Seeley’s

ESSENTIALS OF
Anatomy &
Physiology
Tenth Edition

Cinnamon Vanputte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and tables

pre-inserted into PowerPoint without notes.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom. No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
 2

Chapter 17 & 18

Endocrine System
Lecture Outline

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 3

Endocrine System Glands

Figure 10.1
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 4

Cell Secretion Types 1

Autocrine:
• released by cells and a have local effect on same cell
type
• Example - eicosanoids
Paracrine:
• released by cells that affect other cell types in
close proximity
• Example - somatostatin

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 5

Cell Secretion Types 1

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 6

Cell Secretion Types 2

Neurotransmitter and neuromodulators:

• secreted by nerve cells/neurons
• Example - nervous system function
Hormones and neurohormones: (Endocrine)
• secreted into blood and bind to receptor sites
• Example - epinephrine and insulin

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 7

Cell Secretion Types 1

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 8

Endocrine System Functions 1

1. Metabolism
2. Control of food intake and digestion
3. Tissue development
4. Ion regulation
5. Water balance

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 9

Endocrine System Functions 2

6. Heart rate and blood pressure regulation

7. Control of blood glucose and other nutrients
8. Control of Reproductive functions
9. Uterine contraction and milk release
10. Immune System regulation

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 10

Characteristics 1

The endocrine system is composed of endocrine

glands and specialized endocrine cells located
throughout the body.
Endocrine glands and cells secrete minute
amounts of chemical messengers called
hormones into the bloodstream, rather than
into a duct.
Hormones then travel through the general blood
circulation to target tissues or effectors.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 11

Characteristics 2

The target tissues have receptors for a specific

hormone.
Hormones produce a particular response in the
target tissues.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 12

Types of Hormones
Water-soluble hormones:
• includes proteins, peptides, amino acids
• most common
• Examples - growth hormone, antidiuretic, prolactin
Lipid-soluble hormones:
• includes steroids and eicosanoids
• Examples - LH, FSH, androgens

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 13

Types of Hormones

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 14

Control of Hormone Release 1

Blood-borne chemicals can directly stimulate the

release of some hormones.
These chemicals are referred to as humoral stimuli
because they circulate in the blood.
Humoral refers to body fluids, including blood.
Hormone release can also be under neural control.
Following action potentials, neurons release a
neurotransmitter into the synapse with the cells
that produce the hormone.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 15

Control of Hormone Release 2

Hormone release can also be controlled by other

hormones, which is called as hormonal stimuli.
It occurs when a hormone is secreted that, in
turn, stimulates the secretion of other
hormones.
The same three types of stimuli (humoral,
neural, and hormonal) can stimulate or inhibit
hormone release.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 16

Humoral Regulation

Figure 10.2
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 17

Neural Regulation

Figure 10.3
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 18

Hormonal Regulation

Figure 10.4
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 19

Inhibition of Hormone Release 1

Humoral inhibition of hormone release generally

involves the actions of companion hormones.
Usually each of the companion hormones performs
an opposite function.
For example, to raise blood pressure, the adrenal
cortex secretes the hormone aldosterone in
response to low blood pressure, but to lower it the
heart atria secrete atrial natriuretic peptide.
They work together to maintain homeostasis of
blood pressure.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 20

Inhibition of Hormone Release 2

Neurons inhibit targets just as often as they stimulate

targets.
If the neurotransmitter is inhibitory, the target
endocrine gland does not secrete its hormone.
In control of hormone release by other hormones,
some hormones are inhibitory hormones, that reduce
the release of the hormone being controlled.
For example, thyroid hormones can control their own
blood levels by inhibiting their anterior pituitary tropic
hormone.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 21

Regulation of Blood Hormone Levels

Two major mechanisms maintain hormone levels in
the blood within a homeostatic range: negative
feedback and positive feedback
Most hormones are regulated by a negative-feedback
mechanism, whereby the hormone’s secretion is
inhibited by the hormone itself once blood levels
have reached a certain point.
Some hormones are regulation by positive feedback,
as exemplified by tropic hormone action.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 22

Negative and Positive Feedback

Figure 10.5
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 27

Hormone Receptors 1

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 28

Hormone Receptors 1

A hormone can stimulate only the cells that have

the receptor for that hormone.
The portion of each receptor molecule where a
hormone binds is called a receptor site.
The receptor site has specificity, allowing only one
hormone to bind to it.
Some hormones, such as epinephrine, can bind to a
“family” of receptors that are structurally similar.
This specificity is due to molecular shape and
chemical characteristic.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 29

Target Tissue Specificity and Response

Figure 10.6
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 30

Hormone Receptors 1

Drugs with structures similar to those of specific

hormones may compete with those hormones for
their receptors.

A drug that binds to a hormone receptor and

activates it is called an agonist.

A drug that binds to a hormone receptor and inhibits

its action is called an antagonist.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 31

Hormone Receptors 2

Lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormones bind to

their own classes of receptors.
Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
due to their lipid solubility and small molecular
size allowing to easily pass through the cell
membrane.
Water-soluble hormones bind to membrane-
bound receptors. Water-soluble hormones are
polar molecules and cannot pass through the cell
membrane.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 32

Lipid-Soluble Hormone Receptors

Lipid-soluble hormones bind to nuclear receptors
due to their lipid solubility and small molecular
size, allowing to easily pass through the cell
membrane and nuclear membrane.
Nuclear receptors can also be located in the
cytoplasm, but then move to the nucleus when
activated.
When hormones bind to nuclear receptors, the
hormone-receptor complex interacts with nuclear
DNA to regulate specific gene transcription.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 33

Water-Soluble Receptors
Water-soluble hormones, such as protein and peptide
types, cannot pass through the cell membrane.
Interactions are with membrane-bound receptors,
that are proteins that extend across the cell
membrane, with their hormone-binding sites exposed
on the cell membrane’s outer surface.
When the hormone binds to the receptor, it turns on
intracellular enzymes that ultimately cause the
response dictated by the hormone-receptor
interaction.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 34
Nuclear and Membrane-Bound
Receptors

Figure 10.7
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 35

Action of Nuclear Receptors

Lipid-soluble hormones stimulate protein
synthesis.
Lipid-soluble hormones diffuse across the cell
membrane and bind to their receptors, with the
complex now binding to hormone-response
elements on DNA.
This action regulates the transcription of specific
messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) molecules
and protein synthesis occurs.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 36

Action of Nuclear Receptors

The receptors that bind to DNA have fingerlike
projections that recognize and bind to specific
nucleotide sequences in the DNA called hormone-
response elements.

The combination of the hormone and its receptor

forms a transcription factor, because when the
hormone-receptor complex binds to the hormone-
response element, it activates the transcription of
specific messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA)
molecules.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 37

Action of Nuclear Receptors

The mRNA molecules then move to the cytoplasm to
be translated into specific proteins at the ribosomes.
The newly synthesized proteins produce the cell’s
response to the hormone.

Target cells that synthesize new protein molecules in

response to hormonal stimuli normally have a latent
period of several hours between the time the
hormones bind to their receptors and the time
responses are observed. During this latent period,
mRNA and new proteins are synthesized.
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 38

Action of Nuclear Receptors

Hormone-receptor complexes are eventually
degraded within the cell, limiting the length of time
hormones influence the cells’ activities, and the cells
slowly return to their previous functional states.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 39

Nuclear Receptor Model

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 40

Membrane Receptor Actions 1

Membrane receptors act in two ways, (1) either

altering the activity of G proteins on the inner
surface of the cell membrane or (2) directly
altering the activity of intracellular enzymes.
Activation of G proteins, or intracellular
enzymes, elicits specific responses in cells,
including the production of molecules called,
second messengers.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 41

Membrane Receptor Actions 2

A second messenger molecule is produced inside

a cell once a ligand binds to its membrane-
bound receptor.
A second messenger, such as cyclic adenosine
monophosphate (cAMP), then activates specific
cellular processes inside the cell in response to
the hormone.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 42

G-Protein Activation 1

Many membrane-bound receptors produce

responses through the action of G proteins, which
consist of 3 subunits.
The G proteins are so named because one of the
subunits binds to guanine nucleotides.

In the inactive state, a guanine diphosphate (GDP)

molecule is bound to the alpha subunit of each G
protein. In the active state, guanine triphosphate
(GTP) is bound to the alpha subunit .

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 43

G-Protein Activation 1

Step 1: G proteins consist of three subunits; from

largest to smallest, they are called alpha, beta, and
gamma.

Step 2: After a hormone binds to the receptor on

the outside of a cell, the receptor changes shape. As
a result, the receptor binds to a G protein on the
inner surface of the plasma membrane, and GDP is
released from the a subunit.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 44

G-Protein Activation 1

Step 3: GTP binds to the alpha subunit, thereby

activating it.

As a result, G proteins separate from the receptor,

and the activated alpha subunit separates from the
ß and γ.
The activated alpha subunit can alter the activity of
molecules within the plasma membrane or inside
the cell, thus producing cellular responses.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 45

G-Protein Activation 1

Step 4: After a short time, the activated alpha

subunit is turned off, because the G protein
removes a phosphate group from GTP, which
converts it to GDP.

Thus, the alpha subunit is called a GTPase. The alpha

subunit then recombines with the beta and gamma
subunits.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 46

G-Protein Activation 3

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 47

G-Protein Activation 3

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 48

G-Protein Activation 1

Activated α subunits of G proteins can alter the

activity of enzymes inside the cell membrane.

G-proteins, after several sequential actions, interact

with adenylate cyclase, an enzyme that converts ATP
to cAMP (cyclic adenosine monophosphate).
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate functions as
second messenger and binds to protein kinases and
activates them.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 49

G-Protein Activation 2

Protein kinases are enzymes that, in turn, regulate

the activity of other enzymes.
Depending on the other enzyme, protein kinases
can increase or decrease its activity.
Phosphodiesterase, an intracellular enzyme,
breaks down cAMP to AMP and thus results in no
further cell stimulation.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 50
Nuclear and Membrane-Bound
Receptors

Figure 10.7
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 51

Cyclic AMP Synthesis

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 52

Signal Amplification 1

Hormones that stimulate the synthesis of

second messengers act quickly and have an
amplification effect.
Each receptor produces thousands of second
messengers, leading to a cascade effect and
ultimately amplification of the hormonal
signal.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 53

Signal Amplification 2

With amplification, a single hormone activates

many second messengers, each of which
activates enzymes that produce an enormous
amount of final product.
The efficiency of this second-messenger
amplification is virtually unparalleled in the
body.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 54

Cascade Effect

Figure 10.11
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 55

Endocrine System Glands

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 56

Pituitary Gland 1

• Small gland connected to the brain

• Controlled by hypothalamus
• Divided into 2 regions: anterior pituitary
gland (adenohypophysis) and posterior
pituitary gland (neurohypophysis)
• Secretes at least 9 hormones

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 57

Pituitary Gland 2

Figure 10.12
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 58

Anterior Pituitary Gland Actions

The anterior pituitary gland synthesizes
hormones, that is under the control of the
hypothalamus.
Neurons of the hypothalamus secrete releasing
hormones that stimulate the production and
secretion of a specific hormone.
Inhibiting hormones decrease the secretion of
a specific anterior pituitary hormone

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 59

Hypothalamus and Anterior Pituitary

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 60

Anterior Pituitary Hormones 1

Growth Hormone:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: stimulates growth of bones,
muscles, and organs. It also regulates metabolism.
• Abnormalities:
Too much GH causes giantism
Too little GH causes pituitary dwarfism

Chronically elevated GH levels result in acromegaly

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 61

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 62
Regulation of Growth Hormone
Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 63

Anterior Pituitary Hormones 2

Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH):

• Target tissues: thyroid gland
• Functions: regulates thyroid gland secretions
• Abnormalities:
Too much TSH, thyroid gland enlarges
Too little TSH, thyroid gland shrinks

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 64
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone
Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 65

Anterior Pituitary Hormones 5

Prolactin:
• Target tissues: mammary glands and ovaries
• Functions: milk production

Prolactin also can enhance progesterone secretion

by the ovaries after ovulation.

No role for this hormone has been clearly

established in males.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 66

Anterior Pituitary Hormones 3

Gonadotrophin Hormone Luteinizing Hormone

LH for females:
• Target tissue: ovaries
• Function: promotes ovulation and progesterone
production
LH for males:
• Target tissue: testes
• Function: sperm production and testosterone

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 67

Anterior Pituitary Hormones 4

Gonadotrophin Hormone Follicle Stimulating

Hormone
FSH for females:
• Target tissue: follicles in ovaries
• Function: follicle maturation and estrogen secretion
FSH for males:
• Target tissue: seminiferous tubules (testes)
• Function: sperm production
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 68

Anterior Pituitary Hormones 6

Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone (MSH):

• Target tissues: melanocytes in the skin
• Functions: stimulate melanin production in
melanocytes
Adrenocorticotrophic Hormone (ACTH):
• Target tissues: cells of adrenal cortex
• Functions: stimulate production of certain
corticosteroids

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 69

Posterior Pituitary Actions

The posterior pituitary gland synthesizes and
releases hormones produced by neuroendocrine
cells in the hypothalamus.
The two hormones released from the posterior
pituitary are antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and
oxytocin.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 70

Hypothalamus and Posterior Pituitary

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 71

Posterior Gland Hormones 1

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH):

• Target tissues: kidneys
• Functions: conserve water (prevent the output of
large amount of urine)
• Abnormalities: Diabetes insipidus
• low ADH
• kidneys to produce large amounts of dilute
• (watery) urine
• can lead to dehydration and thirst
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 72
Regulation of Antidiuretic Hormone
Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 73

Posterior Gland Hormones 2

Oxytocin:
• Target tissues: uterus

• Functions: increases uterine contractions during

labor
It also causes contraction of uterine smooth muscle
in nonpregnant women, primarily during
menstruation and sexual intercourse.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 74
Regulation of Oxytocin Hormone
Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 75

Thyroid Gland
One of largest glands
Requires iodine to function
Secretes thyroid hormone and calcitonin
Thyroid hormones secreted by follicular cells:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: regulates metabolic rates and is needed for growth
Calcitonin secreted by parafollicular cells:
• Target tissues: bone and some other tissues
• Function: reduces blood calcium level when high

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 76

Thyroid Gland
The thyroid hormones include triiodothyronine,
commonly called T3 and thyroxine or even more
commonly T4.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 77

Thyroid Hormone Disorders

Hypothyroidism: Hyperthyroidism:
• Decreased metabolism • Increased metabolism
• Weight gain, reduced • Weight loss, increased
appetite, fatigue appetite, nervousness
• Low temp. and pulse • Higher temp. and pulse
• Dry, cold skin • Warm, flushed skin
• Myxedema in adults • Graves’ disease (leads
to goiter)
• Cretinism in infants

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 78

Thyroid Hormone Disorders

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 79
Regulation of Thyroid Hormone
Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 80

Parathyroid Gland
Parathyroid hormone (PTH):
• Target tissues: bones, kidneys, and small intestine
• Functions: regulates blood Ca2+ levels (more than
calcitonin)
If Ca 2+ is low then osteoclasts break down bone
matrix and less Ca 2+ is lost in urine.
If Ca 2+ is high then osteoclasts don’t break down
bone matrix and more Ca 2+ is lost in urine.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 81

Regulation of Blood Calcium Levels

Figure 10.17
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 82

Thyroid Gland and Parathyroid Glands

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education (d) ©Victor Eroschenko

 83

Adrenal Gland Actions

The adrenal glands are two small glands located
superior to each kidney
Each adrenal gland has an inner part, called the
adrenal medulla, and an outer part, called the
adrenal cortex.
The adrenal medulla and the adrenal cortex
function as separate endocrine glands.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 84

Adrenal Glands

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education (c) ©Victor Eroschenko

 85

Adrenal Gland Hormones 1

Adrenal medulla hormones:

• Epinephrine/Norepinephrine:
• Target tissues: heart, blood vessels, liver, fat cells
• Functions: released as part of fight or flight response

The effects of epinephrine and norepinephrine are

short-lived because they are rapidly metabolized,
excreted, or taken up by tissues. Their half-life in the
blood is measured in minutes.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 86
Regulation of Adrenal Medullary
Secretions

Figure 10.19
© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education
 87

Adrenal Gland Hormones 2

The adrenal cortex is composed of smaller cells and

forms three indistinct layers: the zona glomerulosa ,
the zona fasciculata, and the zona reticularis.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 88

Adrenal Gland Hormones 2

Adrenal cortex hormone:

• Aldosterone:
• Type of mineralocorticoids

• Target tissues: kidneys

• Functions: causes Na+ and H2O to be retained and

K+ to be secreted, indirectly involved with blood
pressure and blood volume

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 89

Regulation of Aldosterone Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 90

Adrenal Gland Hormones 3

Cortisol:
• Type of glucocorticoids
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: increases breakdown of fat and protein
for energy uses. Reduces inflammatory and immune
responses

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 91

Regulation of Cortisol Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 92

Adrenal Gland Hormones 4

Androgens:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions:
• Males: secondary sexual characteristics

• Females: sex drive

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 93

Pancreas Actions 1

The pancreas is a mixed gland, with an exocrine

portion and an endocrine portion.
The exocrine portion of the pancreas secretes
digestive enzymes.
The endocrine part of the pancreas consists of
pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans), which are
dispersed throughout the exocrine portion of the
pancreas.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 94

Pancreas Actions 2

The islets consist of three cell types, each of

which secretes a separate hormone.
Alpha cells secrete glucagon, beta cells secrete
insulin, and delta cells secrete somatostatin.
These three hormones regulate the blood levels
of nutrients, especially glucose

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 95

Pancreas Structure

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education ©Biophoto Associates/Science Source

 96

Pancreas Hormones 1

Insulin:
• Target tissues: liver, skeletal muscle, adipose tissue
• Functions:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• after a meal glucose levels are high and insulin is secreted
• extra glucose is stored in form of glycogen

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 97

Insulin Abnormalities
Diabetes mellitus:
• Causes: too little insulin or faulty insulin receptors
• Symptoms: exaggerated appetite,excess urine,
dehydration, thirst, fatigue
• Type I: insulin dependent (daily injections required)
• Type II: insulin independent, often found in obese
people, can be treated with diet but can turn into
type I

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 98

Pancreas Hormones 2

Glucagon:
• Target tissues: liver
• Function:
• regulates blood glucose levels
• between meals glucose levels drop and glucagon is secreted
• glucagon allows glycogen to be broken down into glucose

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 99

Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 100

Hormones of Male Reproductive System

Testosterone:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: aids in sperm and reproductive
organ development and function

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 101

Hormones of Female Reproductive System

Estrogen/Progesterone:
• Target tissues: most
• Functions: involved in uterine and mammary gland
development, menstrual cycle, and secondary sexual
characteristics

Relaxin - increases the flexibility of the connective tissue

of the symphysis pubis and helps dilate the cervix of the
uterus. This facilitates delivery by making the birth canal
larger.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 102

Pineal Gland Hormone

Melatonin:
• Target tissues: hypothalamus
• Functions: plays a role in onset of puberty
and controls circadian rhythms. Light affects
its function.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 103

Regulation of Melatonin Secretion

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 104

Thymus Gland Hormone

Thymosin:
• Target tissues: immune system tissues
• Functions: promotes immune system development
and function.
• It stimulates the production of T cells (immune
response) and development of B cells to plasma cells
(production of antibodies)

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 105

Effects of Aging in Endocrine System

• Some, but not all, undergo a gradual decrease in
secretory activity.
• GH secretion decreases as people grow older.
• Melatonin secretion decreases in aging people.
• The secretion of thyroid hormones decreases slightly
with increasing age, and the T3:T4 ratio decreases.
• Parathyroid hormone secretion does not appear to
decrease with age. Blood levels of Ca may decline
slightly because of reduced dietary calcium intake
and vitamin D levels.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education

 106

Effects of Aging in Endocrine System

• Reproductive hormone secretion gradually declines in
elderly men, and women experience menopause
• The ability to regulate blood glucose levels does not
decline with age.
• Secretion of thymosin from the thymus decreases
with age.

© 2019 McGraw-Hill Education