we use the equivalent tensile stress area (As). Figure 2
illustrates two possibilities for the applied shear load. One has the shear plane corresponding with the
threaded portion of the bolt. Since shear strength is directly related to the net sectional area, a smaller
area will result in lower bolt shear strength. To take full advantage of strength properties, the preferred
design would be to position the full shank body in the shear planes as illustrated with the joint on the
right.

Figure 2
Shear Planes in a Bolted Joint

When no shear strength is given for common carbon steels with hardness up to 40 HRC, 60 % of
their ultimate tensile strength is often used once given a suitable safety factor. This should only be used as
an estimation.

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a material’s ability to resist abrasion and indentation. For carbon
steels, Brinell and Rockwell hardness testing can be used to estimate tensile strength properties of the
fastener.

Ductility
Ductility is a measure of the degree of plastic deformation that has been sustained at fracture. In
other words, it is the ability of a material to deform before it fractures. A material that experiences very
little or no plastic deformation upon fracture is considered brittle.

3
Toughness
Toughness is defined as a material’s ability to absorb impact or shock loading. Impact strength
toughness is rarely a specification requirement.
Materials
Carbon Steel
Over 90% of fasteners manufactured use carbon steel. Steel has excellent workability, offers a
broad range of attainable combinations of strength properties, and, in comparison with other commonly
used fastener materials, is less expensive.
The mechanical properties are sensitive to the carbon content, which is normally less than 1.0%.
For fasteners, the more common steels are generally classified into three groups: low carbon, medium
carbon and alloy steel.

Low Carbon Steels

Low carbon steels generally contain less than 0.25% carbon and can not be strengthened by
heat-treating; strengthening may only be accomplished through cold working. The low carbon material is
relatively soft and weak, but has outstanding ductility and toughness; in addition, it is machinable,
weldable and is relatively inexpensive to produce. Typically, low carbon material has a yield strength of
40,000 psi, tensile strengths between 60,000 and 80,000 psi and a ductility of 25% EL.

Medium Carbon Steels

Medium carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about 0.25 and 0.60 wt. These steels
may be heat treated by austenizing, quenching and then tempering to improve their mechanical properties.
The plain medium carbon steels have low hardenabilities and can be successfully heat treated only in thin
sections and with rapid quenching rates.
On a strength-to-cost basis, the heat-treated medium carbon steels provide tremendous load
carrying ability. They also possess an extremely low yield to tensile strength ratio; making them very
ductile.

Alloy Steels
Carbon steel can be classified as an alloy steel when the manganese content exceeds 1.65%, when
silicon or copper exceeds 0.60% or when chromium is less then 4%. Carbon steel can also be classified as
an alloy if a specified minimum content of aluminum, titanium, vanadium, nickel or any other element
has been added to achieve specific results. Additions of chromium, nickel and molybdenum improve the
capacity of the alloys to be heat treated, giving rise to a wide variety of strength to ductility combinations.

Stainless Steel
Stainless steel is a family of iron based alloys that must contain at least 10.5% chromium. The
presence of chromium creates an invisible surface film that resists oxidation and makes the material
“passive” or corrosion resistant. Other elements, such as nickel or molybdenum are added to increase
corrosion resistance, strength or heat resistance.
Stainless steels can be simply and logically divided into three classes on the basis of their
microstructure; martensitic, ferritic or austenitic. Each of these classes has specific properties and basic
grade or “type.” Also, further alloy modifications can be made to alter the chemical composition to meet
the needs of different corrosion conditions, temperature ranges, strength requirements, or to improve
weldability, machinability, work hardening and formability.
Austenitic stainless steels contain higher amounts of chromium and nickel than the other types.
The chromium-nickel types contain approximately 18% chromium and 8% nickel. Stainless with this
chemical composition is often referred to as “18-8” stainless steel. They are not hardenable by heat
treatment and offer a high degree of corrosion resistance. Primarily, they are non-magnetic; however,
some parts may become slightly magnetic after cold working. The tensile strength of austenitic stainless
steel varies from 75,000 to 105,000 psi.

Common austenitic stainless steel grades:

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• 302: General purpose stainless retains untarnished surface finish under most atmospheric conditions
and offers high strength at reasonably elevated temperatures. Commonly used for tapping and
machine screws.
• 303: Contains small amounts of sulfur for improved machinability and is often used for custom-made
nuts and bolts.
• 304: Is a low carbon-higher chromium stainless steel with improved corrosion resistance when
compared to 302. It is used for cold heading and often for hot heading of large diameter or long
bolts.
• 309 & 310: Are higher in both nickel and chromium content than the lower alloys, and are
recommended for use in high temperature applications.
• 316 & 317: Have significantly improved corrosion resistance especially when exposed to seawater and
many types of chemicals. They contain molybdenum, which gives the steel better resistance to
surface pitting. These steels have higher tensile and creep strengths at elevated temperatures than
other austenitic alloys.
Austenitic stainless steel limitations:
• They are suitable only for low concentrations of reducing acids.
• In crevices and shielded areas, there might not be enough oxygen to maintain the passive oxide film
and crevice corrosion might occur.
• Very high levels of halide ions, especially the chloride ion can also break down the passive surface
film.

Martensitic stainless steels are capable of being heat treated in such a way that the martensite is
the prime microconstituent. This class of stainless contains 12 to 18% chromium. They can be hardened
by heat treatment, have poor welding characteristics and are considered magnetic. The tensile strength of
martensitic stainless steel is approximately 70,000 to 145,000 psi.

Common martensitic stainless steel grades:

• 410: A straight chromium alloy containing no nickel. General-purpose corrosion and heat resisting,
hardenable chromium steel. It can be easily headed and has fair machining properties. Due to their
increased hardness, are commonly used for self-drilling and tapping screws. These are considered
very inferior in corrosion resistance when compared with some of the 300 series and are usually not
recommended for external construction.
• 416: Similar to 410 but has slightly more chromium and considered a better machining grade.

Ferritic stainless steels contain 12 to 18% chromium but have less than 0.2% carbon. This type
of steel is magnetic, non-hardenable by heat treatment and has very poor weld characteristics. They
should not be used in situations of high corrosion resistance requirements.

Common ferritic stainless steel grades:

• 430: Has a slightly higher corrosion resistance than Type 410 stainless steel.

Heat Treatment
Heat-treating is performed to change certain characteristics of metals and alloys in order to make
them more suitable for a particular kind of application. In general, heat treatment is the term for any
process employed, by either heating or cooling, to change the physical properties of a metal. The goal of
heat treatment is to change the structure of the material to a form, which is known to have the desired
properties. The treatments induce phase transformations that greatly influence mechanical properties
such as strength, hardness, ductility, toughness, and wear resistance of the alloys. This large number of
service requirements and amount of alloys available make for a considerable amount of heat treating
operations.

Heat Treatment of Carbon Steels and Carbon Alloy Steels

5
 Carbon steels and carbon alloy steels can be heat treated for the purpose of improving properties
such as hardness, tensile and yield strength. The desired results are accomplished by heating in
temperature ranges where a phase or combinations of phases are stable, and/or heating or cooling between
temperature ranges in which different phases are stable.
The structure of steel is composed of two variables:
1. Grain Structure - The arrangement of atoms in a metal.
2. Grain Size - The size of the individual crystals of metal. Large grain size is generally associated with
low strength, hardness, and ductility.
After being formed, the material is usually quenched and tempered to produce a martensitic
structure that produces the most sought after mechanical properties in steel fasteners. Martensite is
formed by rapid cooling or quenching from austenizing temperatures using a quenching medium, such as
oil, water or air, that will transfer heat away from the hot parts at a sufficient rate. The quenched
martensitic structure, which is hard but brittle, is then tempered in order to increase the ductility and
decrease the hardness to specified levels. During the quenching treatment, it is impossible to cool the
specimen at a uniform rate throughout. The surface of the specimen will always cool more rapidly than
the interior regions. Therefore, the austenite will transform over a range of temperatures, yielding a
possible variation of microstructure and properties with position within the material.
The successful heat treatment of steels to produce a predominantly martensitic microstructure
throughout the cross section depends mainly on three factors:
1. the composition of the alloy
2. the type and character of the quenching medium
3. the size and shape of the specimen

Hardenability
The influence of alloy composition on the ability of a steel alloy to transform to martensite for a
particular quenching treatment is related to a parameter called hardenability. For every different steel
alloy there is a specific relationship between their mechanical properties and their cooling rate.
Hardenability is not “hardness” which is a resistance to indentation, rather, hardness measurements are
utilized to determine the extent of a martensitic transformation in the interior of the material. A steel
alloy that has a high hardenability is one that hardens, or forms martensite, not only at the surface but also
to a large degree throughout the entire interior. In other words, hardenability is a measure of the depth to
which a specific alloy may be hardened.
The following elements have known effects on the properties of steel:
Carbon ( C )
Primary alloying element
Principle hardening element
Essential for the formation of martensite during hardening
Manganese ( Mn )
Increases strength and hardness
Increases hardenability
Phosphorus ( P )
Considered an impurity, can cause brittleness at low temperatures
Sulfur ( S )
Considered an impurity, can lower tensile strength at high temperatures
Improves machinability in free machining steels
Silicon ( Si )
Deoxidizer
Nickel ( Ni )
Improves toughness
Simplifies heat treating
Increases hardenability
Decreases distortion
Improves corrosion resistance
Chromium ( Cr )

6
 Improves hardenability
Provides wear and abrasion resistance
Improves corrosion resistance
Molybdenum ( Mo )
Improves hardenability
Non-oxidizing
Boron ( B )
Trace amounts increase hardenability
Promotes formability
Aluminum ( Al )
Controls grain size
Deoxidizer

Tempering
In the as-quenched state, martensite, in addition to being very hard, is extremely brittle and
cannot be used for most applications. Also, any internal stresses that may have been introduced during
quenching have a weakening effect.
If the steel has been fully hardened by being quenched from above its critical temperature,
tempering can be used to enhance the ductility and toughness of martensite and relieve the internal
stresses. In tempering, the steel is reheated to a specific temperature below its critical temperature for a
certain period of time and then cooled at a prescribed rate.

Annealing
Annealing is used to soften previously cold-worked metal by allowing it to recrystallize. The
term annealing refers to a heat treatment in which a material is exposed to an elevated temperature for an
extended time period and then slowly cooled. Ordinarily, annealing is carried out to (1) relieve stresses;
(2) increase softness, ductility and toughness; and/or (3) produce a microstructure. A variety of annealing
heat treatments are possible.
Any annealing process consists of three stages:
1. heating to the desired temperature
2. holding or “soaking” at that temperature
3. slowly cooling, usually to room temperature
Time is the important parameter in these procedures

Process Annealing
Process annealing is a heat treatment that is used to negate the effects of cold work that is to
soften and increase the ductility of a previously strain-hardened metal.

Stress Relieving
Internal residual stresses may develop in metal pieces in response to such things as cold working.
Distortion and warpage may result if these residual stresses are not removed. They may be eliminated by
a stress relief annealing heat treatment in which the piece is heated to the recommended temperature, held
there long enough to attain a uniform temperature, and finally cooled to a room temperature in air. Stress
relieving can eliminate some internal stresses without significantly altering the structure of the material.

Normalizing
Steels that have been plastically deformed by, for example, a rolling operation, consists of grains
of pearlite which are irregularly shaped and relatively large, but vary substantially in size. Normalizing is
an annealing heat treatment use to refine the grains and produce a more uniform and desirable size
distribution.
Normalizing is accomplished by heating the material to a temperature above its upper critical
temperature. After sufficient time has been allowed for the alloy to completely transform to austenite, a
procedure termed austenitizing, the metal is allowed to cool in the air.

7
Full Anneal
A heat treatment known as full annealing is often utilized in low- and medium-carbon steels that
will be machined or will experience extensive plastic deformation during a forming operation. The full
anneal cooling procedure is time consuming,

Spheroidizing
Medium- and high-carbon steels having a microstructure containing coarse pearlite may still be
too hard to conveniently machine or plastically deform. These steels, and in fact, any steel, may be heat
treated or annealed to develop the spheroidite structure. Spheroidized steels have a maximum softness
and ductility and are easily machined or deformed.

Platings and Coatings

Most of the threaded fasteners used today are coated with some kind of material as a final step in
the manufacturing process. Many are electroplated, others are galvanized or painted, hot dipped or
furnished with some other type of supplementary finish. Fasteners are coated for four primary reasons:
1. for appearance
2. fight corrosion
3. reduce friction
4. reduce scatter in the amount of preload achieved for a given torque.
There are three basic ways in which coatings can fight corrosion.
1. They can provide a barrier protection. This simply means that they erect a barrier, which isolates the
bolt from the corrosive environment, thereby breaking the metallic circuit, which connects the anode
to the cathode.
2. They can provide a “galvanic” or sacrificial protection. To cause problems, a metallic connection
must be made between the anode and the cathode and an electrolyte. In this type of reaction it is
always the anode, which will get attacked, so if we make the fastener the cathode, we can protect it.
3. They can fight corrosion by “passivation” or “inhibition”, which slows down the corrosion and makes
the battery connection less effective. This is common with the use of nickel or Inconel in stainless
steel bolts, which are said to be passivated. A thin oxide layer is formed on the surface of the bolt.
The oxide film, according to theory, makes it more difficult for the metal to give off electrons.

There are several means of applying coatings onto fasteners.

Electroplating
Electroplating is the most common way to apply an inorganic coating. Many different metals, or
combination of metals, can be plated onto fasteners by using a chemical reaction. Electroplating is carried
out in a fluid bath, which contains a chemical compound of the metal to be deposited. The parts to be
plated are immersed in the bath and an electrical current is produced causing the plating material to
precipitate out and deposit onto the fastener.
Cadmium and zinc are the two most popular electro-deposited coatings. To a lesser degree,
aluminum, copper, tin, nickel, chromium, lead and silver are also used. Zinc, cadmium and aluminum
are preferred due to their relationship with carbon steel, stainless steel, and most other nonferrous metals
used in fastener applications in the Galvanic Series. The plating material is less noble than the fastener.
In an electrochemical reaction, the plating material will corrode, and the fastener material will remain
protected.
Zinc is a relatively inexpensive fastener coating and can be applied in a broad range of
thicknesses. Zinc fasteners, however, are less lubricious than cadmium, and require more tightening
torque to develop a given preload. Zinc also tends to increase the scatter in the torque-tension
relationship, which can create a number of problems in automated assembly operations.
Another disadvantage is that the zinc coating will develop a dull white corrosion known as
“white rust” unless a supplemental clear or colored chromate is added. This added coating seals the
surface from early tarnishing and reinforces the fastener’s resistance to a corrosive attack.
Cadmium has long been the most popular plating material. The cadmium plating provides
excellent corrosion protection against salt water and other kinds of salts. This type of plating is seemingly

8
inexpensive and provides a reasonably low and fairly consistent coefficient of friction. The cadmium
plating does not tarnish or fade.
One main problem with cadmium is that a cyanide rinse is used during the plating process. This
rinse is dangerous and can create environmental problems. Most industrialized countries have completely
banned the use of cadmium plating. Like most other countries, the United States originally banned the
use of cadmium plating. However, the U.S. recently removed this ban. Instead, strict governmental
regulations have been implemented that define the disposal of the rinse. These regulations add an
extreme cost to the plating process and have discouraged many from choosing cadmium plating.

Hot-Dip Coatings
Fasteners can be coated by dipping them in baths of molten metal. Fasteners hot-dipped in
aluminum are said to have been “aluminized” and zinc-coated fasteners to have been galvanized. Hot-
dipping is an inexpensive means of protecting fasteners and is widely used. Hot-dipping provides a
thicker coating than does electroplating and, as a result, can give the fastener more protection against
corrosion. A problem associated with the hot-dipping process is the difficulty in controlling the coating
thickness throughout the fastener.

Mechanical Plating
Small particles of cadmium, zinc or other metals can be cold-welded onto the fastener surface by
mechanical energy. Glass beads are air blasted to slam the particles against the base metal. The coating
thickness produced with mechanical galvanizing are much more uniform than hot-dip galvanizing.
The major advantage of the mechanical plating process is not exposing the fastener to hydrogen
embrittlement (for an explanation of hydrogen embrittlement, see page 12). Another advantage is that a
wide variety of metals can be applied by using a mixture of particles. A mixture of aluminum and zinc
may be used to provide the durability of the aluminum plus the galvanic protection of zinc. A phosphate
coating can be added to the aluminum zinc to improve lubricity.

Screw Thread Fundamentals

The screw thread, which has often been described as a inclined plane wrapped around a cylinder,
is fundamental to the threaded fastener. There are well over 125 separate geometrical features and
dimensional characteristics with the design and construction of screw threads. The following definitions,
along with figure 3, should help with some of the basic screw thread features.
A screw thread is considered to be a ridge of uniform section in the form of a helix on either the
external or internal surface of a cylinder. Internal threads are threads on nuts and tapped holes. External
threads are those on bolts, studs or screws.

9
 Figure 3
Basic Thread Geometry

The configuration of the thread in an axial plane is the thread form, or profile, and the three
parts making the form are the crest, root and flanks. At the top of the threads are the crests, at the bottom
the roots, and joining them is the flanks. The triangle formed when the thread profile is extended to a
point at both crests and roots, is the fundamental triangle. The height of the fundamental triangle is the
distance, radially measured, between sharp crest and sharp root diameters.
The distance measured parallel to the thread axis, between corresponding points on adjacent
threads, is the thread pitch. Unified screw threads are designated in threads per inch. This is the number
of complete threads occurring in one inch of threaded length.
On an internal thread, the diameter at the crests is the minor diameter and at the roots the major
diameter. On an external thread, the diameter at the thread crests is the major diameter, and at its thread
root is the minor diameter.
The flank angle is the angle between a flank and a perpendicular to the thread axis. When both
flanks have the same angle, the thread is a symmetrical thread and the flank angle is termed half-angle of
thread. Unified screw threads have a 30-degree flank angle and are symmetrical. This is why they are
commonly referred to as 60-degree threads.
Pitch diameter is the diameter of a theoretical cylinder that passes through the threads in such a
position that the widths of the thread ridges and thread grooves are equal. These widths, in a perfect
world, would each equal one-half of the thread pitch.
An intentional clearance is created between mating threads known as the allowance. This
ensures that when both the internal and external threads are manufactured there will be a positive space
between them. For fasteners, the allowance is generally applied to the external thread. Tolerances are
specified amounts by which dimensions are permitted to vary for convenience of manufacturing. The
tolerance is the difference between the maximum and minimum permitted limits.
Thread Fit
Thread fit is the combination of allowances and tolerances and is a measure of tightness or
looseness between them. A clearance fit is one that provides a free running assembly and an interference
fit is one having specified limits of thread size that always result in a positive interference between the
threads when assembled.
For Unified inch screw threads there are six classes of fit: 1B, 2B and 3B for internal threads;
and 1A, 2A and 3A for external threads. All are considered clearance fits. This means they assemble
without interference. The higher the class number, the tighter the fit. The ‘A’designates an external
thread, and ‘B’designates an internal thread.
Classes 1A and 1B are considered an extremely loose tolerance thread fit. This class is suited for
quick and easy assembly and disassembly. For mechanical fasteners, this thread fit is rarely specified.
Classes 2A and 2B offer optimum thread fit that balances fastener performance, manufacturing
economy and convenience. Nearly 90 % of all commercial and industrial fasteners produced in North
America have this class of thread fit.
Classes 3A and 3B are suited for close tolerance fasteners. These fasteners are intended for
service where safety is a critical design consideration. This class of fit has restrictive tolerances and no
allowance.
The axial distance through which the fully formed threads of both the internal and external
threads are in contact is known as the length of thread engagement. The depth of thread engagement is
the distance the threads overlap in a radial direction. The length of thread engagement is one of the key
strength aspects, which the designer may be able to control.

The strength of screw threads are dependent on three stress areas:

1. The tensile stress area is equivalent to the cross sectional area of a theoretical cylinder made from the
same material, which would support the same ultimate load in tension. This area is an assumed cross
sectional area through the thread, which is used in the computations of fastener tension loads.
2. The thread root area is the cross sectional area through an external thread at its major diameter. This
area is used when computing a fastener’s strength in torsion or transverse shear.

10
3. The thread shear areas are the effective areas through the thread ridges, parallel to the thread axis,
and for full length of thread engagement, which resists the stripping out of the threads when a shear
load is applied.

Thread Series
Three standard thread series in the Unified screw thread system are highly important for
fasteners: UNC (coarse), UNF (fine), and 8-UN (8 thread).
Below are some of the aspects of fine and coarse threads.
Fine Thread
1. Since they have larger stress areas they are stronger in tension
2. Their larger minor diameters develop higher torsional and transverse shear strengths
3. They can tap better in thin-walled members
4. With their smaller helix angle, they permit closer adjustment accuracy
5. Fine thread requires less torque to develop an equivalent preload
6. Offers more resistance to loosening when subjected to vibration than does the coarse thread
Coarse Thread
1. Stripping strengths are greater for the same length of engagement
2. Exhibit a better fatigue resistance behavior
3. Less tendency to cross thread
4. Assemble and disassemble more quickly and easily
5. Tap better into brittle materials.
6. Larger thread allowances allow for thicker coatings and platings
Numerous arguments have been made for using both the fine and coarse thread series; however,
with the increase in automated assembly processes, bias towards the coarse thread series has developed.

Strength of Threads
Two fundamentals must be considered when designing a threaded connection.
1. Ensure that these threaded fasteners were manufactured to some current ASTM, ANSI, U.S.
Government or other trusted standard.
2. Design bolts to break in tension prior to the female and/or male threads stripping. A broken bolt is an
obvious failure. It’s loose. However, when the threads strip prior to the bolt breaking, we may not
notice the failure until after the fastener is put into service.
As was shown earlier, the strength of bolts loaded in tension can be easily determined by the
ultimate tensile strength. To determine the amount of force required to break a bolt, we multiply its
ultimate tensile strength by its tensile stress area, As. Determining the strength of the threads is more
complicated. Since the male threads pull past the female threads, or vice-versa, the threads fail in shear
and not in tension. Therefore, the stripping strength depends on the shear strength of the nut and bolt
materials.
To determine the force required to strip the threads we must multiply the shear strength by the
cross sectional area, which must be sheared. Determining the cross sectional area in which the shear
occurs is a problem. Here are three possible alternatives for the failure.
1. The nut material is stronger than the bolt material. In this example, the nut threads will wipe out the
bolt threads. The failure will occur at the root of the bolt threads.
2. The bolt material is stronger than the nut material. With this example, the bolt threads will tear out
the nut threads. The failure will occur at the root of the nut threads.
3. The nut and bolt are the same material. With this example, both threads will strip simultaneously.
This failure will occur at the pitch line.
As was shown previously, the tensile strength of most fasteners is a common specification
whereas shear strength is not. In order to avoid shearing in the threads, we must insure that the length of
engagement between the bolt and nut, or tapped hole, is long enough to provide adequate cross-sectional
thread area.

11
 With conventional steel nut and bolt materials, a length of engagement of about one nominal
diameter of the bolt is recommended. A longer thread length engagement will be needed when dealing
with tapped holes in soft material.
One point must be emphasized: the nut or tapped hole should support more load than the bolt.
One simple way to meet this criteria, without extensive calculations, is to use a nut which has a proof load
approximately equal to the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt. A nut compatibility table is provided in
the appendix.

Galling
Thread galling is a common, yet seldom-understood problem with threaded fasteners. Galling is
a cold welding process, which can occur when the surfaces of male and female threads come in contact
with heavy pressure.
Stainless steel fasteners are particularly susceptible to thread galling, although it also occurs in
other alloys which self-generate an oxide surface film for corrosion purposes, such as aluminum and
titanium. During the tightening of the fastener, a pressure builds between the contacting thread surfaces
and breaks down the protective oxides. With the absence of the oxide coating, the metal high points can
shear and lock together.
Minor galling may cause only slight damage to the thread surface and the fastener may still be
removed. However, in severe cases, galling can completely weld the nut and bolt together and prevent
removal of the fastener. Often times, once galling begins, if the tightening process is continued, the
fastener may be twisted off or its threads stripped out.
Unfortunately, even with an understanding of the mechanism of galling, little is known on how
to successfully control it. However, the probability of galling occurring can be minimized with the
following measures:
• Thread lubrication is one of the most effective measures to lessen the potential for galling. The
lubricant reduces friction, which is a key element in thread galling. Certain material environments,
such as stainless steel fasteners used in food processing equipment, preclude the use of lubricants.
Also, attention must be given to the torque-tension relationship, which will be altered with the use of
lubrication.
• Use coarse threads with a 2A-2B fit instead of fine threads. Coarse threads have a larger thread
allowance and are more tolerant to abuse during handling.
• Heat contributes significantly to thread galling. Installing a fastener generates heat and high-speed
installation generates significantly more heat. Lowering the wrench speed during installation and
removal can be helpful.
• Mating parts of the same alloy have a greater tendency to gall than parts of dissimilar alloys having
different degrees of hardness. Most stainless steels are more susceptible to galling than carbon and
alloy steels. However, not all combinations of stainless steels act the same. For instance, a 400 series
stainless steel nut can work well on 316 series bolts, but with a reduction in corrosion resistance.
• A smoother surface texture will lead to less frictional resistance. As previously mentioned, friction
increases the possibility of galling. Rolled threads provide a relatively smooth surface.
Unfortunately, an easy method of rolling internal threads has yet to be found.

Corrosion
Table 1 Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys

12
+ Corroded End (anodic or increasingly active) For many applications, the problems of corrosion
Magnesium and magnesium alloys
pose an extreme concern in design. One of the first
Zinc
Aluminum 1100
questions a designer must address when analyzing a fastener
Cadmi um application is what is the service environment; is there a
Aluminum 2024 -T4 possibility the fastener will be subject to a corrosive attack?
Iron and steel It is important to understand that there are several different
304 Stainless steel (active) types of corrosion including galvanic corrosion,
316 Stainless steel (active)
Lead
concentration-cell corrosion, stress corrosion, fretting
Tin corrosion, pitting and oxidation. Probably the most common
Nickel (active) form of corrosion is rust associated with steel structures and
Inconel nickel -chromium alloy (active) fasteners, although the effects of corrosive attack can be seen
Hastelloy Alloy C (active)
in many other structural materials.
Brasses (Cu-Zn alloys)
Copper
Corrosion can be thought of as an electro-chemical
Bronzes (Cu-Sn alloys) action in which one metal is changed into a chemical, or
Copper-nickel alloys simply, eaten away. When two metals are in contact with
Monel (70Ni -30Cu) each other in the presence of some electrolyte such as
Nickel (passive) hydrochloric acid, the less active metal, as seen in the
Inconel (80Ni -13Cr-7Fe) (passive)
Galvanic Series, will act as the cathode and attract electrons
304 Stainless steel (passive)
316 Stainless steel (passive) from the anode. The anode is the material, which is
Hastelloy Alloy C (passive) corroded.
Silver A simple means of visualizing what is occurring is
Titanium to consider the action of a battery. If two metals are
Graphite
immersed in an acid, a saline or an alkaline solution, a
Gold
Platinum
battery is formed. This battery produces a flow of electrons
- Protected End (cathodic or increasingly inert) between the two metals. This flow of electrons continues as
long as the metals exist, the solution remains acidic, saline
or alkaline, and as long as a conductive path connects the two metals.
In the case of galvanic corrosion, the combination of two dissimilar metals with an electrolyte is
all that is needed to form a reaction. The use of dissimilar metals in structural design is not rare,
especially where fasteners are a different material from the structure being joined. The necessary
ingredient to induce corrosion, the electrolyte, may be present in the form of rain, dew, snow, high
humidity, ocean salt spray, or even air pollution.
All metals have some kind of electrical potential. A realistic and practical ranking is provided by
the Galvanic Series of Metals and Alloys. Table 1 represents the relative reactivities of a number of
metals and commercial alloys in seawater. The alloys near the bottom are cathodic and unreactive,
whereas those at the top are most anodic. The various metals within grouped together are reasonably
compatible when used together; those in different groups may cause a corrosion problem. Some metals,
especially those with significant contents of nickel and chromium, are included in the table in both their
active and passive conditions. Passivation, surface cleaning and sealing, lowers the metal’s electrical
potential and improves its corrosion behavior. As the series suggests, steel and aluminum are relatively
compatible, but if brass and steel contact, the steel, as the anode, will corrode. A chart is provided in the
appendix that may be used to aid with fastener selection based on galvanic reaction.
Figure 4 illustrates the effects of the galvanic series. A brass plate is connected to an aluminum
plate using a common carbon steel bolt. If no protection is used over the contacting surface, corrosion will
occur. The bolt will corrode where it touches the brass plate. The bolt will not begin to corrode where it
contacts the aluminum. The aluminum plate in contact with the bolt may begin to corrode slightly. The
aluminum plate will corrode where its exposed surface is in contact with the brass plate.

13
 Carbon Steel Bolt
Corrosion
Brass Plate

Corrosion Aluminum Plate

Slight Corrosion
Figure 4
Galvanic Corrosion Effects

Concentration-cell corrosion and pitting are similar types of corrosion in that only one metal and
an electrolyte are sufficient to set up an attack system. As corrosion progresses, a differential in
concentration of oxygen at the metal surface and in the electrolyte produces a highly effective localized
battery with resultant corrosion and metal attack.
Stress corrosion represents a particular condition where cracks are induced and propagated under
combined effects of stress and corrosion environments. It is said to be the least understood corrosion
related phenomenon, but by far the most dangerous. Structures or components with high stress
concentrations, such as threaded fasteners, are susceptible to this type of attack when under load. The
initial corrosion may occur at a point of high stress contributing to crack initiation, which can be either,
intergranular or transgranular. Continued exposure to the corrosion environment will propagate the
crack, resulting in serious, and possibly catastrophic failure.
Hydrogen embrittlement is associated with fasteners made of carbon and alloy steels. Atomic
hydrogen can be absorbed into the surface of the fastener during plating operations. If the fasteners are
not baked in a subsequent operation, hydrogen will remain trapped by the plating. When tension is
applied to the fastener, the hydrogen will tend to migrate to points of stress concentration. The pressure
created by the hydrogen creates and/or extends a crack. The crack grows under subsequent stress cycles
until the bolt breaks. This, however, is only one of several models of hydrogen embrittlement. The main
point is that all proposed mechanisms start with the absorption of hydrogen by the base metal during
plating.
Although hydrogen embrittlement was included with the discussion of corrosion, it is not a
corrosion failure. However, corrosion resistant bolts, like those plated, are the primary source for the
hydrogen embrittlement failures.
There are three main ways in which hydrogen embrittlement can be fought. The first is to use
the proper plating procedures and baking the fasteners correctly. A second way to avoid hydrogen
embrittlement is to use fastener coatings that do not involve electroplating. A third way is to use a softer
bolt material. As with stress corrosion, harder, stronger materials are more susceptible to failure than
weaker, softer ones. In general, if the hardness of the fastener is less than 35 HRC, you’ll probably
encounter little difficulty. If, however, the fastener has a hardness above 40 HRC, problems are more
likely to occur.
Stress corrosion, along with other material failure modes such as stress embrittlement and
hydrogen assisted stress corrosion, differ from hydrogen embrittlement because they are all related to the
service environment. These failures occur after installation due to hydrogen being introduced by a
chemical reaction induced by the service environment.
Although embrittlement is most commonly associated with carbon and low-alloy steels, it has
also been encountered in such materials as 7075 aluminum and in austenitic stainless steels. Because
embrittlement is often found in common strength grades, it can be difficult to find an acceptable substitute
to reduce the problem. Improved plating procedures or coatings, which eliminate electroplating
operations, are more popular solutions to the problem.

14
 Other corrosion systems can be equally severe. Common to all systems is that the corrosion is
encountered normally after the structure is put into service. Corrosion protection at design inception
should be a key objective of the joint design.
One of the first steps is to design or identify the specific anticipated corrosion exposure in order
to control or minimize its consequences in service. An attempt should be made to select fastener
materials, which are compatible with the structure being joined. One possible consideration is a protective
coating or finish for the fastener to provide protection. Supplemental coatings or finishes may provide
additional protection for the entire joint.

High Temperature Effects

Most fastener materials are temperature sensitive. This means that their properties are
influenced by a change in temperature. A metallic fastener’s strength properties decline with an elevation
in temperature. Once the temperature increases significantly, other problems also begin to occur. Some
of these problems include, but are not limited to, a breakdown in the coatings, high temperature corrosion,
differential thermal expansion coefficients between the fastener and the joint and creep and stress
relaxation.
The strength of most fasteners will decrease as temperatures rise. A chart is provided in the
appendix, which demonstrates the effect, that temperature has on the yield strength of some common
fastener material. The values listed only refer to non-plated (non-coated) fasteners. Any type of plating,
or coating will alter the results; for example, zinc plated fasteners are usually not recommended to be used
above a temperature of 250 degrees Fahrenheit.
One of the most celebrated examples of temperature effects on bolts is with Grade 8.2 bolts. At
room temperatures, Grade 8.2 and SAE J429 Grade 8 bolts have similar properties. But, Grade 8.2 bolts
are made of low carbon boron steel. The Grade 8 fastener is a medium carbon alloy steel. The boron steel
has a lower tempering temperature and is not intended for use in higher temperatures. The boron steel
fastener can lose as much as 75% of its prestress after just 80 hours of exposure as low as 800 degrees
Fahrenheit. The alloy steel fastener only loses about 45% when exposed to the same conditions.
Every bolting material has a temperature above which it would be unsafe to use. Often times this
is referred to as the fasteners high temperature service limit. Although we saw that the fastener loses
strength as the temperature increases, the service limit is usually determined by an occurrence known as
stress relaxation. A fastener is tightened in the joint. This action places the bolt under significant stress.
The length of the bolt does not increase. The joint and the nut will determine the length. Once exposed
to a higher temperature, the bolt begins to relieve itself of a significant amount of the stress. Since the
stress and the preload are related, this implies that the clamping force with which the bolt holds the joint
together will be significantly reduced.
One of the most troublesome temperature effects that must be taken into account when designing
a joint is differential thermal expansion or contraction between the bolt and joint members. As the
temperature rises, all bolt and joint materials expand, and not all at the same rate. As an example,
aluminum will expand about twice as much as some carbon steel fasteners. If using a SAE J429 Grade 8
fastener to clamp an aluminum joint, we would expect to see a significant increase in the tension of the
bolts which would increase the clamping force as the temperature increases. This reaction could damage
the joint or gasket material or even break the bolt. If we were using bolts that would expand more than
the joint, we could loose our preload and clamping force.
It should be recognized that differential expansion problems can occur even if the fastener and
the joint are made of the same material. If the bolt and the joint heat up at different rates, the
corresponding thermal expansion will also cause the bolt and the joint to expand differently.
There are various other temperature-related effects, which must be considered when designing a
bolted joint. Two of the more common occurrences that are very closely related are creep and stress
relaxation.
If a constant load is applied to a fastener and we raise the service temperature and the
temperature places the bolt in its “creep range,” the bolt will begin to stretch even if the load is well
within the fastener’s mechanical limits. Eventually, the bolt may stretch to a point where it may not be
able to support the load and will fail. Creep is defined as the slow increase in length of a material under a
constant, heavy load.

15
 Stress relaxation is very similar. However, we are now dealing with the steady loss of stress in a
loaded part with fixed dimensions. We place a significant amount of stress on a bolt when we tighten it in
the joint. The bolt does not increase in length. Its length is determined by the joint and the nut. If
exposed to a high temperature, the bolt begins to relieve itself of some of the stress and we can lose our
preload.
The behavior of the bolted joint will depend, to a large extent, on the clamping force on the joint
in service. This may be significantly different than the clamping force created during assembly. Thermal
effects can change the initial clamping force significantly. Therefore, these effects should be a real
consideration when originally designing the joint.
Usually we would like to employ the highest clamping force the parts can withstand. This may
compensate for some of the anticipated losses. There are, however, several limitations to the assembly
preload. Too much force on the joint may damage joint members and gaskets or encourage stress
cracking.
If more preload is not a possibility, other considerations may be made. You can alter the stiffness
ratios between the bolt and the joint. You may also look at using similar materials for bolt and joint
members.
Joint Design
Loads on bolted joints come in an array of types, which significantly vary their effects, on the
joint, not only in the way they are loaded, but also on how the joint responds to the load. Some of the
loads include tensile, shear and bending. The bolted joint takes its name from the external load as
illustrated in the following figures.
Tensile Loads
A tension joint, as illustrated in figure 5, sees loads that try to pull the joint apart. The forces on
the joint and the bolts are approximately parallel to the axes of the bolts. All tensile forces try to stretch
and/or separate the joint. The tension load, no matter how small, will add to the stress in the bolt and/or
partially relieve the joint.

Figure 5
Tension Joint

The bolts in a tension joint must act like clamps. The assembling and tightening of the bolt and
nut produces a tensile prestress in the fastener, which is approximately equal to the compressive stress
introduced in the joint material. The behavior and life of the joint depends on how tightly the bolts clamp
the joint and how long they can maintain their preload.
With a tension joint, the proper amount of tension in the bolts is vital. With too little clamping
force, the joint may loosen. Bolt fatigue may also be a problem associated with too little clamping force in
a tension joint. Too much clamping force can also cause severe problems. By over-tightening the bolt, we
may exceed the proofload of the bolt. Even if the bolt does not fail during assembly, it may later break
under the external tensile load. Over-tightening of the bolt can also encourage the advancement of
hydrogen embrittlement or stress corrosion cracking. The joint members can also be damaged or warp
from too much clamp force.
The clamping force created in the joint when the bolt is tightened stretches the bolt similar to a
spring. A similar analysis can be made for the joint, except it is compressed like a spring during
assembly. These springs act as energy storage devices. The clamping force will only remain as long as
the bolts are stretched. Any applied service load or condition, which relaxes the bolt or reduces the

16
clamping force, will release some of the spring’s energy. This will increase the chances that the joint may
loosen or that the bolts may fail.
There are a number of “real-life” factors, which may be impossible to predict, that allow the
spring energy to be lost in the assembled joint. These factors include, but are not limited to creep,
external loads, stress relaxation, temperature, differential thermal expansion, vibration and stress
relaxation.
The overriding fault with the tension joint is that it specifically relies on the unreliable bolt
tension or preload. If the clamping force is not correct, the joint can, and often does, fail in several ways;
either by bolt fatigue, vibration loosening, stress corrosion cracking or hydrogen embrittlement.

Shear Loads
A shear joint is one in which the applied loading is at right angles to the fastener axis or across
the bolt shank. Joint failure occurs when the joint members are slipped sideways past each other, and
eventually cut the fastener. Figure 6 shows a simple single shear joint.

Figure 6
Shear Joint

With a large majority of shear joints, the ultimate joint strength depends only upon the shear
strength of the bolts or the joint member. This type of joint is referred to as a “bearing type” joint. The
amount of tension created in the bolts during assembly is relatively unimportant as long as the fastener is
retained in the assembly. The joint member is allowed to slip until the fasteners come into “bearing” and
prevents further slip.
Other types of shear joints depend on their initial clamp load as a resistance to slip. This type of
joint requires that a frictional force be created between the joint members when the bolts are tightened.
This type of joint is common in the structural steel construction industry. Often times the “friction-type”
joint is referred to as a “slip critical” joint.
With the “friction-type” joint, a clean and flat surface is necessary for joint efficiency. Close
control must also be maintained on the design preload developed by the fastener. Unlike some tension
joints, most specifications for a shear friction joint will only specify a minimum bolt tension required.
There are few limits on maximum tension. The bolts, most commonly used, ASTM A325 and A490
structural bolts, are specifically designed for this type of application.
Bending Loads
Unfortunately, not all joints are always loaded in pure shear or pure tension. Some applications
subject the joint to a bending force, which results in a combined tension, and shear load acting
simultaneously on the fastener. With the use of a shear-tension load interaction curve, design limits can
be established for fasteners with known ultimate tensile and shear strengths. However, even with a valid
interaction curve for design support, extreme caution must be taken when working with a joint subjected
to bending.

Tension Control in Bolted Joints

Threaded fasteners can do a good job of holding things together only when they are properly
tightened. The fastener to ensure the proper performance of the joint must produce an appropriate
tension. To this day a simple, inexpensive, and effective way to determine if a fastener is properly
tightened has not been found. Through the years, satisfactory ways have been discovered, but they are

17
neither simple nor inexpensive. In most situations we rely on less-than-perfect, but adequate traditional
methods.
Were most joints not massively over-designed to accommodate inaccurate tightening, simple
tightening procedures could prove catastrophic. Designers will specify more or larger bolts than needed
in order to ensure that the joints are clamped together with the amount of force required. Fewer or
smaller fasteners can be used when accurate control of bolt tension or preload is assured during assembly.
For most applications the over-design of the joint has been far cheaper than controlling the assembly
process.
Current trends for most applications, however, no longer favor the use of over-design. Increasing
demands on cost, strength-to-weight ratios, product safety, product performance, and environmental
concerns have put pressure on designers, manufacturers and assemblers to do a better job with fewer,
lighter parts. This trend has lead to the discovery of more options in controlling design preload.
Whenever we tighten a bolt, a sequence of events takes place. By applying torque to the head, or
the nut, we turn the fastener being torqued. This action stretches the bolt (similar to a spring) and creates
a tension in the bolt. In most cases it is this tension or preload that we need to make a fastening. By
controlling torque, turn, or stretch, we can control the buildup of tension. The closer we approach direct
control of tension, the more accurate and expensive the method will be.
Some options for tension controls during assembly are: Torque Control, Torque and Turn
Control, Stretch Control, and Direct Tension Control. These methods vary substantially in cost and
accuracy.

Torque Control
One of the most common terms involving fastener installation is “torque.” Often a torque value
is specified for a given application, and with the use of a calibrated torque wrench, this torque value can
be obtained. What must be realized, however, is that this reading does not indicate the bolt tension
directly. Rather the torque reading is only an indirect indication of our desired tension.
A major question today is how much torque should be used to properly tighten a fastener. As
simple as this question may seem, the answer depends on a variety of factors. It is estimated that roughly
90% of the input energy is lost in overcoming the mating friction under the head and between the thread
or nut and its mating threads. Consequently only the remaining 10% of input energy is turned into bolt
stretch. Bear in mind that this is an oversimplification of what may actually happen, since no
consideration is given to the various forms of heat and strain energy introduced into the system.
In most situations there’s a relatively simple relationship between the torque applied to the bolt
or nut and the tension created in it. Usually this relationship is linear. For such cases, the following
equation is applicable:
Torque = K x d x F
where
K = Nut Factor (dimensionless)
d = Nominal Bolt Diameter (in., mm, etc.)
F = Bolt Tension (lbs., N)
F = 75% of bolt material proofload for standard bolts
F= 90% of bolt material proofload for special applications; such as structural bolts

Depending on inputs, the output torque will be given in inch-pounds, foot-pounds, or Newton-meters.
This equation implies a linear elastic zone of the torque verses angle-tightening curve. For most
of our common fastening material we know the engineering values of the first two variables. The problem
with this equation is with K. The K, or nut factor, not to be confused with the frictional coefficient, can
be thought of as a combination of three factors: K1, a geometric factor, K2, a thread friction related
factor, and K3, an underhead friction related factor. While there are published tables for K, these will
usually vary from publication to publication. For a more detailed analysis it is desirable and often
necessary to determine this value experimentally by using a specially designed torque-tension load cell.
No two bolts respond exactly the same to a given torque. There are numerous “real world”
complications. Things such things as dirt in a tapped hole, damaged threads, hole misalignment, and
numerous other factors can absorb a large amount of the input torque and will result in a substantial loss

18
in the preload which was determined. Some of the other common variables affecting the K factor may
include, but is not limited to:
• Hardness of all parts
• Types of materials
• Class of fit
• Plating, thickness and type
• Surface finishes on all parts
• Manufacturing processes, such as cut or rolled thread
• Washers, present or not
• Type of tool used for tightening
• Speed of tightening
• Which is torqued, the nut or the bolt
• The number of times the fastener was used
• The type, amount, condition, method of application, contamination, and temperature of any lubricant
used

This is by no means a definitive list, and although the amount of and extent to which these factors are
controlled is proportionate to the cost incurred, complete control would never be possible.
As you can see, each fastener, even from identical lots having relatively the same mechanical
properties, will give you different torque values for the same preload. The K value can be thought of as
summarization of anything and everything that effects the relationship between torque and preload.
There are tables available listing several recommended K factors for various conditions. These are
average values and are in no way precise. One should also note that these values should only be used
when applying the torque to the nut. The K values will change in relation to the length of the fastener if
the torque is being read from the head of the bolt. These average values should be used with extreme
caution since they are only recommended values. The following is a brief list of some roughly estimated
K factors. The list is intended to be used only as a suggestion and will actually vary per application.

K Factors
Bolt Condition K
Non-plated, black finish 0.30
Zinc-plated 0.20
Lubricated 0.15
Cadmium-plated 0.11 - 0.15

The torque wrench is a relatively inexpensive means of giving a rough estimate of the bolt’s
preload. For most practical applications, the torque wrench will provide the degree of accuracy desired.
However, even perfect input torque can give a variation of preload by as much as 25 - 30 %. The
following example will demonstrate some complications that can be involved in calculating torque.

19
Sample
Hex Cap Screw 1/2 - 13 zinc plated grade 5
Using Torque = K x d x F
K = .20
d = 0.50 in.
F = ( 75% of the proof load) = 0.75 x 85,000 psi x 0.1419 sq.in = 9045 lbs.
T = (0.20) (0.5 in.) (9045 lbs.)
T= 905 in.-lbs. = 75 ft.-lbs.

In the previous example, we considered K = 0.20. This is a common K factor for zinc plated
fasteners. We must now wonder what may have happened if the person installing the fastener would have
excessively lubricated the bolt and installed it with the same torque. In such conditions, K may drop to a
value of 0.10.
If T = K x d x F, then we can also determine the preload, F, in the same way.
F = T / (K x d)
F = 905 in.-lbs. / (0.10 x 0.50 in.) = 18,100 lbs.
The value obtained for our preload, 18,100 lbs., would exceed the tensile strength of a 1/2 - 13
grade 5 bolt. More than likely the bolt in question would have failed. The exact opposite may have also
happened. If, for instance, the threads of our fastener were not clean. This may cause K to increase to a
value of 0.30 or even higher. Using the same torque, as calculated, with K=0.30, the preload encountered
would equal 6050 lbs. Depending on the designer’s intention for the joint, this low of a preload may
result in a severe failure.
Another problem may arise with other fasteners. There are several materials commonly used in
the fastening industry for which we do not have the necessary information to determine a “torque” value.
These materials include stainless steels, brass, low carbon material--such as that used in the threaded rod--
and several other common materials. Some of these fasteners do have torque tables listing their torque
values, but there is no way to determine them accurately except through actual testing.
As a group of fasteners are tightened, those, which were tightened first, will tend to relax
slightly. This is due to the creep and flow of heavily loaded thread and joint contact surfaces. Still more
relaxation results from the elastic interactions between a group of bolts as they are tightened one-by-one.
The first bolts tightened partially pull the joint together. As we tighten the rest of the bolts the joint is
further compressed, and the previously tightened bolts tend to relax and lose some of their preload. In
some cases, this can virtually eliminate our bolt tension.
The main concern is to what extent must the fastener’s preload be known. Numerous methods
are available to the public which, directly or indirectly, measure preload. If bolt tension is desired with a
high degree of accuracy, the torque wrench is not the answer. The following, which will be discussed
later, are highly accurate and expensive answers:
• measuring the actual elongation of the bolt
• hydraulic tensioners
• strain gages
• ultrasonics

Torque and Turn Control

This method involves tightening the fastener to a low initial “snug tight” condition followed by a
prescribed amount of nut turning to develop the required preload. The actual preload will depend not only
on how far we turn the nut, but also on how much preload was established on the initial run-down, or
“snug tightness” of the fastener.
The most general model of torque-turn analysis of a fastener consists of four distinct zones. The
first, the run-down prevailing torque zone, is before the fastener head or nut contacts the bearing surface.
The second, the alignment or snugging zone, is the area in which the fastener and the joint mating
surfaces are drawn into alignment or a “snug” condition. The third is the elastic clamping range zone.
Through this region the slope of the torque-angle curve is constant. The fourth, the post-yield zone, is
where an inflection point begins.

20
 The amount of turn required for run-down, the amount of preload created during snugging, and
the bolt-to-joint stiffness ratios are all extremely difficult to predict or control. As a result, pure turn
control is nearly useless. But the fact remains that the increase in a previously snugged bolt is directly
proportional to the turn of the nut or head and is not affected by variations in friction. The combination of
torque and turn is more accurate than either system alone.
Torque is used to determine roughly the amount of preload developed in a fastener during the
snugging operation. The turn on the nut method is a more reliable measure of the further increase of
tension of a previously “snugged” bolt. Experiments must first be done on a sample joint to determine the
effect of turn on the joint and the fastener.
The torque and turn control method is more accurate than the torque alone method. The method,
however, can only be used on joints whose response during assembly has previously been determined.
The method is therefore more expensive. The method is also similar to the torque method in that it is also
blind to things like creep relaxation and interactions between bolts if not tightened simultaneously.
Accuracy is still affected by variables such as friction and stiffness ratios.

Stretch Control
When we apply torque to a bolt or nut, it turns, which stretches the bolt and creates a preload or
tension in our fastener. This tension creates the clamping force, which holds our joint together. If the
joint is considered to be critical, we will want to ensure that the proper amount of tension has been created
in our joint upon tightening of the bolt, and that the tension remains in our fastener even after tightening
of neighboring bolts and the relaxation of the fastener has occurred.
We can consider the bolt to be a stiff spring. As with a spring, an equation can be used to
determine the change in length. The exact specifics of this analysis are far too extensive to be covered
now. One of the major advantages to this method is that the bolt lubricity or bolt-to-joint stiffness ratios
have no effect on our calculations. Also, we can use the stretch control method to measure the bolt
tension well after the tightening process is complete.
At first glance it may appear that we have found a practical means of determining preload. But
there are several factors, which complicate this method.
When we think of the bolt as a complex spring, the unthreaded body of the bolt is a relatively stiff
spring and the threaded portion of the bolt can be considered to be a less stiff spring. When we load a
bolt, the threaded portion of the bolt will tend to stretch more than the unthreaded shank of the bolt.
Threads within the nut, or within a tapped hole, will also stretch less. The amount of engaged and
unengaged thread stretch is directly affected by the fastener diameter. As can be seen, calculations must
be made using exact lengths of both the unthreaded portion of the bolt and the remaining length of the
unengaged threaded portion of the bolt and also the diameter of the bolt.
To further complicate the idea, most authorities say that the head of a bolt also stretches slightly
as we tighten a bolt. The head is considered to stretch about half as much as the same amount of body
would stretch.
In order to use stretch control to estimate the tension in a bolt you must initially determine the
amount of stretch each separate portion of the bolt contributes to the total stretch. You must also take into
account the fact that the tension and stretch in the bolt head and the nut are not uniform throughout, but
rather fall off from a maximum value at the joint surface to zero (no tension) at the outer ends of the
fastener.
Other factors affect the relationship between stretch and tension in any given bolt. The basic
elasticity of the bolt material may even vary from lot to lot of bolts. There are also variations in grip
lengths and dimensional tolerances which must be closely observed. The temperature of the bolt must be
measured for precise tension determination.
A micrometer is the simplest tool used to measure bolt stretch. This tool can be used only if there
is access to both ends of the bolt before and after installation. Also, since both ends will probably not be
parallel, several measurements, at different points around the circumference, must be made and the
average taken for the final measurement. Often, a small steel ball is embedded in each end of the fastener
and is used for the measurement point.

21
 The point to remember with the use of the stretch control method is that it is a very precise tool
available for evaluating bolt tension. We are trying to measure a change in the length of the bolt of only a
few thousandths of an inch. Tremendous skill will be required to determine the exact length dimensions.

Direct Tension Control

The previously mentioned methods tried to control the tightening process through torque, turn,
and stretch. With each method, errors and uncertainties were discovered. Although some methods have
proven to be more precise than others, none of them are able to control the tension developed in the
fastener directly. However, the following methods will give us the tension developed directly in our
fastener.

Washer Control
The least expensive and simplest tension control systems use direct tension indicating (DTI)
washers. Several different types of DTI washers are available. The most common type of washer involves
the use of “bumps” on one side of the washer. These “bumps” are flattened plastically as the fastener is
tightened. A feeler gage is used to measure the gap developed by bumps. When the fastener has
developed the appropriate tension, the feeler gage will no longer fit in the gap.
One thing to remember when using the DTI, or similar washers, is that they only can indicate the
minimum tension required to close the gap. Added tension may be created in the bolts, but the washer
would not be able to tell us how much. It should be also noted that this type of system can not monitor or
show us the amount of bolt relaxation. Since the bumps on the washer deform plastically, they will not
return to their original dimensions after relaxation.
A different kind of washer, the Belleville, involves a spring-like action. A stack of these washers
are placed under the head or the nut. As the fastener is tightened, the height of the Belleville is reduced.
The washers deform elastically, so they will continue to push upwards on the head or nut. Unless the
washers are completely flattened, the clamping force developed in the joint can be determined.

Alternative Design Bolts

The alternative design bolts incorporate a design feature, which is intended to indirectly indicate
tension. The most common type of this bolt is the “twist-off bolt.” An assembly tool holds this bolt from
the nut end. An inner spindle on the tool grips a spline section connected to the main portion of the bolt.
An outer spindle on the tool turns the nut and tightens the fastener. When the design torque has been
reached, the reaction forces on the spline snap it off.
This type of torque control system allows for a quick reference for inspecting if the fastener had
been installed with a minimum amount of torque. The amount of tension actually developed in each
fastener is not directly determined. There are other types of fasteners, some of highly elaborate designs,
which work in a similar fashion.

Hydraulic Tensioners
A hydraulic tensioner is sometimes used to tighten large diameter bolts. An upper collar is
threaded down onto the exposed section of thread above the nut. Hydraulic pressure is then used to pull
upward on the bolt. The nut is then run down, freely, against the upper surface of the joint. When the
hydraulic pressure is relieved, the nut continues to hold the majority of the tension developed.

Ultrasonics
An ultrasonic instrument can be used to measure bolt preload or tension. This instrument sends
a brief burst of ultrasound through a bolt and measures the response time required for the sound to echo
off the end and return to the transducer. As mentioned previously, the bolt will stretch as it is tightened.
This increases the time required for the signal. Elaborate computer equipment, grip length, bolt material,
and thread run-out lengths are needed to measure the change in transmittal time to determine bolt tension.
This equipment has been available for many years, but due to the cost and quantity of components needed,
is used in only a few applications.

22
 The Reuse of Fasteners
In a previous section, we discussed the proof load and yield point of the fasteners. It was stated
that the proof load represents the usable strength range of the fastener. By definition, the proof load is an
applied tensile load the fastener can support without permanent deformation. The bolt will return to its
original shape once the load is removed. The bolt may be reused provided you are absolutely certain the
bolt never exceeded this point and began to yield. A simple enough definition, but one that requires an
extensive explanation.
As the fastened joint is put into use, it will encounter all types of various loads, including tension
loads, shear loads, cyclic loads, prying loads and loads which may be a combination of these and other
possibilities. Things like pressure changes in a pipeline, vibration from an engine or an impact of a
hydraulic ram, may produce these loads. These external loads add to or subtract from the initial load of
the fastener and in extreme cases may yield the fastener.
Heat will lower the yield value of the fastener. The yield strengths are determined at room
temperature. Look at the effects the heat has on some of the materials listed on page iv in the Appendix.
ASTM A193 B7 has a yield strength of 75-105 ksi (75 ksi for sizes over 4 inches in diameter and 105 ksi
for material in diameters up to 2-1/2 inches) at 70 degrees, and drops to approximately 53-74 ksi at
approximately 800 degrees. So, if we install a B7 fastener at room temperature expecting each fastener to
support a tensile load of 85 ksi, which would not yield the fastener of diameters 2-1/2 inches and smaller.
Now, if we were to introduce heat into our fastener application, the fastener would begin to yield at much
lower load. As the chart shows, this fastener, even at 600 degrees, would yield at 85 ksi.
Was the fastener installed properly? This is one of the most difficult questions to answer (please
refer to the section titled Tension Control in a Bolted Joint, starting on page 16). This section discussed
the difficulty of analyzing proper installation procedures. Extreme caution should always be used when
relying on torque from a formula to indicate the tension induced. Torque is only an indirect indication of
tension. Improper installation may yield the fastener.
One important factor to remember; typically you will not know whether or not the fastener has
been yielded. Especially in critical situations, you should never reuse a fastener unless you are certain the
fastener has never been yielded.

Structural Bolts
If you were to look at the mechanical requirements listed in the appendix, you may notice that a
SAE J429 Grade 5, ASTM A449 and ASTM A325 appear to be identical, and so does the SAE J429
Grade 8 and ASTM A490. While mechanically they appear to be similar, there are three significant
differences between the specifications. First, ASTM A325 and A490 bolts are produced with a heavy hex
head dimension. Second, the A325 and A490 grip length is designed to be greater than your standard hex
bolt or hex cap screw. Third, the SAE J429 Grade 5 and 8, and ASTM A449 fasteners are not produced
to the same inspection and quality assurance program as the ASTM A325 or A490.
ASTM A325 bolts are available in diameters from ½ to 1-1/2 inch diameters (for diameters
greater than 1-1/2, ASTM A449 specifications should be examined) with a minimum tensile strength of
120,000 psi for diameters one inch and less and 105,000 psi for sizes over one inch to 1-1/2, and in two
types. Type 1 is a medium carbon steel and can be galvanized Type 3 is a weathering steel that offers
atmospheric corrosion resistance similar to that of ASTM A242 or A588 steels.
ASTM A490 bolts are available in diameters from ½ to 1-1/2 inch diameters with a minimum
tensile strength of 150,000 psi for all diameters, and in two types. Type 1 is alloy steel. Type 3 is
weathering steel that offers atmospheric corrosion resistance similar to that of ASTM A242 or A588
steels. ASTM A490 bolts should not be galvanized.
Structural bolts are specifically designed to be used with nuts for the connection of structural
members. The grip length of structural bolts is longer than standard hex bolts. This allows the threads to
be eliminated from the shear plane for certain connections. Oftentimes, specifications indicate the
structural bolt with an X or an N designation. The X indicates that the threads are excluded from the
shear plane. The N indicates that the threads may be included in the shear plane. The shear strength of
bolts with the threads included in the shear plane is significantly less than threads excluded.
The washers used for structural connections shall meet ASTM F436 specifications. This
specification covers both flat circular and beveled washers. The nuts for structural connections shall

23
conform to ASTM A563 or ASTM A194. A chart is provided in the appendix to select the proper grade
nut that must be used.
According to the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), for structural applications,
there are generally three types of connections that the bolt is used; snug tightened bearing, fully-tensioned
bearing and slip critical connections. In accordance with the AISC, bolts used in fully tensioned bearing
or slip-critical connections are required to be installed to within 70% of the minimum tensile strength of
the bolt.
There are four methods of installation procedures recognized by the AISC to achieve the tension
required for the fully tensioned bearing or the slip critical connection; (1) turn-of-nut method (2)
alternative design bolt method (tension control bolts) (3) direct tension indicating method (DTI) (4)
calibrated wrench method. It is not valid to use published values based on a torque tension relationship.
In other words, YOU CAN NOT USE TORQUE FROM A FORMULA. The calibrated wrench method is
only valid if installation procedures are calibrated on a daily basis by tightening three representative
fastener assemblies for each lot diameter, length and grade with nuts from each lot, diameter and grade
and with a hardened washer from the washers being used placed under the element being turned in
tightening in a device (Skidmore-Wilhelm) capable of measuring actual bolt tension.

Standards
The expansion of global trade and the increasing rapid development of technology in many
sectors have and will continue to present major underlying hazards in today’s market. Now more than
ever, there is a need for standards and standardization. By definition, standards are documented
agreements containing technical specifications or other precise criteria to be used consistently as rules,
guidelines or definitions of characteristics to ensure that material, products, processes and services are fit
for their purpose. There are several distinct international and regional standard organizations. The
following will give a brief description of some the larger organizations:

ISO (The International Organization for Standardization)

ISO is a specialized “multinational and multicultural international organization with some 120-
member countries governed by consensus and spanning the breadth of global technology.” The object of
ISO is to promote the development of standardization and related activities throughout the world. ISO
brings together the interests of users (including consumers), producers, governments and the scientific
community in the formation of international standards covering everything from screw threads to surgical
implants.
ISO publishes standards through members from some 120 countries and more than 800 standards
developing committees and subcommittees supported by another 2000 or so working groups. Under the
overall coordination of the Technical Management Board, management responsibility for development
and maintenance of each ISO standard is first delegated to the main technical committee level and then
further to the subcommittees and the working groups.

DIN (German Engineering Society or Deutsches Institut fur Normung)

DIN is a registered association with its main office in Berlin. It is not a government agency.
DIN serves as the round table around which gather representatives for the manufacturing industries,
consumer industries, consumer organizations, commerce, service industries, science or anyone with an
interest in standardization in order to determine the state of the art and to record it in the form of German
standards. DIN standards are technical rules that promote rationalization, quality assurance, safety and
environmental protection as well as improving communication between industry, technology, science,
government and the public. In DIN, some 40,500 external experts serving as voluntary delegates in some
4400 committees carry out standards work. Published standards are reviewed for continuing relevance at
least every five years.
Traditionally, DIN has been the strongest standard for metric products throughout the world.
Countries without their own metric standards base have usually referred to DIN in technical
documentation and most European countries have also used DIN as the base for their own national
standards.

24
ANSI (American National Standard Institute)
Founded in 1918, ANSI has served in its capacity as administrator and coordinator of the United
States private sector voluntary standardization system. ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards
internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards
organizations and encourages the adoption of internal standards as national standards where these meet
the needs of the user community. ANSI does not itself develop American National Standards; rather it
facilitates development by establishing consensus among the ANSI member associations such as ASTM,
SAE, ASME, etc.

ASTM (The American Society for Testing and Materials)

ASTM is a scientific and technical organization formed for “the development of standards on
characteristics and performance of materials, products, systems, and services; and the promotion of related
knowledge.” Through technical committees, ASTM publishes standard test methods, specifications,
practices, guides, classifications and terminology. ASTM standards cover metals, paints, plastics, textiles,
petroleum, construction, the environment, medical services, electronics, fasteners and many other areas.

ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers)

Founded in 1880, ASME is an organization working to develop codes and standards for the
engineering profession, the public, industry and government. Currently, there are more than 600
standards published by ASME on topics such as screw threads, valves, flow measurement and much more.

The Metric System

Throughout history, people have been trying to limit the number of measurement systems.
Today, only two systems, inch-pound and metric, are used predominately in most industrial nations.
Except for the United States, Liberia and Myanmar (formally known as Burma), all countries in the world
are using metric for all their national standards. As with any system, the metric system has also been
changing and several modifications have been devised to match the progress of technology.
Today, all nations, including the U.S., have been unifying on one version of metric, known as the
International System of Units, or SI. Currently, the U.S. is using both SI and inch-pound standards. Most
countries, previously on the inch-pound system, are using SI in new standards and are limiting the use of
inch-pound products to maintenance parts for older machinery and equipment. Many U.S. industries,
such as the automotive and agricultural industries, have implemented the metric system into their
operations.

Thread
The metric screw thread is identified by the capital letter M, followed by the nominal diameter.
The distance between threads (pitch) in millimeters measures threads on metric threaded fasteners.
Threads on a standard (inch based) fastener are measured by counting the number per inch.

Thread Tolerance
The tolerance system for threads is composed of a number followed by a letter. Numbers indicate
the range of tolerance. Capital letters indicate internal (nut) thread tolerance. Small case letters indicate
external (bolt) thread tolerance. The 6g-thread tolerance is comparable to a 2A Unified thread tolerance.
The 6g tolerance allows room for plating. The 6h tolerance is comparable with the 3A Unified thread
tolerance. The 6H tolerance is comparable to a 2B Unified thread tolerance.
Other available thread tolerances:
6e: Used for parts requiring more room for plating.
8g: Used for semi-finished bolts.
5g6g: Used for class 12.9 socket head cap screws (class 8.8 and stainless steel socket head cap screws
have 6g tolerance).
4g6g: Used for all socket products regardless of strength class and material. ANSI has specified this
tolerance for all socket products.

Charts providing some of the common metric fastener specifications are provided in the appendix.

25
26
 Appendix
Table of Contents
Subject Page #
Mechanical Specifications for Externally Threaded Fasteners i
Grade Identification Markings for Carbon Steel Nuts ii
Nut Compatibility iii
Mechanical Properties of Common Stainless Steel Fasteners iv
Alloy and Stainless Steel for Use in High Temperature Service iv
Material Yield Strengths for Various Temperatures iv
Torque/Tension Relationships v
Tensile Stress Areas vi
U.S. / Metric Conversions vi
Torque/Tension Relationships for Metric Fasteners vii
Metric Mechanical Specifications vii
Mechanical Properties of Metric Nuts viii
ISO 3506 Stainless Steel Fasteners viii
Galvanic Series Fastener Selection Chart ix
Forged Eye Bolts x
Specifications
Hex Bolts xi
Hex Cap Screws xi
Heavy Hex Bolts and Heavy Hex Screws xii
Hex Lag Screws xiii
Round Head Square Neck Bolts xiii
Hex Nuts, Hex Jam Nuts, Heavy Hex Nuts and Heavy Hex Jam Nuts xiv
Plain Low Carbon Washers xv
Structural Bolting xvi
Socket Head Cap Screws xvii
Metric Hex Cap Screws xviii
Metric Socket Head Cap Screws xvii
Metric Hex Nuts xix
Metric Washers xix
Other Screws
Self-Drilling Screws xx
Types of Screw Points xxi
Hole Sizes for Various Screw Points xxii

Disclaimer: The material provided in this guide is advisory only and use is completely voluntary. Fastenal strives
to present the information in an accurate manner, but we do not guarantee its completeness or validity. This
information is subject to change at any time, without notice. Fastenal makes no representations or warranties,
express or implied, in connection with the information. Any use or application of this information will be at the
users sole risk and responsibility. Fastenal will not be responsible for any loss, claims or damages arising out of the
use or application of this information, regardless of whether the same may be known or foreseeable.

25
Mechanical Specifications for Externally Threaded Fasteners with Grade Markings
Specification Material Size Min. Proof Min. Tensile Core Hardness Min. Yield Grade
Range Strength Strength Rockwell Strength Identification
(in.) (psi) (psi) Min. Max. (psi) Marking
SAE J429-Grade 1 Low or medium 1/4 - 1 1/2 33,000 60,000 B70 B100 36,000
carbon
SAE J429-Grade 2 steel 1/4 - 3/4 55,000 74,000 B80 B100 57,000
7/8 - 1 1/2 33,000 60,000 B70 B100 36,000
ASTM A307-Grade A Low or medium 1/4 - 4 60,000 B69 B100
carbon See Note 1

steel

ASTM A307-Grade B Low or medium 1/4 - 4 60,000(min) B69 B95

carbon 100,000(max) See Note 1

steel

SAE J429-Grade 5 Medium carbon 1/4 - 1 85,000 120,000 C25 C34 92,000
ASTM A449-Type1 steel: quenched 1 1/8 - 1 1/2 74,000 105,000 C19 C30 81,000
ASTM A449-Type 1 & tempered 1 3/4 - 3 55,000 90,000 58,000
See Note 2

ASTM A325-Type 1 Medium carbon 1/2 - 1" 85,000 120,000 C25 C34 92,000
steel: quenched 1 1/8 - 1 1/2 74,000 105,000 C19 C30 81,000
& tempered See Note 3
See Note 5

ASTM A354 Medium carbon 1/4 - 2 1/2 105,000 125,000 C26 C36 109,000
Grade BC alloy steel: 2 1/2 - 4 95,000 115,000 C22 C33 99,000
quenched & See Note 2

tempered
ASTM A354 Medium carbon 1/4 - 2 1/2 120,000 150,000 C33 C39 130,000
Grade BD alloy steel: 2 1/2 - 4 105,000 140,000 C31 C39 115,000
quenched & See Note 2

tempered See Note 4

SAE J429-Grade 8 Medium carbon 1/4 - 1 1/2 120,000 150,000 C33 C39 130,000
alloy steel:
quenched &
tempered
SAE J429-Grade 8.2 Low carbon 1/4 - 1 120,000 150,000 C33 C39 130,000
boron steel:
quenched &
tempered
ASTM A490-Type 1 Medium carbon 1/2 - 1 1/2 120,000 150,000(min) C33 C38 130,000
alloy steel: 170,000(max) See Note 3

quenched &
tempered
ASTM A574 Low alloy steel: #0 - 1/2 140,000 180,000 C39 C45 162,000
Socket Head quenched & over 1/2 - 2 135,000 170,000 C37 C45 153,000
Cap Screw tempered

Note 1: No minimum hardness is required on bolts and studs 3 x diameter and longer.
Note 2: Bolts less than 3 diameter in length and studs less than 4 diameter in length shall have hardness values not less than minimum and
not more than maximum. This hardness testing is the only mechanical testing requirement for these bolts and studs.
Note 3: Bolts less than 3 x diameter are subject only to maximum/minimum hardness testing.
Note 4: ASTM A354-Grade BD with diameters ¼” thru 2 ½” shall be marked with six radial lines and, in addition may be marked with
the grade symbol “BD.” BD shall be marked on bolts over 2 ½” in diameter.
Note 5: Bolts shall be marked “A325.” Additionally, the bolts may be marked with 3 radial 120 degrees apart (as shown).

i
Material Specification
Specification Material Tensile Min. Yield
Strength Strength
(psi) (psi)
ASTM A36 Carbon 58,000 (min.) 36,000
Structural 80,000 (max.)
Steel

Grade Identification Markings for Carbon Steel Nuts

Specification Material Nominal Size Proof Load Stress Hardness Grade
(in.) (psi) Rockwell Identification
Plain Zinc Coated min. max. Marking
ASTM A563 - Grade 0 Carbon Steel 1/4 - 1 1/2 69,000 (1) 52,000 (1) B55 C32
ASTM A563 - Grade A Carbon Steel 1/4 - 1 1/2 90,000 (1) 68,000 (1) B68 C32
ASTM A563 - Grade A Carbon Steel 1/4 - 4 100,000 (1) 75,000 (1) B68 C32
Heavy-Hex 90,000 (2) 68,000 (2)
ASTM A563 - Grade C Carbon Steel, 1/4 - 4 144,000 B78 C38
Heavy-Hex may be quenched
& tempered

ASTM A563 - Grade DH Carbon Steel, 1/4 - 4 175,000 150,000 C24 C38
Heavy-Hex quenched &
tempered

ASTM A194 - Grade 2H Medium 1/4 - 1-1/2 175,000 See Note (3) C24 C38
Heavy-Hex carbon over 1-1/2 C38
steel

SAE J995 - Grade 5 Medium carbon 1/4 - 1 120,000 (1) C32

steel, quenched 109,000 (2)
& tempered over 1 - 1 1/2 105,000 (1) C32
94,000 (2)
SAE J995 - Grade 8 Medium carbon 1/4 - 5/8 150,000 C24 C32
alloy steel, over 5/8 - 1 C26 C34
quenched & over 1 - 1-1/2 C26 C36
tempered
(1) UNC & 8 UN
(2) UNF 12 UN & Finer
(3) When a zinc coated A194 2H nut is supplied, the zinc coating, overtapping, lubrication and rotational capacity
testing shall be in accordance with ASTM A563 and the proof stress reduced accordingly.

ii
Typically, the bolt specification dictates which nuts are compatible for use.
However, when in doubt, the #1 Rule for Nut Selection: Always select a nut
whose minimum proof strength is greater than or equal to the bolts minimum
ultimate tensile capacity. The following charts are some examples of compatible nut
and bolt combinations.

SAE J429 Bolt and Nut Compatibility

Bolt Grade Recommended Nut Grade (1) Suitable Substitution (2)
SAE J-429 Grade 2 Low Carbon Regular or Heavy Hex Nut SAE J995 Grade 5 or Grade 8 Hex Nut
SAE J-429 Grade 5 SAE J995 Grade 5 Hex Nut SAE J995 Grade 8 Hex Nut
SAE J-429 Grade 8 SAE J995 Grade 8 Hex Nut
(1) “Recommended” denotes a commercially available nut having the most suitable mechanical properties that will
make it possible to obtain the desired bolt load.
(2) “Suitable” denotes SAE J995 nuts having mechanical properties that will also make it possible to obtain the
desired bolt load.

ASTM Bolt and ASTM A563 Nut Compatibility

(ASTM A194 2H Compatibility shown for A325 & A490 Bolts)
Grade Surface Nominal ASTM A563 Grade and ANSI Style Nut ( C )
of Finish ( B ) Size Recommended ( D ) Suitable Substitution ( E )
Bolt ( A ) (in.) Hex Heavy Hex Hex Thick
ASTM A307 Plain & 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade A Hex Nut B,D,DH A,B,C,D,DH,DH3 A,B,D,DH
Grade A Zinc Coated over 1-1/2 to 2 Grade A Heavy Hex Nut C,D,DH,DH3
Over 2 to 4 Grade A Heavy Hex Nut C,D,DH,DH3
ASTM A307 Plain & 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade A Heavy Hex Nut B,D,DH B,C,D,DH,DH3 A,B,D,DH
Grade B Zinc Coated over 1-1/2 to 2 Grade A Heavy Hex Nut C,D,DH,DH3
Over 2 to 4 Grade A Heavy Hex Nut C,D,DH,DH3
ASTM A449 Plain 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade B Hex Nut D,DH B,C,C3,D,DH,DH3 B,D,DH
Types 1 & 2 Over 1-1/2 to 3 Grade A Heavy Hex Nut C,C3,D,DH,DH3
Zinc Coated 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut D,DH D D,DH
Over 1-1/2 to 3 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut D
ASTM A325 Plain 1/2 to 1-1/2 Grade C Heavy Hex Nut C3,D,DH,DH3
ASTM A194 2H, plain
Zinc Coated 1/2 to 1-1/2 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut ASTM A194 2H, zinc coated
ASTM A354 Plain 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade C Heavy Hex Nut D,DH C3,D,DH,DH3 D,DH
Grade BC Over 1-1/2 to 4 Grade C Heavy Hex Nut C3,D,DH,DH3
Zinc Coated 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut DH
Over 1-1/2 to 4 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut
ASTM A354 Plain 1/4 to 1-1/2 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut DH D,DH,DH3 D,DH
Grade BD Over 1-1/2 to 3 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut DH3
ASTM A490 Plain 1/2 to 1-1/2 Grade DH Heavy Hex Nut DH3
ASTM A194 2H, plain
(A) “Bolt” includes all externally threaded types of fasteners.
(B) Zinc coated nuts are nuts intended for use with externally threaded fasteners which are hot-dip zinc-coated,
mechanically zinc-coated or have a plating or coating of sufficient thickness to require overtapping the nut to
provide assembly. Non-zinc plated nuts are nuts intended for use with externally threaded fasteners which have
a plain finish or have a plating or coating of insufficient thickness to require overtapping the nut thread to
provide assembly.
(C) The availability of DH nuts in nominal sizes ¾” and larger is limited. In most instances ASTM A194 Grade 2H
nuts may be considered.
(D) “Recommended” denotes a commercially available nut having the most suitable mechanical properties and
dimensional configuration, or style, that will make it possible to obtain the desired bolt load.

iii
(E) “Suitable” denotes nuts having mechanical properties that will make it possible to obtain the desired bolt load,
but require consideration of dimensional configuration, or style, suitability and availability.
Mechanical Properties of Common Stainless Steel Fasteners in Accordance with ASTM F593
Stainless Condition Nominal Tensile Core Hardness Min. Yield Grade
Alloy Group Dia. Strength Rockwell Strength Identification
(in.) (psi) Min. Max. (psi) Marking
1 CW 1/4 - 5/8 100,000 - B95 C32 65,000
(303, 304, 150,000
304L, 305,
384, XM1,
XM7, CW 3/4 - 1 1/2 85,000 - B80 C32 45,000
303Se) 140,000

2 CW 1/4 - 5/8 100,000 - B95 C32 65,000

(316, 150,000
316L)

CW 3/4 - 1 1/2 85,000 - B80 C32 45,000

140,000

CW: Headed and rolled from annealed or solution-annealed stock

Alloy-Steel and Stainless Steel for use in High Temperature Service

Specification Material Nominal Tensile Rockwell Yield Grade
Dia. Strength Hardness Strength Identification
(in.) min. (psi) (Max.) min. (psi) Marking
ASTM A193 Chromium-Molybdenum up to 2 1/2 125,000 C35 105,000
Grade B7 (AISI 4140,4142, over 2 1/2 - 4 115,000 C33 95,000
4145,4140H,4142H, over 4 - 7 100,000 C29 75,000
4145H)
ASTM A193 AISI 304 1/4 & 75,000 B96 30,000
Grade B8 larger
Class 1

ASTM A193 AISI 316 1/4 & 75,000 B96 30,000

Grade B8M larger
Class 1

Typical Material Yield Strengths at Various Temperatures (should only be used as a general guide)
Yield Strength (ksi) vs. Temperature
o
Temperature F
Specification Grade 70 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1800
ASTM A193 B7 75-105 65-92 60-85 53-74
B8-Class 1 30 21 18 17
B16 85-105 79-98 75-93 67-83
ASTM A307 Grade B 36 31 27
ASTM A325 Type 1 81 70
ASTM A354 BC 94-109 87-96 81-89
BD 125 110 102
Stainless 310 40-80 27 24 22
Steels 17-4PH 128-185 119-168 115-156
Other A286 95-119 88-90
High Hasteloy-X 52 21
Performance H-11 215 141

iv
Material Inconel 600 37 17
Inconel 718 260 138
Caution: All torque values included in these charts are for advisory only, and its use by anyone is entirely
voluntary. Reliance on the contents for any purpose by anyone is at sole risk of that person and Fastenal is
not responsible for any loss, claim or damages arising therefrom. In developing this information, Fastenal
has made a determined effort to present its contents accurately. Extreme caution should always be used
when using a formula for torque-tension relationships. Torque is only an indirect indication of
tension.

Torque-Tension Relationships for SAE J429 Grade Bolts

Nominal SAE J429 Grade 2 SAE J429 Grade 5 SAE J429 Grade 8
Thread Clamp Tightening Torque Clamp Tightening Torque Clamp Tightening Torque
Size Load (lbs) K = .15 K = .20 Load (lbs) K = .15 K = .20 Load (lbs) K = .15 K = .20
Unified Coarse Thread Series
1/4-20 1,300 49 in-lbs 65 in-lbs 2,000 75 in-lbs 100 in-lbs 2,850 107 in-lbs 143 in-lbs
5/16-18 2,150 101 134 3,350 157 210 4700 220 305
3/8-16 3,200 15 ft-lbs 20 ft-lbs 4,950 23 ft-lbs 31 ft-lbs 6,950 32.5 ft-lbs 44 ft-lbs
7/16-14 4,400 24 30 6,800 37 50 9,600 53 70
1/2-13 5,850 36.5 49 9,050 57 75 12,800 80 107
9/16-12 7,500 53 70 11,600 82 109 16,400 115 154
5/8-11 9,300 73 97 14,500 113 151 20,300 159 211
3/4-10 13,800 129 173 21,300 200 266 30,100 282 376
7/8-9 11,425 125 166 29,435 321 430 41,550 454 606
1-8 15,000 187.5 250 38,600 482.5 640 54,540 680 900
Unified Fine Thread Series
1/4-28 1,500 55 in-lbs 75 in-lbs 2,300 85 in-lbs 115 in-lbs 3,250 120 in-lbs 163 in-lbs
5/16-24 2,400 112 150 3,700 173 230 5,200 245 325
3/8-24 3,600 17 ft-lbs 22.5 ft-lbs 5,600 26 ft-lbs 35 ft-lbs 7,900 37 ft-lbs 50 ft-lbs
7/16-20 4,900 27 36 7,550 42 55 10,700 59 78
1/2-20 6,600 41 55 10,200 64 85 14,400 90 120
9/16-18 8,400 59 79 13,000 92 122 18,300 129 172
5/8-18 10,600 83 110 16,300 128 170 23,000 180 240
3/4-16 15,400 144 193 23,800 223 298 33,600 315 420
7/8-14 12,610 138 184 32,480 355 473 45,855 500 668
1-12 16,410 205 273 42,270 528 704 59,670 745 995
Clamp load estimated as 75% of proof load for specified bolts.
Torque values for ¼ and 5/16 inch series are in inch-pounds. All other torque values are in foot-pounds.
Torque values calculated from formula T = KDF
where: K=0.15 for “lubricated” conditions
K=0.20 for “dry” conditions

Torque-Tension Relationships for Cadmium Plated Prevailing Torque Lock Nuts

Locknut Steel Hex Locknut Steel Hex Flange Locknut
Size Grade C Locknut Grade F Locknut Grade G Locknut
Clamp Tightening Clamp Tightening Clamp Tightening
Load Torque Load Torque Load Torque
(lbs) Max. Min. (lbs) Max. Min. (lbs) Max. Min.
Unified Coarse Thread Series
1/4 - 20 2850 125 in-lbs 85 in-lbs 2000 95 in-lbs 65 in-lbs 2850 150 in-lbs 100 in-lbs
5/16 - 18 4700 19 130 3350 180 120 4700 240 155
3/8 - 16 6950 28 ft-lbs 20 ft-lbs 4950 26 ft-lbs 16 ft-lbs 6950 32 ft-lbs 21 ft-lbs
7/16 - 14 9600 43 31 6800 42 28 9600 51 34
1/2 - 13 12,800 62.5 45 9050 57 38 12,800 85 55
9/16 - 12 16,400 95 70 11,600 85 55 16,400 120 80
5/8 - 11 20,300 122.5 90 14,500 112 75 20,300 143 95
3/4 - 10 30,100 210 155 21,300 195 135 30,100 240 160
7/8 - 9 41,600 312.5 225
1-8 54,600 462.5 360
Clamp loads for Grades C and G nuts equal 75% of the proof loads specified for SAE J429 Grade 8.
Clamp loads for Grade F nuts equal 75% of the proof load specified for SAE J429 Grade 5.
Torque values for ¼ and 5/16 inch series are in inch-pounds. All other torque values are in foot-pounds.

v
vi
Unified National Thread Tensile Stress Area (As)
Coarse Thread 8 Thread Series Fine Thread
Nom Thread Tensile Thread Tensile Thread Tensile
Dia. Pitch Stress Area Pitch Stress Area Pitch Stress Area The tensile stress area is calculated as
(in.) (tpi) sq in. (tpi) sq in. (tpi) sq in follows:
1/4 20 0.0318 28 0.0364
5/16 18 0.0524 24 0.0580 2
3/8
7/16
16
14
0.0775
0.1063
24
20
0.0878
0.1187
As = 0.7854 [D - (0.9743/n)]
1/2 13 0.1419 20 0.1599
9/16 12 0.1820 18 0.2030 where
5/8 11 0.2260 18 0.2560
3/4 10 0.3340 16 0.3730 As = stress area (in sq.)
7/8 9 0.4620 14 0.5090
1 8 0.6060 8 0.6060 12 UNF 0.6630 D = nominal bolt size (in.)
1 14 UNS 0.6800
1 1/8 7 0.7630 8 0.7905 12 0.8560 n = threads per inch
1 1/4 7 0.9690 8 0.9997 12 1.0730
1 3/8 6 1.1550 8 1.2335 12 1.3150
1 1/2 6 1.4050 8 1.4918 12 1.5810

Metric (SI) System Thread Tensile Stress Area (As)

Coarse Thread Fine Thread
Nom Thread Tensile Thread Tensile The tensile stress area is calculated as
Dia. Pitch Stress Area Pitch Stress Area
(mm) (mm) (mm sq.) (mm) (mm sq.) follows:
3 0.5 5.03
3.5 0.6 6.78
2
4
5
0.7
0.8
8.78
14.2
As = 0.7854 [D - (0.9743P)]
6
7
1
1
20.1
28.9
where
8
10
1.25
1.5
36.6
58.0
1
1.25
39.2
61.2
As = stress area (mm sq.)
12
14
1.75
2
84.3
115
1.25
1.5
92.1
125
D = nominal bolt size (mm)
16 2 157 1.5 167
18 2.5 192 1.5 216 P = thread pitch (mm)
20 2.5 245 1.5 272
22 2.5 303 1.5 333
24 3 353 2 384
27 3 459 2 496
30 3.5 561 2 621
33 3.5 694 2 761
36 4 817 3 865
39 4 976 3 1030

U.S./Metric Conversion Equivalents

Quantity To Into Multiply To Into Multiply
Convert By Convert By
Length inch (in.) millimeter(mm) 25.4 mm inch 0.03937
feet (ft) millimeter(mm) 304.8 mm feet 0.00328
Area square inch (sq.in) square millimeter 645.16 sq. mm sq. in. 0.00155
(sq. mm)
Volume gallon liter 3.785 liter gal 0.2642
cubic inch cubic centimeter 16.3871
cubic foot cubic meter 0.0283
Force pound (lb.) Newton(N) 4.448 N lb. 0.2248
Pressure pound/sq.in(psi) Pascal(Pa) 6895 MPa psi 145.1
Mega Pascal(MPa) 0.006895
Torque inch pound(in-lb) Newton meter(N m) 0.113 Nm in-lb 8.851
foot pound(ft-lb) Newton meter(N m) 1.356 Nm ft-lb 0.738

2
Other common conversions: 1N = 1 kg m/s
2
1Pa = 1N/m
2
1MPa = 1N/mm
Example: to convert length to mm, multiply inches by 25.4

vii
Caution: All torque values included in these charts are for advisory only, and its use by anyone is entirely
voluntary. Reliance on the contents for any purpose by anyone is at sole risk of that person and Fastenal is
not responsible for any loss, claim or damages arising therefrom. In developing this information, Fastenal
has made a determined effort to present its contents accurately. Extreme caution should always be used
when using a formula for torque-tension relationships. Torque is only an indirect indication of
tension.

Torque-Tension Relationships For Metric Fasteners

Class 4.6 Class 8.8 Class 10.9 Class 12.9
Dia. Clamp Tightening Clamp Tightening Clamp Tightening Clamp Tightening
(mm) Load Torque (N-m) Load Torque (N-m) Load Torque (N-m) Load Torque (N-m)
(N) K=.15 k=.20 (N) K=.15 k=.20 (N) K=.15 k=.20 (N) K=.15 K=.20
3 3660 1.65 2.20
3.5 4932 2.59 3.45
4 6387 3.83 5.11
5 2396 1.80 2.40 6177 4.63 6.18 8840 6.63 8.84 10330 7.75 10.3
6 3392 3.05 4.07 8743 7.87 10.5 12512 11.3 15.0 14623 13.2 17.6
7 4877 5.12 6.83 12570 13.2 17.6 17990 18.9 25.2 21025 22.1 29.4
8 6176 7.41 9.88 15921 19.1 25.5 22784 27.3 36.5 26626 32.0 42.6
10 9787 14.7 19.6 25230 37.8 50.5 36105 54.1 72.2 42195 63.3 84.4
12 14225 25.6 34.1 36670 66.0 88.0 52475 94.5 125 61328 110 147
14 19406 40.8 54.3 50025 105 140 71587 150 200 83663 175 234
16 26495 63.6 84.8 70650 170 226 97732 235 313 114218 274 365
18 32400 87.5 117 86400 233 311 119520 323 430 139680 377 503
20 41345 124 165 110250 330 441 152513 458 610 178238 535 713
22 51130 169 225 136350 450 600 188618 622 830 220433 727 970
24 59570 214 285 158850 570 762 219743 791 1055 256808 925 1233
27 77456 314 418 206550 837 1115 285728 1157 1543 333923 1352 1803
30 94669 426 568 252450 1136 1515 349223 1572 2095 408128 1837 2450
33 117113 580 773 312300 1546 2061 432015 2138 2851 504885 2500 3332
36 137870 745 993 367650 1985 2647 508582 2746 3662 594368 3210 4279
Clamp load estimated as 75% of proof load for specified bolts.
Torque values are listed in Newton-meters.
Torque values calculated from formula T = KDF
where: K=0.15 for “lubricated” conditions
K=0.20 for “dry” conditions

Metric Mechanical Specifications with Grade Markings

Metric Material Size Min. Proof Min. Tensile Core Hardness Min. Yield Grade
Property Range Strength Strength Rockwell Strength Identification
Class MPa MPa Min. Max. MPa Marking
4.6 Low or medium M5 - M39 225 400 B67 B99.5 240
carbon steel

8.8 Medium carbon M5 - M16 580 800 C22 C32 640

steel: quenched M18 - M39 600 830 C23 C34 660
& tempered

10.9 Low carbon M5 - M39 830 1040 C32 C39 940

alloy steel:
quenched &
tempered
12.9 Alloy steel: M1.6 - M39 970 1220 C39 C44 1100
quenched &
tempered

viii
Mechanical Properties of Metric Nuts
Standard & Material Nominal Proof Grade
Class Size Stress
2
Identification
(mm) N/mm Marking
ISO 898/2 - Class 8 Medium carbon up to 4 800
steel, quenched over 4 to 7 810
& tempered over 7 to 10 830
over 10 to 16 840
over 16 to 39 920
ISO 898/2 - Class 10 Low carbon up to 10 1040
alloy steel, over 10 to 16 1050
quenched over 16 to 39 1060
& tempered

ISO 898/2 - Class 12 Alloy steel, up to 7 1150

quenched & over 7 to 10 1160
tempered over 10 to 16 1190
over 16 to 39 1200

ISO 3506 Corrosion-Resistant Stainless Steel Fasteners

Example of Head Marking

Mechanical Properties of Metric Stainless Steel Fasteners

Bolts, Screws & Studs Nuts
Tensile Stress at 0.2% Proof Load
Group Grade Property Diameter Strength Permanent Stress
Class Range N/mm2 Strain N/mm 2 N/mm 2
Austenitic A1, A2 & A4 50 (soft) <M39 500 210 500
70 (cold-worked) <M20 700 450 700
80 (high strength) <M20 800 600 800
Martensitic C1 50 (soft) 500 250 500
70 (hardened & tempered) 700 410 700
C3 80 (hardened &tempered) 800 640 800
C4 50 (soft) 500 250 500
70 (hardened & tempered) 700 410 700
Ferritic F1 45 (soft) <M24 450 250 450
60 (cold-worked) <M24 600 410 600

ix
The following chart is designed to aid with the selection of fasteners based on galvanic action. For
a detailed explanation see pages 11 and 12.

Fastener material selection based on the Galvanic Series of Metals

Fastener Zinc & Aluminum Steel & Brasses, Martensitic Austenitic
Metal Galvanized & Cast Iron Copper, Stainless Type Stainless
Steel Aluminum Bronzes & 410 Type
Base Alloys Monel 302/304,
Metal 303, 305
Zinc & 1 2 2 3 3 3
Galvanized
Steel
Aluminum 1 1 2 3 Never 2
& Recommended
Aluminum
Alloys
Steel & 1,4 1 1 3 3 2
Cast Iron
Terne 1,4,5 1,5 1,5 3 3 2
(lead-tin)
Plated Steel
Sheets
Brasses, 1,4,5 1,5 1,5 1 1 2
Copper,
Bronzes &
Monel
Ferritic 1,4,5 1,5 1,5 1 1 1
Stainless
Steel
(type 430)
austenitic 1,4,5 1,5 1,5 1,5 1 1
Stainless
Steel (type
302/304)
Key:
1. The corrosion of the base metal is not increased by the fastener.
2. The corrosion of the base metal is marginally increased by the fastener.
3. The corrosion of the base metal may be considerably increased by the fastener material.
4. The plating on the fastener is rapidly consumed, leaving the bare fastener metal.
5. The corrosion of the fastener is increased by the base metal.
NOTE: Surface treatment and environment can significantly alter activity.

x
Forged Eyebolts Lifting Eye Capacities
Nominal Size Working Load Limit (lbs)
0 deg.
(in.) 0 degrees 45 degrees
(shoulder pattern)
45 deg. ¼ 500 125
Not
5/16 900 225
Recommended 3/8 1300 325
over 45 deg.
7/16 1800 450
½ 2400 600
9/16 3200 800
5/8 4000 1000
¾ 5000 1250
7/8 7000 1750
1 9000 2250
1-1/8 12,000 3000
1-1/4 15,000 3750
1-1/2 21,000 5250
2 38,000 9500

0
• Capacities shown are for carbon steel ASTM A489 eyebolts, at temperatures between 30 F and 275 0
F.
0
Carbon steel is subject to shock loading at temperatures below 30 F and loses strength at temperatures
above 2750 F.
• Shoulder lifting eyes must be properly seated against mating surface for full working capacity. A
steel washer or spacer may be required for proper seating.
• The minimum thread engagement should be 1-1/2 times the thread diameter in steel.
• Loads must always be applied in the plane of the eye, not at an angle to this plane (see diagram
below).

Load Application • For vertical lifts, plain pattern and shoulder

pattern eyebolts are theoretically equal.
However, a plain pattern eye bolt should
never be used for angular lifting.
• Lifting eyes should never be used if there is
any visible signs of wear or damage.

xi
Side Profile of Eye Bolt

xii
Specifications
Hex Bolts

Dimensions of Hex Bolts

E F G H R LT
Thread Length
Max. For Bolt Lengths
Nominal Body Width Across Width Across Height Radius of 6 in. & Over
Size Dia. Flats (in.) Corners (in.) (in.) Fillet (in.) Shorter 6 in.
(in.) (in.) Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. (basic) (basic)
1/4 0.260 7/16 0.438 0.425 0.505 0.484 0.188 0.150 0.03 0.01 0.750 1.000
5/16 0.324 1/2 0.500 0.484 0.577 0.552 0.235 0.195 0.03 0.01 0.875 1.125
3/8 0.388 9/16 0.562 0.544 0.650 0.620 0.268 0.226 0.03 0.01 1.000 1.250
7/16 0.452 5/8 0.625 0.603 0.722 0.687 0.316 0.272 0.03 0.01 1.125 1.375
1/2 0.515 3/4 0.750 0.725 0.866 0.826 0.364 0.302 0.03 0.01 1.250 1.500
5/8 0.642 15/16 0.938 0.906 1.083 1.033 0.444 0.378 0.06 0.02 1.500 1.750
3/4 0.768 1 1/8 1.125 1.088 1.299 1.240 0.524 0.455 0.06 0.02 1.750 2.000
7/8 0.895 1 5/16 1.312 1.269 1.516 1.447 0.604 0.531 0.06 0.02 2.000 2.250
1 1.022 1 1/2 1.500 1.450 1.732 1.653 0.700 0.591 0.09 0.03 2.250 2.500
1 1/8 1.149 1 11/16 1.688 1.631 1.949 1.859 0.780 0.658 0.09 0.03 2.500 2.750
1 1/4 1.277 1 7/8 1.875 1.812 2.165 2.066 0.876 0.749 0.09 0.03 2.750 3.000
1 3/8 1.404 2 1/16 2.062 1.994 2.382 2.273 0.940 0.810 0.09 0.03 3.000 3.250
1 1/2 1.531 2 1/4 2.250 2.175 2.598 2.480 1.036 0.902 0.09 0.03 3.250 3.500
1 3/4 1.785 2 5/8 2.625 2.538 3.031 2.893 1.196 1.054 0.12 0.04 3.750 4.000
2 2.039 3 3.000 2.900 3.464 3.306 1.388 1.175 0.12 0.04 4.250 4.500
2 1/4 2.305 3 3/8 3.375 3.262 3.897 3.719 1.548 1.327 0.19 0.06 4.750 5.000
2 1/2 2.559 3 3/4 3.750 3.625 4.330 4.133 1.708 1.479 0.19 0.06 5.250 5.500
2 3/4 2.827 4 1/8 4.125 3.988 4.763 4.546 1.869 1.632 0.19 0.06 5.750 6.000
3 3.081 4 1/2 4.500 4.350 5.196 4.959 2.060 1.815 0.19 0.06 6.250 6.500
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.1, 1981

Hex Cap Screws

Dimensions of Hex Cap Screws

Nominal E F G H J LT Y Runout
Size or Body Dia. Width Across Width Across Wrench- Thread Length Transition Of
Basic Flats Corners ing For Screw Lengths Thread Bearing
Product Height Height 6 in. & Over Length Surface
Dia. (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) Shorter 6 in. (in.) FIM (in.)
(in.) Max. Min. Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Min. (basic) (basic) Max. Max.
1/4 0.2500 0.2450 7/16 0.438 0.428 0.505 0.488 0.163 0.150 0.106 0.750 1.000 0.250 0.010
5/16 0.3125 0.3065 1/2 0.500 0.489 0.577 0.557 0.211 0.195 0.140 0.875 1.125 0.278 0.011
3/8 0.3750 0.3690 9/16 0.562 0.551 0.650 0.628 0.243 0.226 0.160 1.000 1.250 0.312 0.012
7/16 0.4375 0.4305 5/8 0.625 0.612 0.722 0.698 0.291 0.272 0.195 1.125 1.375 0.357 0.013
1/2 0.5000 0.4930 3/4 0.750 0.736 0.866 0.840 0.323 0.302 0.215 1.250 1.500 0.385 0.014
9/16 0.5625 0.5545 13/16 0.812 0.798 0.938 0.910 0.371 0.348 0.250 1.375 1.625 0.417 0.015
5/8 0.6250 0.6170 15/16 0.938 0.922 1.083 1.051 0.403 0.378 0.269 1.500 1.750 0.455 0.017
3/4 0.7500 0.7410 1 1/8 1.125 1.100 1.299 1.254 0.483 0.455 0.324 1.750 2.000 0.500 0.020
7/8 0.8750 0.8660 1 5/16 1.312 1.285 1.516 1.465 0.563 0.531 0.378 2.000 2.250 0.556 0.023
1 1.0000 0.9900 1 1/2 1.500 1.469 1.732 1.675 0.627 0.591 0.416 2.250 2.500 0.625 0.026
1 1/8 1.1250 1.1140 1 11/16 1.688 1.631 1.949 1.859 0.718 0.658 0.461 2.500 2.750 0.714 0.029
1 1/4 1.2500 1.2390 1 7/8 1.875 1.812 2.165 2.066 0.813 0.749 0.530 2.750 3.000 0.714 0.033
1 3/8 1.3750 1.3630 2 1/16 2.062 1.994 2.382 2.273 0.878 0.810 0.569 3.000 3.250 0.833 0.036
1 1/2 1.5000 1.4880 2 1/4 2.250 2.175 2.598 2.480 0.974 0.902 0.640 3.250 3.500 0.833 0.039
1 3/4 1.7500 1.7380 2 5/8 2.625 2.538 3.031 2.893 1.134 1.054 0.748 3.750 4.000 1.000 0.046
2 2.0000 1.9880 3 3.000 2.900 3.464 3.306 1.263 1.175 0.825 4.250 4.500 1.111 0.052
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.1, 1981

xiii
 Heavy Hex Bolts

Dimensions of Heavy Hex Bolts

E F G H R LT
Thread Length
Max. For Bolt Lengths
Nominal Body Width Across Width Across Height Radius of 6 in. & Over
Size Dia. Flats (in.) Corners (in.) (in.) Fillet (in.) Shorter 6 in.
(in.) (in.) Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. (basic) (basic)
1/2 0.515 7/8 0.875 0.850 1.010 0.969 0.364 0.302 0.03 0.01 1.250 1.500
5/8 0.642 1 1/16 1.062 1.031 1.227 1.175 0.444 0.378 0.06 0.02 1.500 1.750
3/4 0.768 1 1/4 1.250 1.212 1.443 1.383 0.524 0.455 0.06 0.02 1.750 2.000
7/8 0.895 1 7/16 1.438 1.394 1.660 1.589 0.604 0.531 0.06 0.02 2.000 2.250
1 1.022 1 5/8 1.625 1.575 1.876 1.796 0.700 0.591 0.09 0.03 2.250 2.500
1 1/8 1.149 1 13/16 1.812 1.756 2.093 2.002 0.780 0.658 0.09 0.03 2.500 2.750
1 1/4 1.277 2 2.000 1.938 2.390 2.209 0.876 0.749 0.09 0.03 2.750 3.000
1 3/8 1.404 2 3/16 2.188 2.119 2.526 2.416 0.940 0.810 0.09 0.03 3.000 3.250
1 1/2 1.531 2 3/8 2.375 2.300 2.742 2.622 1.036 0.902 0.09 0.03 3.250 3.500
1 3/4 1.785 2 3/4 2.750 2.662 3.175 3.035 1.196 1.054 0.12 0.04 3.750 4.000
2 2.039 3 1/8 3.125 3.025 3.608 3.449 1.388 1.175 0.12 0.04 4.250 4.500
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.1, 1981
Heavy Hex Screws

Dimensions of Heavy Hex Screws

Nominal E F G H J LT Y Runout
Size or Width Wrench- Thread Length Transition of
Basic Across ing For Screw Lengths Thread Bearing
Product Body Dia. Width Across Corners Height Height 6 in. & Over Length Surface
Dia. (in.) Flats (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.) Shorter 6 in. (in.) FIM (in.)
(in.) Max. Min. Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Min. (basic) (basic) Max. Max.
1/2 0.5000 0.482 7/8 0.875 0.850 1.010 0.969 0.323 0.302 0.215 1.250 1.500 0.385 0.016
5/8 0.6250 0.605 1 1/16 1.062 1.031 1.227 1.175 0.403 0.378 0.269 1.500 1.750 0.455 0.019
3/4 0.7500 0.729 1 1/4 1.250 1.212 1.443 1.383 0.483 0.455 0.324 1.750 2.000 0.500 0.022
7/8 0.8750 0.852 1 7/16 1.438 1.394 1.660 1.589 0.563 0.531 0.378 2.000 2.250 0.556 0.025
1 1.0000 0.976 1 5/8 1.625 1.575 1.876 1.796 0.627 0.591 0.416 2.250 2.500 0.625 0.028
1 1/8 1.1250 1.098 1 13/16 1.812 1.756 2.093 2.002 0.718 0.658 0.461 2.500 2.750 0.714 0.032
1 1/4 1.2500 1.223 2 2.000 1.938 2.309 2.209 0.813 0.749 0.530 2.750 3.000 0.714 0.035
1 3/8 1.3750 1.345 2 3/16 2.188 2.119 2.526 2.416 0.878 0.810 0.569 3.000 3.250 0.833 0.038
1 1/2 1.5000 1.470 2 3/8 2.375 2.300 2.742 2.622 0.974 0.902 0.640 3.250 3.500 0.833 0.041
1 3/4 1.7500 1.716 2 3/4 2.750 2.662 3.175 3.035 1.134 1.054 0.748 3.750 4.000 1.000 0.048
2 2.0000 1.964 3 1/8 3.125 3.025 3.608 3.449 1.263 1.175 0.825 4.250 4.500 1.111 0.055
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.1, 1981

xiv
 Hex Lag Screw

Dimensions of Hex Lag Screws

Nominal Size Threads E F G H S
per Body or Width Width Shoulder
Inch Shoulder Across Flats Across Head Height Length
Dia. Corners
Max Min Basic Max Min Max Min Basic Max Min Min
1/4 0.2500 10 0.260 0.237 7/16 0.438 0.425 0.505 0.484 11/64 0.188 0.150 0.094
5/16 0.3125 9 0.324 0.298 1/2 0.500 0.484 0.577 0.552 7/32 0.195 0.195 0.125
3/8 0.3750 7 0.388 0.360 9/16 0.562 0.544 0.650 0.620 1/4 0.226 0.226 0.125
7/16 0.4375 7 0.452 0.421 5/8 0.625 0.603 0.722 0.687 19/64 0.272 0.272 0.156
1/2 0.5000 6 0.515 0.482 3/4 0.750 0.725 0.866 0.826 11/32 0.302 0.302 0.156
5/8 0.6250 5 0.642 0.605 15/16 0.938 0.906 1.083 1.033 27/64 0.378 0.378 0.312
3/4 0.7500 4 1/2 0.768 0.729 1 1/8 1.125 1.088 1.299 1.240 1/2 0.455 0.455 0.375
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.1, 1981

Round Head Square Neck Bolts(Carriage Bolts)

Dimensions of Round Head Square Neck Bolts

Nominal E A H O P
Size Body Dia. Head Dia. Head Height Square Width Square Depth
Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min Max Min
No. 10 0.1900 0.199 0.182 0.469 0.438 0.114 0.094 0.199 0.185 0.125 0.094
1/4 0.2500 0.260 0.237 0.594 0.563 0.145 0.125 0.260 0.245 0.156 0.125
5/16 0.3125 0.324 0.298 0.719 0.688 0.176 0.156 0.324 0.307 0.187 0.156
3/8 0.3750 0.388 0.360 0.844 0.782 0.208 0.188 0.388 0.368 0.219 0.188
7/16 0.4375 0.452 0.421 0.969 0.907 0.239 0.219 0.452 0.431 0.250 0.219
1/2 0.5000 0.515 0.483 1.094 1.032 0.270 0.250 0.515 0.492 0.281 0.250
5/8 0.6250 0.642 0.605 1.344 1.219 0.344 0.313 0.642 0.616 0.344 0.313
3/4 0.7500 0.768 0.729 1.594 1.469 0.406 0.375 0.768 0.741 0.406 0.375
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.5, 1978

xv
 Hex Nuts and Hex Jam Nuts

Dimensions of Hex Nuts and Hex Jam Nuts

Nominal F G H H1
Size or Width Across Width Across Thickness Thickness
Basic Major Flats Corners Hex Nuts Hex Jam Nuts
Dia. of (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
Thread (in.) Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
1/4 7/16 0.438 0.428 0.505 0.488 0.226 0.212 0.163 0.150
5/16 1/2 0.500 0.489 0.577 0.557 0.273 0.258 0.195 0.180
3/8 9/16 0.562 0.551 0.650 0.628 0.337 0.320 0.227 0.210
7/16 11/16 0.688 0.675 0.794 0.768 0.385 0.365 0.260 0.240
1/2 3/4 0.750 0.736 0.866 0.840 0.448 0.427 0.323 0.302
9/16 7/8 0.875 0.861 1.010 0.982 0.496 0.473 0.324 0.301
5/8 15/16 0.938 0.922 1.083 1.051 0.559 0.535 0.387 0.363
3/4 1 1/8 1.125 1.088 1.299 1.240 0.665 0.617 0.446 0.398
7/8 1 5/16 1.312 1.269 1.516 1.447 0.776 0.724 0.510 0.458
1 1 1/2 1.500 1.450 1.732 1.653 0.887 0.831 0.575 0.519
1 1/8 1 11/16 1.688 1.631 1.949 1.859 0.999 0.939 0.639 0.579
1 1/4 1 7/8 1.875 1.812 2.165 2.066 1.094 1.030 0.751 0.687
1 3/8 2 1/16 2.062 1.994 2.382 2.273 1.206 1.138 0.815 0.747
1 1/2 2 1/4 2.250 2.175 2.598 2.480 1.317 1.245 0.880 0.808
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.2, 1981
Heavy Hex Nuts and Heavy Hex Jam Nuts

Dimensions of Heavy Hex Nuts and Heavy Hex Jam Nuts

Nominal F G H H1
Size or Width Across Width Across Thickness Thickness
Basic Major Flats Corners Heavy Hex Nuts Heavy Hex Jam Nuts
Dia. of (in.) (in.) (in.) (in.)
Thread (in.) Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min.
1/4 1/2 0.500 0.488 0.577 0.556 0.250 0.218 0.188 0.156
5/16 9/16 0.562 0.546 0.650 0.622 0.314 0.280 0.220 0.186
3/8 11/16 0.688 0.669 0.794 0.763 0.377 0.341 0.252 0.216
7/16 3/4 0.750 0.728 0.866 0.830 0.441 0.403 0.285 0.247
1/2 7/8 0.875 0.850 1.010 0.969 0.504 0.464 0.317 0.277
9/16 15/16 0.938 0.909 1.083 1.037 0.568 0.526 0.349 0.307
5/8 1 1/16 1.062 1.031 1.227 1.175 0.631 0.587 0.381 0.337
3/4 1 1/4 1.250 1.212 1.443 1.382 0.758 0.710 0.446 0.398
7/8 1 7/16 1.438 1.394 1.660 1.589 0.885 0.833 0.510 0.458
1 1 5/8 1.625 1.575 1.876 1.796 1.012 0.956 0.575 0.519
1 1/8 1 13/16 1.812 1.756 2.093 2.002 1.139 1.079 0.639 0.579
1 1/4 2 2.000 1.938 2.309 2.209 1.251 1.187 0.751 0.687
1 3/8 2 3/16 2.188 2.119 2.526 2.416 1.378 1.310 0.815 0.747
1 1/2 2 3/8 2.375 2.300 2.742 2.622 1.505 1.433 0.880 0.808
1 5/8 2 9/16 2.562 2.481 2.959 2.828 1.632 1.556 0.944 0.868
1 3/4 2 3/4 2.750 2.662 3.175 3.035 1.759 1.679 1.009 0.929
1 7/8 2 15/16 2.938 2.844 3.392 3.242 1.886 1.802 1.073 0.989
2 3 1/8 3.125 3.025 3.608 3.449 2.013 1.925 1.138 1.050
2 1/4 3 1/2 3.500 3.388 4.041 3.862 2.251 2.155 1.251 1.155
2 1/2 3 7/8 3.875 3.750 4.474 4.275 2.505 2.401 1.505 1.401
2 3/4 4 1/4 4.250 4.112 4.907 4.688 2.759 2.647 1.634 1.522
3 4 5/8 4.625 4.475 5.340 5.102 3.013 2.893 1.763 1.643

xvi
Source ANSI/ASME B18.2.2, 1986

xvii
 Plain Low Carbon Washer Dimensions
Nominal Style ( A ) Inside Diameter ( B ) Outside Diameter ( C ) Thickness
Washer Tolerance Tolerance
Size Basic Plus Minus Basic Plus Minus Basic Max. Min.
1/4 SAE 0.281 0.015 0.005 0.625 0.015 0.005 0.065 0.080 0.051
1/4 USS 0.321 0.015 0.005 0.734 0.015 0.007 0.065 0.080 0.051
5/16 SAE 0.344 0.015 0.005 0.688 0.015 0.007 0.065 0.080 0.051
5/16 USS 0.375 0.015 0.005 0.875 0.030 0.007 0.083 0.104 0.064
3/8 SAE 0.406 0.015 0.005 0.812 0.015 0.007 0.065 0.080 0.051
3/8 USS 0.438 0.015 0.005 1.000 0.030 0.007 0.083 0.104 0.064
7/16 SAE 0.469 0.015 0.005 0.922 0.015 0.007 0.065 0.080 0.051
7/16 USS 0.500 0.015 0.005 1.250 0.030 0.007 0.083 0.104 0.064
1/2 SAE 0.531 0.015 0.005 1.062 0.030 0.007 0.095 0.121 0.074
1/2 USS 0.562 0.015 0.005 1.375 0.030 0.007 0.109 0.132 0.086
9/16 SAE 0.594 0.015 0.005 1.156 0.030 0.007 0.095 0.121 0.074
9/16 USS 0.625 0.015 0.005 1.469 0.030 0.007 0.109 0.132 0.086
5/8 SAE 0.656 0.030 0.007 1.312 0.030 0.007 0.095 0.121 0.074
5/8 USS 0.688 0.030 0.007 1.750 0.030 0.007 0.134 0.160 0.108
3/4 SAE 0.812 0.030 0.007 1.469 0.030 0.007 0.134 0.160 0.108
3/4 USS 0.812 0.030 0.007 2.000 0.030 0.007 0.148 0.177 0.122
7/8 SAE 0.938 0.030 0.007 1.750 0.030 0.007 0.134 0.160 0.108
7/8 USS 0.938 0.030 0.007 2.250 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 SAE 1.062 0.030 0.007 2.000 0.030 0.007 0.134 0.160 0.108
1 USS 1.062 0.030 0.007 2.500 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 1/8 SAE 1.250 0.030 0.007 2.250 0.030 0.007 0.134 0.160 0.108
1 1/8 USS 1.250 0.030 0.007 2.750 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 1/4 SAE 1.375 0.030 0.007 2.500 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 1/4 USS 1.375 0.030 0.007 3.000 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 3/8 SAE 1.500 0.030 0.007 2.750 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 3/8 USS 1.500 0.045 0.010 3.250 0.045 0.010 0.180 0.213 0.153
1 1/2 SAE 1.625 0.030 0.007 3.000 0.030 0.007 0.165 0.192 0.136
1 1/2 USS 1.625 0.045 0.010 3.500 0.045 0.010 0.180 0.213 0.153
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.22.1, 1965 (R1981)

xviii
 Structural Bolting

Dimensions of Heavy Hex Structural Bolts

F G H LT
Nominal Body Dia. Width Across Width Across Height Thread
Size & (in.) Flats (in.) Corners (in.) (in.) Length
Threads/in. Max. Min. Basic Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Basic
1/2 - 13 0.515 0.482 7/8 0.875 0.850 1.010 0.969 0.323 0.302 1.00
5/8 - 11 0.642 0.605 1 1/16 1.062 1.031 1.227 1.175 0.403 0.378 1.25
3/4 - 10 0.768 0.729 1 1/4 1.250 1.212 1.443 1.383 0.483 0.455 1.38
7/8 - 9 0.895 0.852 1 7/16 1.438 1.394 1.660 1.589 0.563 0.531 1.50
1-8 1.022 0.976 1 5/8 1.625 1.575 1.876 1.796 0.627 0.591 1.75
1 1/8 - 7 1.149 1.098 1 13/16 1.812 1.756 2.093 2.002 0.718 0.658 2.00
1 1/4 - 7 1.277 1.223 2 2.000 1.938 2.309 2.209 0.813 0.749 2.00
1 3/8 - 6 1.404 1.345 2 3/16 2.188 2.119 2.526 2.416 0.878 0.810 2.25
1 1/2 - 6 1.531 1.470 2 3/8 2.375 2.300 2.742 2.622 0.974 0.902 2.25
Source: ANSI/ASME B18.2.1

Washers for High Strength Structural Bolts

Flat Circular Washers Beveled Washers
Nominal A B C A1 T
Washer Inside Outside Thickness Side Mean
Size Dia. Dia. (in.) Dimension Thickness
(bolt dia.) Nom Nom Max. Min. Nom Nom
1/2 0.531 1.062 0.177 0.097 1.750 0.312
5/8 0.688 1.312 0.177 0.122 1.750 0.312
3/4 0.812 1.469 0.177 0.122 1.750 0.312
7/8 0.938 1.750 0.177 0.136 1.750 0.312
1 1.125 2.000 0.177 0.136 1.750 0.312
1 1/8 1.250 2.250 0.177 0.136 2.250 0.312
1 1/4 1.375 2.500 0.177 0.136 2.250 0.312
1 3/8 1.500 2.750 0.177 0.136 2.250 0.312
1 1/2 1.625 3.000 0.177 0.136 2.250 0.312

xix
 Socket Head Cap Screws

Dimensions of Hexagon and Spline Socket Head Cap Screws (1960 Series)
Nominal D A H S M J T G K
Size Head Spline Hexagon Key Wall Chamfer
or Basic Body Dia. Head Dia. Head Height Side Socket Socket Engage- Thick- or
Screw Dia. (in.) (in.) (in.) Height Size Size ment ness Radius
(in.) Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Min. Nom (in.) Min. Min. Max.
0 0.0600 0.0568 0.096 0.091 0.600 0.057 0.054 0.060 0.025 0.020 0.003
1 0.0730 0.0695 0.118 0.112 0.073 0.070 0.066 0.072 1/16 0.031 0.025 0.003
2 0.0860 0.0822 0.140 0.134 0.086 0.083 0.077 0.096 5/64 0.038 0.029 0.003
3 0.0990 0.0949 0.161 0.154 0.099 0.095 0.089 0.096 5/64 0.044 0.034 0.003
4 0.1120 0.1075 0.183 0.176 0.112 0.108 0.101 0.111 3/32 0.051 0.038 0.005
5 0.1250 0.1202 0.205 0.198 0.125 0.121 0.112 0.111 3/32 0.057 0.043 0.005
6 0.1380 0.1329 0.226 0.218 0.138 0.134 0.124 0.133 7/64 0.064 0.047 0.005
8 0.1640 0.1585 0.270 0.262 0.164 0.159 0.148 0.168 9/64 0.077 0.056 0.005
10 0.1900 0.1840 0.312 0.303 0.190 0.185 0.171 0.183 5/32 0.090 0.065 0.005
1/4 0.2500 0.2435 0.375 0.365 0.250 0.244 0.225 0.216 3/16 0.120 0.095 0.008
5/16 0.3125 0.3053 0.469 0.457 0.312 0.306 0.281 0.291 1/4 0.151 0.119 0.008
3/8 0.3750 0.3678 0.562 0.550 0.375 0.368 0.337 0.372 5/16 0.182 0.143 0.008
7/16 0.4375 0.4294 0.656 0.642 0.438 0.430 0.394 0.454 3/8 0.213 0.166 0.010
1/2 0.5000 0.4919 0.750 0.735 0.500 0.492 0.450 0.454 3/8 0.245 0.190 0.010
5/8 0.6250 0.6163 0.938 0.921 0.625 0.616 0.562 0.595 1/2 0.307 0.238 0.010
3/4 0.7500 0.7406 1.125 1.107 0.750 0.740 0.675 0.620 5/8 0.370 0.285 0.010
7/8 0.8750 0.8647 1.312 1.293 0.875 0.864 0.787 0.698 3/4 0.432 0.333 0.015
1 1.0000 0.9886 1.500 1.479 1.000 0.988 0.900 0.790 3/4 0.495 0.380 0.015
1 1/8 1.1250 1.1086 1.688 1.665 1.125 1.111 1.012 7/8 0.557 0.428 0.015
1 1/4 1.2500 1.2336 1.875 1.852 1.250 1.236 1.125 7/8 0.620 0.475 0.015
1 3/8 1.3750 1.3568 2.062 2.038 1.375 1.360 1.237 1 0.682 0.523 0.015
1 1/2 1.5000 1.4818 2.250 2.224 1.500 1.485 1.350 1 0.745 0.570 0.015
1 3/4 1.7500 1.7295 2.625 2.597 1.750 1.734 1.575 1 1/4 0.870 0.665 0.015
2 2.0000 1.9780 3.000 2.970 2.000 1.983 1.800 1 1/2 0.995 0.760 0.015
2 1/4 2.2500 2.2280 3.375 3.344 2.250 2.232 2.025 1 3/4 1.120 0.855 0.031
2 1/2 2.5000 2.4762 3.750 3.717 2.500 2.481 2.250 1 3/4 1.245 0.950 0.031
2 3/4 2.7500 2.7262 4.125 4.090 2.750 2.730 2.475 2 1.370 1.045 0.031
3 3.0000 2.9762 4.500 4.464 3.000 2.979 2.700 2 1/4 1.495 1.140 0.031
3 1/4 3.2500 3.2262 4.875 4.837 3.250 3.228 2.925 2 1/4 1.620 1.235 0.031
3 1/2 3.5000 3.4762 5.250 5.211 3.500 3.478 3.150 2 3/4 1.745 1.330 0.031
3 3/4 3.7500 3.7262 5.625 5.584 3.750 3.727 3.375 2 3/4 1.870 1.425 0.031
4 4.0000 3.9762 6.000 5.958 4.000 3.976 3.600 3 1.995 1.520 0.031
Source ANSI/ASME B18.3, 1986

xx
 Metric
Hex Cap Screws

Property Class 8.8 Hex Cap Screws (fully and partiallys threaded)
d1 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M16 M18 M20
M24 M27 M30 M33 M36 M42 M48
b (L<125) 12 14 16 18 22 26 30 38 42 4654 60 66 72 78 90 102
b (L>125<200) 44 48 5260 66 72 78 84 96 108
b (L>200) 73 79 85 91 97 109 121
e 6.01 7.66 D1 11.05 14.38 17.77 20.03 26.75 e30.14 33.53 39.98 45.2 50.85 55.37 60.79 71.3
8.79 82.6
k 2 2.8 3.5 4 5.3 6.4 7.5 10 11.5 12.5 15 17 18.7 21 22.5 26 30
s 5.5 7 8 10 13 16 18 24 27 30 36 41 46 50 55 65 75
Source: DIN 931(partially threaded), DIN 933(fully
b threaded)
Property Class 10.9 Hex Cap Screws (fully and partially threaded)
d1 M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20
M22 M24 M27 M30 M36 M42
b (L<125) 18 22 26 30 L
34 38 42 46
50 54 60 66 78 90
b (L>125<200) 40 44 48 52
56 60 66 72 84 96
b (L>200) 69 73 79 85 97 109
e 11.05 14.38 17.77 20.03 24.49 26.75 30.14 33.53 35.72 39.98 45.2 50.85 60.79 71.3
k 4 5.3 6.4 7.5 8.8 10 11.5 12.5 14 15 17 18.7 22.5 26
s 10 13 16 18 22 24 27 30 32 36 41 46 55 65
Source: DIN 931(partially threaded), DIN 933(fully threaded)
Metric Socket Head Cap Screw

Property Class 8.8 Socket Head Cap Screws (fully and partially threaded)
d1 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M36 M42
d2 5.5 7 8.5 10 13 16 18 21 24 27 30 33 36 40 45 54 63
b (nom length) 18 20 22 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 56 60 66 72 84 96
k 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 27 30 36 42
s 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 14 17 17 19 19 22 27 32
t (min.) 1.3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13.5 15.5 19 24
Source: DIN 912
Property Class 12.9 Socket Head Cap Screws (fully and partially threaded)
d1 M1.6 M2 M2.5 M3 M4 M5 M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M24 M30 M36
d2 3 3.8 4.5 5.5 7 8.5 10 13 16 18 21 24 27 30 36 45 54
b (nom length) 15 16 17 18 20 22 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 52 60 72 84
k 1.6 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 24 30 36
s 1.5 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 14 17 19 22 27
t (min.) 0.7 1 1.1 1.3 2 2.5 3 4 5 6 7 8 9.8 10 12 15.5 19
Source: DIN 912

xxi
 Metric Hex Nuts

Property Class 6 Hex Nut

d1 M1 M1.4 M1.6 M2 M2.2 M2.3 M2.5 M2.6 M3 M3.5 M4 M5
e (min.) 2.71 3.28 3.41 4.32 5.2 4.88 5.45 5.45 6.01 6.58 7.66 8.79
s 2.5 3 3.2 4 4.5 4.5 5 5 5.5 6 7 8
m (max.) 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.6 1.8 1.8 2 2 2.4 2.8 3.2 4
Source: DIN 934
Property Class 8 Hex Nut
d1 M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M33 M36 M39 M42 M48
e (min.) 11.05 14.38 18.9 21.1 24.49 26.75 29.56 32.95 35.03 39.55 45.2 50.85 55.37 60.79 66.44 71.3 82.6
s 10 13 17 19 22 24 27 30 32 36 41 46 50 55 60 65 75
m (max.) 5 6.5 8 10 11 13 15 16 18 19 22 24 26 29 31 34 38
Source: DIN 934
Property Class 10 + 12 Hex Nut
d1 M6 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M33 M36 M39 M42 M48
e (min.) 11.05 14.38 18.9 21.1 24.49 26.75 29.56 32.95 35.03 39.55 45.2 50.85 55.37 60.79 66.44 71.3 82.6
s 10 13 17 19 22 24 27 30 32 36 41 46 50 55 60 65 75
m (max.) 5 6.5 8 10 11 13 15 16 18 19 22 24 26 29 31 34 38
Source: DIN 934

Metric Flat Washers

Screw Size M2 M2.5 M3 M3.5 M4 M5 M6 M7 M8 M10 M12 M14 M16 M18 M20 M22 M24 M27 M30 M33 M36
A 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 4.3 5.3 6.4 7.4 8.4 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 28 31 34 37
B 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 14 16 20 24 28 30 34 37 39 44 50 56 60 66
C 0.3 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.8 1 1.6 1.6 1.6 2 2.5 2.5 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 5 5
Source: DIN 125

xxii
 Other Screws
Self-Drilling Screws

The point is designed to efficiently remove material and

precisely size the hole for the thread. The length of the drill
flute determines the metal thickness that can be drilled. The
flute provides a channel for chip removal during removal
during the drilling process. The point length, which is the Point
unthreaded portion from the point to the first thread, should Length Drill
be long enough to assure the drilling action is complete Flute
before the first thread begins tapping into the drilled metal. Length
Screw threads advance at a rate of up to ten times faster than
the drill flute can remove metal. All drilling should be
complete prior to forming the threads. Point

The following illustrates how to determine the thickness of the material to be drilled

Top material to be drilled

Total thickness to be drilled Bottom material to be drilled

Top material to be drilled

Total thickness to be drilled Insulation or gap
Bottom material to be drilled

Total thickness to be drilled Top material with hole previously drilled

Insulation or gap
Bottom material to be drilled

Thread Length
Choose a fastener with sufficient threads to fully
engage in the base material. The head of the Material being fastened
fastener provides the holding power for the Base material
material being fastened. It may be helpful, but not
critical, that the threads also engage in the material
being fastened. The threads provide the holding
power in the base material.

Thread Pitch
The type of thread pitch to be used is determined by the thickness of the material to be fastened and
the diameter of the screw. In general, the thinner the fastened material, the more threads needed,
while the thicker the material, the fewer the number of threads needed. This is due to the fact that in
thin metal, the upper and lower threads provide the clamp force. Most thicker materials will require
a coarser thread. However, in thick metal (3/8” to ½” thick), a fine thread may be required to tap
into the base material and provide the greatest holding power.

xxiii
 Types of Screw Points

General Thread Type Description

Appearance
A thread forming screw for use in thin metals 0.015 - 0.050 thick.
A Used with drilled, punched or nested holes in sheet metal, resin impregnated
plywood, asbestos combinations, among others. Not recommended
for new design.
A thread forming screw for use with heavier metal 0.050 - 0.200 thick.
AB The finer thread pitch used with light and heavy sheet metal,
non-ferrous castings, plastics, plywood, asbestos combinations.

A thread forming screw with high Helix thread for driving or hammering into
U sheet metal, castings, fiber or plastics for permanent, quick assemblies.

A thread cutting screw with machine screw thread having multi-cutting

F edges and chip cavities. For use in heavy gauge sheet metal, aluminum,
zinc and lead die castings, cast iron, brass and plastic.

A thread cutting screw implementing a coarse Type B thread.

BT 25 Used with plastics and other soft materials with large chip clearing and
cutting edges.

A thread cutting screw with a fine thread offering maximum thread cutting
T 23 area and excellent chip clearing with minimum tightening torque.

Thread Rolling Screw

General Thread Type Description
Appearance
This thread rolling screw uses a tri-lobular design to cause the grains of the
Tri-lobular mating material to reform to the thread contour rather than be sheared
during tapping. This action causes a stronger fit.

xxiv
Approximate Hole Sizes for Type A Steel Thread Forming Screw Approximate Pierced or Extruded Hole Sizes for Types AB and B Steel Thread Forming
Screws
In Steel, Stainless Steel, Monel Metal, Brass and Aluminum In Steel, Stainless Steel, Monel Metal In Aluminum Alloy Sheet Metal
Sheet Metal and Brass Sheet Metal
Hole Required
Screw Metal Pierced or Drilled Drill Screw Metal Pierced or Screw Metal Pierced or
Size Thickness Extruded or Clean Size Size Thickness Extruded Size Thickness Extruded
Punched Hole Hole
6 0.015 0.104 37 6 0.015 0.111 6 0.024 0.111
0.018 0.104 37 0.018 0.111 0.030 0.111
0.024 0.111 0.104 37 0.024 0.111 0.036 0.111
0.030 0.111 0.104 37 0.030 0.111 0.048 0.111
0.036 0.111 0.106 36 0.036 0.111
7 0.015 0.116 32 7 0.018 0.120 7 0.024 0.120
0.018 0.116 32 0.024 0.120 0.030 0.120
0.024 0.120 0.116 32 0.030 0.120 0.036 0.120
0.030 0.120 0.116 32 0.036 0.120 0.048 0.120
0.036 0.120 0.116 32 0.048 0.120
0.048 0.120 0.120 31
8 0.013 0.125 1/8 8 0.018 0.136 8 0.024 0.136
0.024 0.136 0.125 1/8 0.024 0.136 0.030 0.136
0.030 0.136 0.125 1/8 0.030 0.136 0.036 0.136
0.036 0.136 0.125 1/8 0.036 0.136 0.048 0.136
0.048 0.136 0.128 30 0.048 0.136
10 0.018 0.136 29 10 0.018 0.157 10 0.024 0.157
0.024 0.157 0.136 29 0.024 0.157 0.030 0.157
0.030 0.157 0.136 29 0.030 0.157 0.036 0.157
0.036 0.157 0.136 29 0.036 0.157 0.048 0.157
0.048 0.157 0.149 25 0.048 0.157
12 0.024 0.161 20 12 0.024 0.185
0.030 0.185 0.161 20 0.030 0.185
0.036 0.185 0.161 20 0.036 0.185
0.048 0.185 0.161 20 0.048 0.185
14 0.024 0.185 13 1/4 0.030 0.209 Hole Sizes for metal thickness
0.030 0.209 0.189 12 0.036 0.209 above 0.075 inch are for Type B
0.036 0.209 0.191 11 0.048 0.209
0.048 0.209 0.196 9
only.

Approximate Drilled or Clean Punched Hole Sizes for Types AB and B Steel Thread Forming Screw
In Steel, Stainless Steel, Monel Metal and Brass Sheet Metal In Aluminum Alloy Sheet Metal
Screw Size Metal Hole Drill Screw Size Metal Hole Drill
Thickness Required Size Thickness Required Size
6 0.015 0.104 37 6 0.030 0.104 37
0.024 0.106 36 0.048 0.104 37
0.036 0.110 35 0.060 0.106 36
0.060 0.116 32 0.075 0.110 35
0.075 0.120 31 0.105 0.111 34
0.105 0.128 30 0.128-0.250 0.120 31
8 0.024 0.125 1/8 8 0.030 0.116 32
0.036 0.125 1/8 0.060 0.136 29
0.060 0.136 29 0.075 0.140 28
0.075 0.140 28 0.105 0.147 26
0.105 0.149 25 0.135 0.149 25
0.135 0.152 24 0.162-0.375 0.152 24
10 0.024 0.144 27 10 0.036 0.144 27
0.036 0.147 26 0.060 0.144 27
0.060 0.152 24 0.075 0.147 26
0.075 0.157 22 0.105 0.147 26
0.105 0.161 20 0.125 0.154 23
0.125 0.169 18 0.164 0.159 21
0.164 0.173 17 0.200-0.375 0.166 19
12 0.024 0.166 19 12 0.048 0.161 20
0.036 0.166 19 0.060 0.166 19
0.060 0.177 16 0.075 0.173 17
0.075 0.182 14 0.105 0.180 15
0.105 0.185 13 0.125 0.182 14
0.125 0.196 9 0.135 0.182 14
0.135 0.196 9 0.164 0.189 12
0.164 0.201 7 0.200-0.375 0.196 9
1/4 0.030 0.194 10 1/4 0.060 0.199 8
0.048 0.194 10 0.075 0.201 7
0.060 0.199 8 0.105 0.204 6
0.075 0.204 6 0.125 0.209 4
0.105 0.209 4 0.135 0.209 4
0.125 0.228 1 0.164 0.213 3
0.135 0.228 1 0.187 0.213 3
0.164 0.234 15/64” 0.194 0.221 2
0.194 0.234 15/64” 0.200-0.375 0.228 1

Since conditions may differ, it may be necessary to vary the hole size to suit a particular application.

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 Approximate Hole Sizes for Types F and T23 Steel Thread Cutting Screw
Screw Stock Thickness
Size 0.050 0.060 0.083 0.109 0.125 0.140 3/16 ¼ 5/16 3/8 ½
Standard Drill Sizes for Holes in Steel
6-32 0.1100 0.1130 0.1160 0.1160 0.1160 0.1200 0.1250 0.1250
8-32 0.1360 0.1405 0.1405 0.1440 0.1440 0.1470 0.1495 0.1495 0.1495
10-24 0.1520 0.1540 0.1610 0.1610 0.1660 0.1695 0.1730 0.1730 0.1730 0.1730
10-32 0.1590 0.1660 0.1660 0.1695 0.1695 0.1695 0.1770 0.1770 0.1770 0.1770
12-24 0.1800 0.1820 0.1875 0.1910 0.1910 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990
¼-20 0.2130 0.2188 0.2210 0.2210 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280
¼-28 0.2210 0.2280 0.2280 0.2340 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344
5/16-18 0.2770 0.2770 0.2813 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900
5/16-24 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2950 0.2950 0.2950 0.2950 0.2950
3/8-16 0.3390 0.3390 0.3480 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580
3/8-24 0.3480 0.3480 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580
Standard Drill Sizes for Holes in Aluminum
6-32 0.1094 0.1094 0.1110 0.1130 0.1160 0.1160 0.1200 0.1250
8-32 0.1360 0.1360 0.1360 0.1405 0.1405 0.1440 0.1470 0.1495 0.1495
10-24 0.1495 0.1520 0.1540 0.1570 0.1590 0.1610 0.1660 0.1719 0.1730 0.1730
10-32 0.1610 0.1610 0.1610 0.1660 0.1660 0.1660 0.1719 0.1770 0.1770 0.1770
12-24 0.1770 0.1800 0.1820 0.1850 0.1875 0.1910 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990 0.1990
¼-20 0.2055 0.2090 0.2130 0.2130 0.2210 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280
¼-28 0.2188 0.2210 0.2210 0.2210 0.2280 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344 0.2344
5/16-18 0.2660 0.2720 0.2720 0.2810 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900
5/16-24 0.2810 0.2812 0.2812 0.2900 0.2950 0.2950 0.2950 0.2950
3/8-16 0.3281 0.3320 0.3390 0.3480 0.3480 0.3480 0.3480
3/8-24 0.3438 0.3438 0.3480 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580
Standard Drill Sizes for Holes in Zinc and Aluminum Die Castings
6-32 0.1160 0.1200 0.1200 0.1200 0.1200 0.1200 0.1200 0.1200
8-32 0.1440 0.1440 0.1440 0.1440 0.1470 0.1470 0.1470 0.1495 0.1495
10-24 0.1610 0.1660 0.1660 0.1660 0.1660 0.1660 0.1660 0.1695 0.1719 0.1719
10-32 0.1695 0.1695 0.1719 0.1719 0.1719 0.1719 0.1719 0.1730 0.1730 0.1770
12-24 0.1800 0.1910 0.1910 0.1910 0.1935 0.1935 0.1960 0.1960 0.1990 0.1990
¼-20 0.2188 0.2188 0.2210 0.2210 0.2210 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280
¼-28 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2280 0.2340 0.2340 0.2344 0.2344
5/16-18 0.2770 0.2810 0.2810 0.2810 0.2812 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900
5/16-24 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2900 0.2950 0.2950 0.2950
3/8-16 0.3390 0.3390 0.3390 0.3438 0.3438 0.3438 0.3438
3/8-24 0.3480 0.3480 0.3480 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580 0.3580

Approximate Hole Size for Types BT Steel Thread Cutting Screws

Stock Screw Size
Thickness 6-20 8-18 10-16 12-14 ¼-14 5/16-12 3/8-12
0.125 0.1200 0.1490 0.1660 0.1910 0.2210 0.2810 0.344
0.140 0.1200 0.1490 0.1660 0.1910 0.2210 0.2810 0.344
3/16 0.1200 0.1490 0.1660 0.1910 0.2210 0.2810 0.344
¼ 0.1250 0.1520 0.1695 0.1960 0.2280 0.2810 0.344
5/16 0.1250 0.1520 0.1719 0.1960 0.2280 0.2900 0.348
3/8 0.1719 0.1960 0.2280 0.2900 0.348

Since conditions may differ, it may be necessary to vary the hole size to suit a particular application.

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