ADM )

Open University now 4

Distance from Mexico

Research project to know the general structure and requirements of

hardware and power of a computer dedicated to software development and
programming.

Based on the “Computer Architecture” research and the information

collected in this project that seeks to analyze the computer equipment required by
Higher Level student of the Telematics Engineering career and delimiting
According to the interview carried out with a student of the aforementioned career,
the
requirements and needs that he may have regarding his equipment.
computation, a survey is prepared aimed at other students who study the
same career and already have computer equipment appropriate to their
needs as students.

“Computer architecture”

Isaí Vicencio Navarrete

May 29, 2019

Content

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“Computer architecture”...................................................................................................1
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Introduction.

Nowadays, the term computer is common and is present directly or indirectly in all
human activities. That is why to take advantage of the potential of the computer it is
necessary to know the fundamentals that govern it, as well as the parts that make it
up.
The purpose of this research is to know the concept of a computer, its composition
and characteristics, in turn describe them through the different existing generations,
in order to identify the computer that best suits the needs based on the use that is
intended for it. apply.

General objectives.
Know the general structure and components of a computer.

Specific objectives.
Analyze the hardware and power requirements of a computer dedicated to software
development and programming.
Propose a computer for a university student of telematics.

Computer architecture.

Computer hardware consists of electronic circuits, displays, magnetic and optical

storage media, electromechanical equipment, and communication devices.
Therefore, computer architecture encompasses the specification of the instruction
repertoire and the hardware units that implement the instructions.

Definition of computer.

A computer is a fast electronic calculating machine that accepts digitized

information as input, processes it according to an internally stored list of
instructions, and produces the resulting output information. The list of instructions is
known as a program and the internal storage medium is known as the computer's
memory.
There are many types of computers, they vary in size, cost, computing power and
use. The personal computer is the most common, which finds wide application in
homes, educational centers and business offices, this model is the one that we will
not focus on to carry out our research. It is made up of processing and storage
units, display output and audio output units, as well as a keyboard, allowing it to be
easily placed on a table at home or in the office. Storage media currently include
hard drives, CD-ROMs, and floppy disks.

Laptops are the compact version with all the components packed away.
Workstations with high-resolution graphics input/output capabilities, although with
the dimensions of a desktop computer, are characterized by their processing
speed; They are frequently used in engineering applications, especially for
interactive design work.
Likewise, there are business systems or macrocomputers, which are used for
processing business data in medium to large-sized companies that require more
computing power and storage capacity than that offered by workstations. Servers
(are a computer that, as part of a network, provides services to other computers
called clients), contain storage units for medium-sized databases, and are capable
of managing a large volume of access requests to that data. . In most cases the
servers are accessible to educational, business and individual communities.
Requests and responses are commonly transported through internet facilities.
The Internet and its associated servers have become the world's dominant source
of all types of information. Internet communication facilities consist of a complex
structure of high-speed fiber optic backbone links interconnected with broadcast
cable and telephone connections to schools, businesses and homes.
On the other hand, there are supercomputers that are used for large-scale
numerical calculations required in applications such as weather prediction or
aircraft design and simulation. In enterprise systems, servers, and supercomputers,
functional units, including multiple processors, may consist of several separate and
often large units.

Input devices.

To distinguish input devices we must refer to two elements that mainly make up the
computer: hardware and software. Hardware refers to the physical part of the
computer: keyboard, case, circuits, cables, hard drives, printers, monitors, etc. The
operation of the hardware depends on the software (programs).
As software, it is defined as the set of instructions that direct the hardware.
Likewise, it says that it is a set of instructions that perform a specific task called a
program.
The input device is defined as the part of the hardware that allows the user to enter
information into the computer. For example: keyboard, mouse, optical reader,
scanner, digital video cameras, etc.
The most common input device is the keyboard, which accepts letters, numbers,
and commands from the user. Furthermore, the mouse is additionally used, which
allows you to give commands by moving the mouse on a flat surface and pressing
its buttons.

Output devices.

Output devices return the processed data to the user. The generic term device
refers to any piece of hardware.
The function of an output device is to present processed data to the user. The most
common output devices are the display screen, known as a monitor, and the
printer.

There are some types of hardware that can act as both input and output devices.
An example is the touch screen, a type of monitor that displays text or icons, which
can be touched.
The most common types of devices that can be input and output are
communication devices, which connect one computer to another, a process known
as network connectivity. Among the many kinds of communication devices, the
most common are modems, which allow computers to communicate over telephone
lines, and network interface cards (NICs), which allow users connect a group of
computers to share data and devices.

Internal memory and external memory.

The computer, to be truly useful, needs a place to keep program files and related
data when not in use. The purpose of storage is to save data.
There are differences between storage and memory. The contents are retained in
storage when the computer is turned off, while programs or data put into memory
are lost when the computer is turned off.
The most common storage medium is the magnetic disk. A disk is a round flat
object that rotates around its center. Made up of reading/writing heads, similar to
the heads of a tape recorder or video recorder.
The device that contains a disk is called a disk drive.
Some disks are built into the drive and are not intended to be removed. Most
personal computers contain a non-removable hard drive.
Main memory temporarily stores data and programs. In these circuits the programs
and data must be found (in binary code), to be executed by the processor.
Programs and data stored on the disk must be loaded into memory before being
executed by the microprocessor.

Generations of computers.

Information technologies of the last 50 years have been divided into four stages or
generations of computers. He points out that the division by computers is due to the
technology used to create the main logical element, and describes it as the
electronic component used to store and process information, used in computers
during each period.
First generation (1951-1958). It describes that it begins when the United States
Census Bureau used UNIVAC 1 in 1951. These early computers were made with
bulbs (lightbulb-sized glass tubes containing electrical circuits).
It should be noted that the Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC 1) was
developed by Mauchly and Eckert for the Remington-Rand Corporation; She
received national exposure when she correctly predicted Dwight Eisenhower's
victory over Adlai Stevenson in the US presidential election with only 5% of the
votes counted.
In the first generation, the means of entering information was punched cards, and
they used magnetic drums for external data storage. The programs were written in
machine language (instructions written as strings of zeros and ones) or in assembly
language, which allows the programmer to write instructions in abbreviated words,
and then translate them by another program (called an assembler) into machine
language. He points out that these machines were placed in computer centers with
controlled climate and technical personnel to program them and keep them in
operation. They were very large, expensive, consumed a lot of electricity and
produced a lot of heat. For this reason, few institutions could invest in such a
computer.
Despite those shortcomings, first-generation computers quickly became
indispensable tools for scientists, engineers, and for large business applications
such as payroll and billing. Telecommunications at that time was carried out by
telephone and teletype at a very low speed.
Second Generation (1959-1963). These computers are characterized by being
made up of transistors instead of tubes. Likewise, transistors were first used in a
computer in 1956, and could perform the same function as a light bulb, but took up
much less space and were more reliable. They didn't use as much energy or
produce much heat; Furthermore, they were fast and powerful. But the transistors
had to be wired manually and soldered together to form circuits.
At this time, magnetic drums are replaced by magnetic cores as the primary
storage medium. Magnetic tapes and disks as secondary storage media replaced
punched cards; They provided greater data compression capacity and were faster.
Telecommunications between computers developed.
At this time, high-level programming languages were developed, that is, program
instructions could be written in words similar to human language and in
mathematical expressions; For example, FORTRAN and COBOL, these languages
made computers more accessible to scientists and businesses.
Third Generation (1964-1979). In this generation, transistor-based computers are
replaced by smaller and more powerful machines, built with integrated circuits;
which contained thousands of small transistors on a silicon chip. The chips saved
space, Villarreal says, did not require wiring or manual soldering, and were more
reliable and faster than transistors. A new memory was developed, MOS (metal
oxide semiconductor), like integrated circuits, these used chips covered with
silicone.
Due to the increase in memory capacity and processing power, it made the
development of operating systems possible. Minicomputers also emerged.
Programming languages such as BASIC were developed. The first communications
satellite was launched, ushering in a new era of microwave communications.
Telecommunications through coaxial cable were also improved.
Fourth generation. It is characterized by the introduction of large scale integrated
circuits (LSIC) and larger scale integrated circuits (VLSIC), and by
microprocessors. These integrated circuits contain hundreds of thousands to more
than a million transistors on a small chip.
Microprocessors contain memory, logic, and control circuitry (a complete
processor) on a small silicon chip. At this time, semiconductor memory increased
along with its speed, while its price decreased. Apple and IBM personal computers
were introduced and became popular in business and at home. Fourth generation
languages such as Dbase, Lotus 1-2-3, and WordPerect already had their market
ready.
In this generation, telecomputing was developed, with the Internet being the first
example.
Today, the most common type of computer is called a personal computer, or PC,
because it is designed to be used by only one person at a time. Despite its small
size, the modern personal computer is more powerful than any of the quarter-sized
machines of the 1950s or 1960s. Many business people use a computer even when
they are out of the office. For example, most travelers now carry portable
computers, known as laptop computers or notebook computers, which can be as
powerful as desktop models.
Currently there are specific purpose and general purpose computers. It specifies
that not all computers are general purpose, that is, they can be programmed to
carry out different applications. There are also special-purpose (dedicated)
computers that perform specific tasks, from monitoring the temperature and
humidity in an office building to monitoring a person's heart rate while exercising.
Special-purpose computers are incorporated into all types of consumer goods: wrist
watches, gaming machines, sound devices, video recorders, microwave ovens, and
even automobiles. These computers are also widely used in industry, military, and
science, where they control all types of devices, including robots.
Computer architecture, Von Neumann model.

Nowadays every computer is based on the Von Neumann model (named after John
Von Neumann). The model treats the computer as a black box, and defines how
processing is performed.
This model defines the computer as four subsystems: memory, arithmetic logic unit,
control unit, and input/output.
Behrouz Forouzan points out that in Von Neumann's model memory is the storage
area, where programs and data are stored during processing. The Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) is where arithmetic calculation and logical operations take place. The
Control Unit determines the operations of the memory, the ALU, and the
input/output subsystem.
The input subsystem accepts input data and the program from outside the
computer; the output subsystem sends the processing result to the outside. He also
mentions that the definition of the input/output subsystem is very broad; It also
includes secondary storage devices such as a disk or tape that stores data and
programs for processing. The disk is considered an output device when it stores the
data obtained as a result of processing and is considered an input device when
data is read from it.
Another important element of the Von Neumann model establishes that the
program must be stored in memory, which differs from the architecture of the first
computers in which only data was stored in memory, Behrouz points out. In today's
computers, memories house both a program and its corresponding data. Which
implies that both data and programs must have the same format because it is
stored in memory. Which are saved as a sequence of ones and zeros.
It is worth noting that a program in the Von Neumann model is made up of a finite
number of instructions. The control unit fetches an instruction from memory,
interprets it, and then executes it. An instruction may require the control unit to jump
to some previous or previous instructions.
It is concluded that the Von Neumann model sets the standard for the essential
components of a computer. A physical computer must include all four components,
referred to as computer hardware, defined by Von Neumann.

Flynn's Taxonomy

The most common way to classify systems according to their parallel processing
capabilities is through the taxonomy first introduced by Flynn, which proposes the
following categories or classes of computers:
A sequence of instructions and a sequence of data (SISD, Single Instruction, Single
Data). A single processor is defined, which interprets a single sequence of
instructions to process data stored in a single memory. Within this category are
single-processor computers.
A sequence of instructions and multiple sequences of data (SIMD, Single
Instruction Multiple Data). A machine instruction controls step by step the process
of simultaneous and synchronized execution of a certain number of process
elements. Each of these has an associated memory, so each instruction is
executed by each processor, with a different set of data. Vector and matrix
processors belong to this category.

Multiple instruction streams and one data stream (MISD). A sequence of data is
transmitted to a set of processors, each of which executes a different sequence of
instructions.
Multiple instruction streams and multiple data streams (MIMD). A set of processors
simultaneously execute different sequences of instructions with different sets of
data. SMP (Symmetric Multiprocessor), clusters, are examples of this category.
Shore's taxonomy

There are three methods to consider the memory structure of a multiprocessor:

physically shared memory, logically shared memory, physically distributed, and
distributed memory.
In a multiprocessor with physically shared memory, all processors share a common
memory. Processes running on different processors can communicate by reading
and writing values to shared memory.
Multiprocessors with logically shared and physically distributed memory represent a
compromise between the other two strategies. In these machines, each processor
has local memory, that is, the memory is physically distributed, to which other
processors can have direct access, that is, it is logically shared.
In a distributed memory multiprocessor, each processor has its own memory.
Processors do not have direct access to each other's memory, so processes
running on other processors must exchange messages to communicate with each
other.

main board

A typical personal computer, in its hardware, is made up of a printed circuit board

called a motherboard or in other bibliographies called a motherboard. The
motherboard is the hardware that houses the processor chip, main memory, and
some I/O interfaces. It also has additional connectors into which additional
interfaces can be plugged. The processor bus is defined by the processor chip's
own signals. Devices that require high connection speeds with the processor, such
as main memory, can be connected directly to this bus. The motherboard generally
provides another bus to which other devices can be interconnected. The two buses
are interconnected by a circuit, which will be called a bridge, which transfers the
signals and protocols from one bus to another. Devices connected to the expansion
bus show the processor as if they were connected directly to the processor bus
itself.

Microprocessor or central processing unit.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the place where data is manipulated, it is
known as the brain of the computer, the CPU contains a small chip called a
microprocessor. Each CPU is made up of at least two basic parts: the control unit
and the logic-arithmetic unit.
Control unit.

The control unit is the logical center of the computer since the resources of a
computer are managed in the control unit, it is this unit that is responsible for
directing the flow of data.
CPU instructions are built into the control unit, these instructions or set of
instructions list all the operations that a CPU can perform. Each instruction is
expressed in microcode.
Before a program is executed, each command must be broken down into
instructions that correspond to those in the CPU instructions. When the program is
executed, the CPU carries out the instructions in order, converting them into
microcode. Despite the complexity that results from the process, the computer can
perform this process at incredible speed.
When a CPU is developed, the instruction set has the same commands as its
predecessor, apart from including some new ones. This allows software written for
a CPU to work with computers with newer processors, this strategy is called
Upward Compatibility. This feature saves consumers from purchasing a new
system each time a part of the system is upgraded.
It is known as backward or reverse compatibility, when a hardware device or piece
of software can interact with the same equipment and software as its predecessor.

Logical-arithmetic unit.

The data stored in a computer is numerical, which is why much of the processing
involves comparing numbers or performing mathematical operations. Within the
arithmetic logic unit of the computer, only two types of operations are performed:
arithmetic operations and logical operations.
The arithmetic logic unit includes a group of registers, high-speed locations, which
are used to hold the data that is currently being processed.

Bus .

The term Bus refers to the routes between the components of a computer. In a
computer there are two main buses: The data bus and the address bus, the best
known is the data bus.
Data bus.

The Data Bus is a path that connects the CPU, memory and other hardware
devices on the motherboard.
The data bus is a group of parallel cables, the number of cables on the bus affects
the speed at which data can travel between hardware devices. The data buses can
be 16 and 32 bits and can transfer 2 and 4 bytes respectively.
The AT bus is known as the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus, which was
16 bits wide, and is still used by PC devices that do not require a bus larger than 16
bits.
For the 32-bit bus, a new standard was necessary; the first competitor was IBM's
Micro Channel Architecture (MCA) bus. Then came the Extended Industry Standard
Architecture (EISA) bus. The winner was the Peripheral Component Interconnect
(PCI) bus. Intel specifically designed the PCI bus to facilitate the integration of new
types of data such as sound, video, and graphics.

Address bus.

The address bus, like the data bus, is a set of cables that connects the CPU to the
RAM and carries memory addresses. Each byte in RAM is associated with a
number, which is the memory address.
The importance of the address bus lies in the cables, since it determines the
maximum number of memory addresses. Currently CPUs have 32-bit buses that
can address 4 GB of RAM, that is, more than 4 billion bytes.
One of the difficulties in the evolution of PCs was that the DOS operating system
only addressed 1 MB of RAM, so when PCs began to contain more RAM, special
software had to be designed to address it. The programmers proposed two devices,
called expanded memory and extended memory, the one that still exists in the
operating system is the extended memory for purposes of decreasing compatibility.

Principal memory.

Basic terminology referring to the concept of memory is presented below. Memory

cell. It is defined as an electrical device or circuit using to store a single bit (0 or 1).
Examples of these are: flip-flop, a charged capacitor, and a single point on a
magnetic tape or disk.
Memory word. A group of bits (cells) in memory that represent data of some type.
Byte. Special term used to define a group of 8 bits. Word sizes can be expressed in
bytes or bits.
Ability. It is a way of specifying how many bits can be stored in a specific memory
device, or entire memory system.
General memory operation. Although each type of memory is different, in its
internal operation, certain basic principles of operation are the same for all memory
systems.
Each memory system requires different types of input and output lines to perform
the following functions:
1) Select the address in memory that is accessed for a read or write operation.
2) Select a read or write operation to execute.
3) Supply the input data to be stored in memory during a write operation.
4) Retain output data coming from memory during a read operation.
5) Enable (or disable) memory so that it responds (or not) to address inputs and
the read-write command.

The central processing unit contains basic instructions necessary to operate the
computer, but does not have the capacity to permanently store programs or large
sets of data. The CPU contains registers, which are small areas that can hold only
a few bytes at a time. The CPU demands to have millions of bytes of space where it
can store the programs and data that are being manipulated while they are in use.
This area is known as memory.
There are two types of built-in memory: permanent, also known as volatile, and
non-permanent, known as non-volatile.

ROM. Non-volatile chips always retain the same data, that is, they cannot be
changed. The data on these chips can only be read and used, they cannot be
changed, which is why it is called read-only memory (ROM). The main task of this
memory is that it gives the first instructions to the computer when it is connected to
power for the first time.
RAM. Commonly called random access memory (RAM). The purpose of this
memory is to preserve data and programs while they are in use. RAM optimizes the
operation of the computer because it does not search through all of the memory
every time it needs to find data, since the CPU stores and retrieves each piece of
data using a memory address. This address is a number that indicates the location
on the memory chips, these begin with zero and continue in ascending order until
one less than the number of bytes of memory in the computer.

Electrical power supply.

In every computer there is a system clock, this clock is driven by a quartz crystal
that when electricity is applied to it, the molecules in the crystal vibrate many times
every second. These vibrations are used by the computer to measure its
processing operations.
Over the years, clock speeds have increased constantly. The first PC operated at
4.77 megaHertz (million cycles per second). A clock cycle is the time it takes for a
transistor to turn off and on.
The electrical power supply of a computer provides it with the necessary energy for
the circuits of the central processing unit, and other hardware elements that make it
up.
This power supply aims to reduce the voltage variations existing in the power outlet.
Internally it is provided with a fan that dissipates the heat given off by the block
itself and in general terms also by the computer.
At the entrance of this source there is a cable that connects to the electrical
network; At the output there are several cables in parallel that connect to the
motherboard, and they also serve as a power source for disk drives and other
devices.
This power supplies power to the output ensuring proper functioning of the
computer. The source stabilizes the tensions presented. The manufacturer
specifies the range of variation that is tolerated. The normalized voltages are +-12V
and +-5V.

Internal workings of a computer.

Today's computers contain millions of basic electronic components. The structure

and operation of a computer are essentially simple. There are four basic functions
that a computer performs: 1) Data processing.
2) Data storage.
3) Data transfer.
4) Control

A computer must be capable of processing, storing and transferring data as well as

there must be control of these three functions, this function is exercised by the user
who provides instructions to the computer.

Instruction format

The instruction format defines a bit of an instruction, the different parts that make it
up. This instruction format must include an operation code (codop) and, implicitly or
explicitly, zero or more operands.
This instruction format must indicate the addressing mode for each operand, either
implicitly or explicitly; most instructions employ more than one instruction format. It
is worth mentioning that an instruction format is a complex task.
Instruction length. In the instruction format, the most important aspect to consider is
the length or size of that instruction. This is affected and at the same time affects
the size of the memory, its organization, the bus structure, the complexity and
speed of the processor.
The most logical compromise lies between the desire to have a powerful machine
instruction repertoire and the need to save space.
A programmer wants more codops and more operands because they make their
job easier, they can write shorter programs to solve the same tasks.
They also want more addressing modes as they give the programmer more
flexibility to implement certain functions, such as table management and multi-
branch forks. And with the size of main memory and the increasing use of virtual
memory, programmers demand the ability to address large memory ranges. A
longer instruction length may be inappropriate, for example: a 64-bit instruction
takes up twice as much space as a 32-bit instruction, however it may not be twice
as useful.
Bit assignment. The tradeoffs for allocating the bits in the instruction format are just
as complex as the instruction length. A larger number of codops obviously implies
more bits in the codop field. There is a minimum length of codop but for some of
them, additional operations can be specified using more bits of the instruction. In a
fixed length instruction it leaves fewer bits for addressing. This feature is used in
those instructions that require fewer operands and/or less addressing capacity. The
following factors are mentioned below that, related to each other, affect the
definition of the use given to the addressing bits.

Number of addressing modes. An addressing mode may be indicated implicitly.

Some codeps refer to indexing, others addressing modes must be explicit, requiring
one or more mode bits.
Number of operands. It is known that fewer addresses can make programs longer
and more difficult; current machine instructions allow two operands. Each operand
address could require its own mode flag within the instruction or the use of the
mode flag could be limited to only one of the address fields.
Registers vs. memory. A machine must have registers to bring the data to the
processor for processing. In the case of a single register visible to the user, the
address of the operand is implicit and does not consume bits of the instruction.
Some studies indicate that it is advisable to have 8 to 32 records visible to the user
[LUND77, HUCK83]. Most architectures have 32 bits.
Record set number. Some machines have a general-purpose register set
containing 8 or 16 registers; these registers are used to hold data and store
addresses for offset addressing. The current trend has been to move from a single
general-purpose record bank to a specialized group of two or more sets.
The advantage of this approach is that for a number of registers a functional
partition of these requires fewer instruction bits. With two sets of eight registers,
only 3 bits are needed to identify a register; the codop implicitly determines which
register set is being referenced.
Address range. The address range is related to the number of addressing bits. In
offset addressing, the range is extended to that defined by the length of the address
register. It is still desirable to allow shifts significantly longer than those of the
address register, and this requires a relatively large number of address bits in the
instruction.
Address granularity. In a system with 16- or 32-bit words, an address can reference
either a word or a byte, depending on the designer's choice. Byte addressing is
convenient for manipulating characters but requires, for a given memory size, more
address bits.
The designer is faced with a large number of factors to take into account and
weigh. Some design principles that were used when defining the instruction set
were [BELL78c]:
Orthogonality. It is a design principle that allows two variables to be independent of
each other. In the context of instruction repertoires, this term indicates that other
elements of an instruction are independent of the codop.

Completeness. Each type of arithmetic data should have a complete and identical
set of operations.
Variable length instructions. Designers can use several instruction formats of
different lengths. This tactic makes it easy to provide a wide repertoire of variable
length codops.
For variable length instructions the price to pay is the increase in complexity of the
processor.
The decline in the price of hardware, the use of microprogramming, and a general
increase in knowledge of processor design principles all contribute to making the
price to pay light.
Micro operations

Each of the smallest cycles is known as microoperations and involves a series of

steps, of which it involves certain microprocessor registers. The prefix micro alludes
to the fact that each step is very simple and accomplishes very little. The execution
of a program consists of the sequential execution of instructions. Each instruction is
executed during an instruction cycle made up of shorter subcycles.
The execution of each subcycle includes one or more shorter operations, that is,
one or more microoperations.

Timing.

It is the way in which events on the bus are coordinated. Buses use synchronous or
asynchronous timing.
With synchronous timing, the presence of an event on the bus is determined by a
clock. The bus has a clock line on which a sequence of regular intervals with
duration from one to zero is transmitted.
Asynchronous timing in the presence of an event on the bus is a consequence of a
previous event occurring.
Timing is easy to implement, but is less flexible than asynchronous timing.

System clock.

Every computer contains a system clock, this clock is driven by a quartz crystal that
when electricity is applied to it, the molecules in the crystal vibrate many times
every second. Vibrations are used by the computer to measure its processing
operations.

Over the years, clock speeds have increased steadily. The first PC operated at 4.77
megaHertz (million cycles per second). A clock cycle is the time it takes for a
transistor to turn off and on. Clock speeds of 400 MHz and higher are common.

System reset.

Operating systems like Windows postpone many tasks and do not guarantee their
execution in a predictable time. The RTOS is an operating system used in
embedded applications that perform tasks in a predictable amount of time, this
system is very similar to any other operating system in terms of content in the same
basic sections.

An operating system is made up of three components: initialization, kernel, data,

and procedures. The initialization section is used to program all hardware
components in the system, to load specific drivers for a system, and to program the
contents of the microprocessor registers.
Structure of an RTOS operating system. The kernel is the one that is responsible
for carrying out the basic task of the system, provides the calls or functions to the
system and constitutes the integrated system. The data and procedures section
stores all the procedures and static data used by the operating system.
The last part of the example software shows the RTO reset block. The ORG
instruction places the reset instructions at a position that is 16 bytes from the end of
the memory device.

Waiting cycles.

The wait state is the additional clock period that is inserted between one time and
another to lengthen the bus cycle. If the wait state is inserted then the memory
access time is extended by one clock period to 600 ns.

Peripherals.

A computer communicates with external devices, including software and hardware

applications that control inputs and outputs through programs, interruptions, and
direct memory accesses.
The term peripheral is assigned to any external device connected to a computer.
Below are the devices and their characteristics that make up the peripherals of a
computer.

Classification.

Computer peripherals can be divided into two categories based on their function.
The first category is made up of those devices that allow input and output
operations such as keyboard, mouse, printers and screens.
In the second category are devices dedicated to secondary data storage, the main
memory of the computer is considered the main storage unit.
Magnetic disks are used as an online data store, optical disks, floppy disks and
magnetic tapes are used as an intermediate data store that can be extracted from
that drive to be shared from one computer to another.

The software sharing device is the optical disk, better known as CD-ROM.
The devices that provide internet connection are one of the most important
peripherals.

Features.
Input devices. Input devices include keyboards, mice, scanners, and digital
cameras.
Keyboard. It is the most used device normally complemented by the mouse along
with a monitor as an output device, they are used as a means of interaction
between the computer and the user.
They can be divided into two types: one is made up of a set of mechanical switches
mounted on a printed circuit board. The second type uses a flat architecture made
up of three layers. The outermost layer is made of plasticized material, the middle
one is rubber and the last layer is metallic.
Mouse. Also known as the mouse, it was invented in 1968 which represented an
important step in the development of a new meaning of user communication with
the computer.
The mouse made it possible to enter graphic information into the computer; it is a
device designed for humans.
Scanner. Scanners transform printed material into digital representations, their
architecture in the vast majority of scanners are flat, the page to be scanned is
placed on the flat glass top.
A light source sweeps across the page and the reflected light is captured by a line
of charge-coupled devices.

Output devices. The information output of a computer can take different forms,
graphics, sound, images or text.
Display monitors. These monitors are used whenever a visual representation of the
information generated by the computer is needed. The most common device uses
cathode ray tubes.
Flat screens. These are becoming more popular every day, due to their thinness
and lower weight compared to cathode ray ones. They provide better “linearity” and
greater resolution. The types of flat screen that can be found today are: liquid
crystal, plasma, and electroluminescent.
Printers. These produce a copy of the output data generated by the computer,
whether it is a graph, text or an image. They are classified according to their impact
or no impact. Impact printers use mechanical printing devices and non-impact
printers are based on optical inkjet techniques.

Data communication.

Data communication, or electronic information, became an essential point for the

computer industry. The Internet network accelerated communication between
computers.52
Computers communicate in two ways: through modems and networks.
Modems enable computers to use telephone lines, cellular connections; Networks
connect computers directly at high speeds, either by special wiring or wireless
transmission.
The communication that networks or modems allow today has forced companies to
update themselves and generate their industrial development.
For this reason, technology has become the most important area of every company.
A network is a way of connecting computers as well as sharing information and
sharing resources.
Networks have great benefits, four of the most important of which are mentioned
below:
Allow simultaneous access to important programs and information.
Allow people to share peripheral equipment, such as printers and scanners.
Make personal and email communication more efficient.
Facilitates the backup process.

Specific computer architecture.

Today's computers come in different sizes and varying capacities, although the
capabilities of each computer have been updated rapidly.
All computers can be connected to form a computer network, but whether or not
each computer is connected to a network, it belongs to some type of computer.
There are many types of computers and they vary greatly in size, cost, and
computing power.

Microcomputers.

In 1981, IBM called its first microcomputer IBM-PC, years later some other
companies had copied IBM's design, creating clones or compatibles that worked
just like the original.
The popularity that PCs (personal computers) have had is the speed with which
they make improvements in technology, devices such as microprocessors, memory
chips and storage devices continue to increase in speed and capacity, while the
physical size and the price will remain stable.
These microcomputers have processing and storage units, display output and audio
output units, a keyboard and all of this can be placed on a table at home or in the
office.

Minicomputers.

Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) began shipping its PDP series computers in
the 1960s, the press nicknamed these machines “minicomputers,” this name being
given due to their small size.56
Due to the capacity these minicomputers have, they are between mainframes and
personal computers.
Like mainframes, minicomputers can handle much more input and output than
personal computers. These minicomputers are ideal for businesses and companies
that cannot afford or do not need a mainframe.
Minicomputers are inexpensive and have the desirable feature of a mainframe.
Major minicomputer manufacturers include DEC, Data General, IBM and Hewlett-
Packard.

Maxicomputers.

Maxicomputers are the most powerful computers available, built to process

enormous amounts of data.
They are used for data processing in large companies and businesses that require
much more computing power and storage capacity than workstations can provide.
Generally, maxicomputers are used for large-scale numerical calculations required
in applications such as weather forecasting and aircraft design and simulation.
Scientists model complex processes and simulate these processes on a
maxicomputer. One of the processes is nuclear fission; these maxicomputers are
capable of simulating the action and reaction of literally millions of atoms as they
interact.
Because computer technology changes so rapidly today, the advanced capabilities
of a maxicomputer may become standard features of a computer.

Workplan.

MAY 2019
ACTIVITIES
03 to 07 08 to 12 13 to 17 20 to 24 25 to 29
DELIMITATION OF THE TOPIC AND
RESEARCH PLAN
SELECTION AND COLLECTION OF
INFORMATION
ANALYSIS AND ABSTRACTION OF
INFORMATION

RESEARCH LOGGING
INTERVIEW PLANNING AND
APPLICATION

ANALYSIS OF DATA COLLECTED

SURVEY APPLICATION AND
ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
INTEGRATION AND WRITING OF
FINAL REPORT
MULTIMEDIA PRESENTATION AND
EXHIBITION OF RESULTS

Research log.
The research on computer architecture begins to provide a solution to a series of
needs requested by the student who is studying Telematics at the Higher Level. He
first requests a computer equipment in which he can carry out his tasks and work.
typical of his career. A previously prepared questionnaire is applied to find out
everything about their needs. This questionnaire not only reveals what they need
but also the blind spots that the student is unaware of and to which we also give
importance to obtain the best result.

Next, a theoretical framework as well as an agenda is created to better organize the

information that was previously collected from various sources. A time planner
(Gantt Chart) was also carried out to satisfactorily complete the tasks in a timely
manner.
Once the investigation is completed and the student's needs are known, they
proceed to conclude a proposal for computer equipment in which each component
is chosen to function according to their needs.

Finally the proposal is delivered.

Results.

Interview.

1 .-What career are you currently studying and at what educational level?
Telematics at a Higher Level remotely.

2 .-How long do you plan to use the same computer?

Approximately the 4 years that my career lasts.

3 .-Do you plan to update the components of your equipment in the future?
I would not like to have to update the components of this equipment.

4 .-How much time do you dedicate to studying on your computer equipment?

5 Daily hours.

5 .-What type of programs and applications do you need to run on your computer?
The programs that I can use on this team would be: programming suite, web
browsers, office suite, image editing, among others.

6 .-How many programs do you think it is necessary to run at the same time?
In a study session you could have more than 5 programs running at the same time.
7 .-Is it necessary to use the internet in your study sessions?
Because I study remotely, a permanent internet connection is necessary.

8 .-In a standard work session, how much time do you use the web?
Approximately 3 hours.
9 .-Would you use this equipment for other activities apart from your study?
Yeah.

10 .-What other activities would you do?

Multimedia reproduction, editing of plans and architectural rendering, video games.

11 .-What type of applications are needed for these activities?

VLC, AutoCad, 3DS Max and Vray engine.

12 .-How much time would you like to dedicate to these activities?

Approximately 5 hours a week.

Survey.

The following survey is carried out as part of the research that seeks to collect
information about the components that make up a computer equipment that an
engineering student needs as a tool.

Mark your answer with an “x”.

1 .- What computer equipment do you have, desktop or laptop?
( ) Desk ( ) Laptop
2 .- What brand of processor does your computer have?
( ) Intel ( ) AMT
3 .- What line of processor does your computer have?
( ) Pentium ( ) i3 ( ) i5 ( ) i7 ( ) Other
( ) Athlon ( ) A8 ( ) A10 ( ) A12 ( ) Other
4 .- How much RAM does your computer have?
( ) 4GB ( ) 8Gb ( ) 16 GB
5 .- What is its storage capacity?
( ) 250 GB ( ) 500Gb ( ) 1Tb
6 .- Do you have a dedicated graphics processor?
( ) Yeah ( ) No
7 .- Do you need a specific input-output device?
( ) Yeah ( ) No
Which? _______________
8 .- What operating system do you use on your computer?
( ) Windows ( ) macOS ( )Linux
9 .- How many applications do you run at the same time on your computer when
you study?
( ) 1 to 3 ( ) 3 to 5 ( ) more than 5
10 .- How many hours a day do you dedicate to studying on your team?
( ) 1 to 3 ( ) 3 to 5 ( ) more than 5

Analysis and interpretation of data.

The results of the survey indicate that students of the Telematics Engineering
degree tend to require computer equipment with the following characteristics:

V Laptop.
V Intel i5 processor
V 8 GB RAM
V 500Gb storage
V Windows operating system

Because our student requires this equipment, in addition to school activities, for
personal use, it is mentioned that the equipment meets the necessary
characteristics to cover all his needs.

CONCLUSIONS

Based on the research “Computer Architecture” and on the information collected in

this project that seeks to analyze the computer equipment required by a Higher
Level student of the Telematics Engineering career and delimiting according to the
interview carried out with a student of the mentioned degree the requirements and
needs that it may have regarding its computer equipment, a survey is prepared
aimed at other students who study the same degree and already have computer
equipment appropriate to their needs as students.
Next, the conclusion is developed in which the characteristics within which this
computer equipment is found are determined:
Portable computer, with an Intel processor, line between i5 and i7, 8Gb RAM,
storage capacity of at least 500Gb, without any input-output device or specialized
peripheral and with a Windows operating system.
These characteristics are justified by the number of applications running
simultaneously that are required when using the equipment, the processing and
process management capacity as well as the mobility of this work equipment,
therefore this equipment exceeds the needs and capabilities of standard
equipment.

Sources.

http://www.aliat.org.mx/BibliotecasDigitales/sistemas/
Arquitectura_computadoras_I.pdf

Brey Barry B., Intel Microprocessors, Mexico, Pearson Education,

Hamacher Carl Vranesic Zvonko Zaky Satwat, Computer Organization, Spain,

McGraw-Hill, 2003.

Norton Peter, Introduction to Computing, Mexico, McGraw-Hill/InterAmericana

Editores, 2000.

Stallings William, Organization and architecture of computers, Madrid, Pearson

Education, 2005.
Annexes.

RESULTS OF THE TEST

1.-

With what computer equipment

accounts, desktop or laptop?

2.-

What brand of processor do you have?

equipment?
3.
-

What line of processor does your

equipment?

What line of processor does your

equipment?
Other
A12
A10
A8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
A8 A10 A12 Other
■ Athlon 1 0 0 0
4.
-
How much RAM does your
computer have?

5.-

What is your
capacity
storage?
6.
-

Do you have a graphics

processor
dedicated?

7.-

Do you need any device

specific input-output?
8.
-
What operating system do you use on
your
equipment?

9.-

How many applications do you run at once?

on your computer when you study?
10.
-