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AKTU syllabus accordingly computer network chapter 3
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arpitasingh9972Copyright
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/ 29
a
Ne ey
Part-2
Part-3
Part-4 ;
Point-to-Point Networks, ..
Logical Addressing
Basics Internetworking .,
(IP, CIDR, ARP, RARP.
DHCP, ICMP)
Routing, Forwarding and one
Delivery, Static and
Dynamic Routing,
Routing Algorithm
and Protocols
Congestion Control ca
3-22B to 3-288
Algorithm, [Pv
3-1 B (CS/IT-Sem-6) i.
B cat Sem-@)
yal No
work I “Yep
| ParT-1
Point-to-Point Networks Ta i
*MPORICAL Addypg
ning
rf Questions-Answery,
FG in
[pi
| Long a
| =
Answer Type and Medium ugeeen nia,
——————_— ‘wer Type Qu, ]
re e6tiong
- |
|
qe 3.1. | What is a point-to-point network ?
. Give th,
and disadvantages of a point-to-point networ “advantages
Answer
A point-to-point network is a permanent link betwee
. . nD
‘A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated
devices. 7
The dedicated link between two devices can
orsatellite link.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission b
devices.
A point-to-point network uses different types of topol
to connect two internet nodes. Pology (mesh or star)
Advantages of a point-to-point network :
1. Speeds : A point-to-point network usually use leased lines so the speeds
are guaranteed.
2 Control & Monitor : By using the same connection, it becomes easier
to monitor data usage across all sites.
3. Prioritise : Point-to-point leased lines allow you to prioritise certain
types of data making your connection fast and reliable.
4, Better Security : With broadband your data is going through a public
network, this increases the risk of it being intercepted. But with point to
points it's your own private networks, so you can transfer data securely. |
Disadvantages of a point-to-point network :
1. Distance: For geographically distant locations a point-to-point network |
becomes more expensive. [
2 Limited Connections : With a point to point you can only connect two
sites, which can be a disadvantage if you have multiple sites. ;
2 : see --to-poil twor!
4 Fragile: If one node stops working within the point-to point ne
then the whole system will stop working.
{wo endpoints
k between two
1
9
be wire or cable, microwave
etween two
5. "HOR
>
TON CSTyT
Se
™
4
Computer Network
—_—— pddressing ?
Que dd] What do you mean PY hogticnl
Answer |
1. mmunicatl through the Internet
ually. computers commun :
" vc wender computer Passes hrough sey,
yi
LANe or WANe before reaching th
sat eommunication. #e Meee
etination computer
‘Phe datn tranamitted by th de
a global addressing sey
home
For thie level
own ae logrien! addressing
aed to the logical address jn
globally to refer
PAP protocol
hitein length this RIVES USA MAKIN, og
4 An IP addrese 1« used ‘he
network layer of the ™
The Internet addresses are 32
232 addresses
sence are referred (0 a8 I
soci 92-bit address that unique
to the Internet.
>d addresses or IP addresses
ly and univers:
) ally defines
6 These addre
7 An IPv4 addres
connection of a device
the
& One IPvd address defines just one connection of the computer the
internet
§ There can never be more than one IPv4 address for two devices
connected to the internet at the same time.
1) Ifa device is connected to the internet through n connections, it js
supposed to have n logical addresses.
PART-2
Basics Internetworking (IP, CIDR, ARP, RARP, DHCP, ICMP)
Questions-Answers
Lo ‘
4 ng Answer ‘Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
3.8. i
Que 3.3. | Write a short note on internetworking.
1 Internetworking is the races que of connecti
1B i proce i
sateaes th ess or technique of ting differ
ie wor * bY using intermediary devices such as r 'S or : .
a routers or gateway
2 I etworking ensu
internetworking ens res data comr
4nd operated by different entiti
; id t entities
ies
and the Internet Kouting Protocol
munication
using nao among networks owned
common data communication 7 oe Layer
when all the connected networks =
is only possible
k or communication methodologies.
sar Se
pie
o— eworki
4 yntere rotocol stacl
the sam ‘king +
‘ts of jnternetwor +
te extranet isa network of
i Extrooa single organisation oT entity.
in so? ‘An intranet is a set of interconnected networks or
t Protocol and uses IP-based tools
he Internet
FTP tools, that is under the control of a single
f internetworking that is limited
et + t
2 1otre working, Using dl
oe asweD prowsers and
seiinistrative entity-
: et : The internet is the largest pool of networks geographically
3 Inter" throughout the world and these networks are interconnected
ated stack, TCP/IP.
wt thesame protoco!
p addressing ? How it is classified ? How is
wei | what is I
gis performed ? | ARTU 2016-16, 2017-18, Marks 10
subnet addressini en
Give the classification of different IP address.
‘Answer
IP addressing *
|. [addressing i
f finding unique TP address. A unique IP
's the process 0}
k component that
address iS required for each host and networ!
communicates using TCPAP.
9. The [Paddress is a network lay
the data link layer address.
3. Each TCP/IP host is identified by
Classification of IP address :
er address and has no dependence on
a logical IP address.
1. Class A:
i Class A addresses are assigned to networks with a very large
number of hosts.
i, The high-order bit in aclass A address is always set to zero.
a Ln next seven bits (completing the first octet) complete network
» pee remaining 24 bits (the last three octets) represent the
si i
2 ClassB:
i Class B addres: : oe ;
a ses are assigned to medium-sized to large sized
s set to binary
i Thetwo hi
rete high-order bitin a class B address are alway
—— wey
sy
% BEBO
Compater Networks wr.
mH
the Firat two neteta) cy 5
ext 14 pita (completing samt boro ete Mp here
ox! ng V6 bit (ast two octeta, repress’ i
mt tp
ii The 1
network ID. The rf maint
hoot ID on
a ye heyteh
byte L byte? ve
be
Clase A
Clave
Chae
— Mult
od for future Use
Fig. 34.1. /
r small networks,
on are used £0
« Caddresses are alwz
» always ner 5
rder bits in a clasi
i Clans
The three high-o}
binary 110. ‘
The next 21 bits (completing the first three octets) complete +
ning 8 bits (last octet) represent the Ai
é how
. network ID The remai
ID
From To
cise [0.0.0.0
Netid Hostid Netid. Hostid
Netid Hostid Netid Hostid
‘Netid Hostid Netid ‘Hostid
Netid Hoastid
Group address
Class E[240.0.0.0
Undefined
Undefined
Fig. 34.2.
4, Class D:
Class D addresses are reserved for IP multicast addresses.
i.
eses are always set?
ii. The four high-order bits in a class D addre:
binary 1110.
iii, The remaining bits are for the addresses that interes
recognize.
5. Class E:
Class E addresses are experimental addresses reserved for
use.
ted hosts will
future
a -
cat fem #
4 ‘
4
soe high order bits a er . *
ater performing eubmetting
an
nen 1 nD ar the ht age -
ant! {what the trode net gag, :
9 Obtain the quantity of thnete
Ltd ; ng the following torn ons ne The enmay ,
1 ite in the pineh
atop 4 Acquire the number of hoete Pind
the formula 2” 2 The 1 com prevent ig ~ 0° nosae
hee of
he mask
5 Assess the mask you Will need foxy the
ee wah: networks 48 well a8 the hemte f, petwort 9
num
im
OF Oath not te
2
a
formula 2
step 6: Refer to the class C, mask
wet way to create sub-networks is to
(0 Create sub ney
Memorize ¢
defoult subnet mask is 255 255 255.0 There
that make up class C.
Step 7: Decide which class mask to
Perform this step after we determined
Que35. | Explain IP addressing,
ewer
IP addressing is the process of finding unique IP Address. A unique [P
address is required for each host and network component nas
communicates using TCP/IP.
+ The IP address is a network layer address and has no eve: adence on
the data link layer address (such as a MAC address of 4 network
interface card).
Por The
hae © manieg
her tabnet mans
Use for our sub, Ret works
UF Networks and hoe
Each TCP/IP host is identified by a logical IP address
* The IP address is a network layer address and has no dependeace un
the data Link layer address (such as a MAC address of & ueewors
lulterface card)
A unique IP
address is required fur each host and network cumponeat
‘hat communicates using TCP/IP
The IP address Identifies a system’s location on the network Au IP
‘address must be globally unique and have a uniform format
Each Ip address includes a networkID and a hostID.
3 the
orkLD (also known as a network address) ewklDy The
that are located on the same physical network
“TkID must be unique to the internetwork
The netw
*Ystems
hetwy
eS «TB (Ceypy
works 8
a Net wor :
computer known as 8 host address) identifies a wy, M4)
pat IN alse /TCPAP host within a network 40"
ketags
ter, or othe to the networkID, ‘The waa
must be unique
ye! ofe a ;
i fthe term networkID re fers 7 any IP ne tworkIp
. The use? pnet, or a superne » Whe
‘ tis class-based. asu he,
2-bit ———————__
i -bi . It is a common practi
> address is 32-bits long. 4 ice to 6g
4 aie IP address into four 8-bit fields called octets. Bment the
} i orted to a decimal number (the ba,
ch octet is conve rte se 10 a
10 ae an in the range 0-255 and separated by a period (a dot Ting
formal is called dotted decimal notation. TE
Quess. | Write a short note on Classless Inter-Domain
Routing
(CIDR).
Answer
1. Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for allocat;
addresses and for IP routing.
The Internet Engineering Task Force introduced CIDR in 1993
replace the previous classful network addressing architecture on th
Internet.
3, Its goal was to slow the growth of routing tables on routers across the
Internet, and to slow the rapid exhaustion of IPv4 addresses,
4. The objective of CIDR was to address scalability issues with classful P
addresses which are based on three classes - Class A, B, and C.
©
ing Ip
N
5. CIDR allows IP addresses to be variable and not bound by the siz
limitations of Classes A, B, and C.
6. Since it is not bound by Class, CIDR can organize IP addresses into
subnetworks independent of the value of the addresses themselves.
7. This is referred to as supernetting.
Que 3.7. | Write a short note on ARP. Also explain its working.
ee
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) :
1. Theaddress resolution protocol (ARP) is a protocol ust
IP network addresses to the hardware addresses use’
protocol.
ed by IPv4 tom?
d by a data link at sem @ NAO Loree
‘ ‘ "
ye erates bolo the network layer as » part ory.
ote 3] network and O8T Wink bayer ty erty
oe Fe OS * ed he
. pibernet
- na given network te
al advtreames “7 Meat tna
| rer nacre PSS
ot > host can dvnannieaily der
1m egctinae ARF a hos’ , trsrorae the Was ae
pe re cpooding to particalae IP network lever 94
dress resolution refers to the process of fed
' tires
de i reanlved using protocol in which 9 piece of infor.
rest nt process to a Server process ae
tion received by the server allows the seprey to aniquei
me network system for which the address wae reenmired and
ra to provide the required address
Le resolution procedure is completed when the chent receives
oF nteret Control Message Protocol (]CMP) has been designed to
: compensate for these deficiencies.
Itisused for error handling in the network layer, and it is primarily used
on network devices such as routers.
o
ol has no error-reporting or error-correcting mechanism. j
ICMP isa network layer protocol.
However, its messages are not passed directly to the data-link layer.
The messages are first enclosed inside IP datagram and then passed to
the data-link layer.
8 ICMP messages are divided into two categories : error-reporting messages
and query messages.
Que 3.11. | Give the general format of ICMP messages.
a
lL Ter ‘
ICMP messages are divided into two categories : error-reporting messages
and query messages.
tw
a a router or a host processes an IP packet it may encounter
ns, the error-reporting messages report these problems
6
Meabits | 16 bits 8 bits 8 bits 16 bits
ua
Sittin
aaa ioe
Data section
Tere
te
Porting messages Query messages
Fig. 3.11.1. General format of IOMP messages.
= . ™~ 4
y tworks 3-11 BiG
Computer Netwot SIT ong
3
11
When a network manager wants specific information from » me
query message provide this information the
An ICMP message has an 8-byte header and a variableeize 2s sey
The general format of the header is different for each mos,
the first 4 bytes are common to all
In Fig. 3.11.1 the ICMP type defines the type of the mersage
The ICMP code field specifies the reason for the Particular Messags
ty
he checksum field is the 16-bit one’s complement Of the one’,
complement sum of the ICMP message starting with the ICMP type
The rest of the header is specific for each message type
The data section carries information for finding the original packet that
had the error.
In query messages, the data section carries extra information based or
the type of query.
FEE tbe in,
Que 3.12. | What are error reporting messages in ICMP ?
=
Following are various error reporting messages in ICMP :
L
e
Source quench message :
L — When receiving host detects that rate of sending packets is too fast
it sends the source quench message to the source to slow the pace
down.
i ICMP will take source IP from the disca ded packet and informs te
source by sending source quench message.
ii, Then source will reduce the speed of transmission so that router
will be free of congestion.
Parameter Problem ;
\ Aparameter problem message can be sent when either there is 2
problem in the header of a datagram or some options are massing !
cannot be interpreted.
Destination un-reachable ;
* Destination unreachable is generated by the host or its inbound
Bateway to inform the client that the destination is unreachable fo"
some reason.
Redirection Message -
i The redirection Message 1s generated when the source uses & WTO
router to send its message.
i, The
router redirects the message
iii
rou to the appropriate router
Also it informs the Source to chang:
© its default router in the future *
Netw.
ag) ork Layer
sem
att
wf fe caress ofthe default router is sent in the message
the
x sages: i
owe Mes ages ave used to test the liveliness of hosts or routers in
mes
§ Quer net
ternet
ihe Ime nd the one-way or the round-trip time for an IP
nit ot between two devices.
\ ; :
dt mre to find out whether the clocks in two devices are
is vs
a qohronized |
sv messages come in pairs: request and reply.
er
i
PART-3
sarding and Delivery, Static and Dynamic Routing,
gost: se itil Algorithm and Protocols.
oo
<————questions- Answers S|
eee ee
ng Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Css
Que 313. What do you understand by routing ?
‘ower |
+ Inorder to transfer the packets from source to the destination, the
network layer must determine the best route through which packets
canbe transmitted.
1 The main job of the network layer is to provide the best route.
+ Routing provides this information.
+ Routing refers to the way routing tables are created to help in forwarding
the packets,
“ Therouting protocol is a routing algorithm that provides the best path
‘tom the source to the destination.
a path is the path that is the "least-cost path" from source to the
tion,
wet, What do you understand by delivery in context of
“elWork layer 2
‘aower
Delivery,
Nery refers to the way a packet is handled by the network layer.
weetWork layer supervises the handling of the packets by the
Ying physical networks,
be ig
Computer Networks
3.
A
1.
4
os
1a B (CSAT-S¢m,
es )
ket is accomplished by using direct and
ANd indinegy
The delivery of a pac!
methods of delivery
Direct Delivery:
Ina direct delivery the source and destination of the packet are jo,
cated
on the same physical network.
Also direct delivery occurs when the delivery is between the last rout,
er
and the destination host.
To determine if the delivery is direct we extract the network address of
e88 of
the destination (using the mask).
Then we compare this address with the addresses of the networks 1,
which it is connected. 0
Ifa match is found, the delivery is direct.
Indirect Delivery:
Ifthe source and destination of the packet are not located on the same
physical nétwork, the packet is delivered indirectly.
In an indirect delivery, the packet goes from router to router until it
reaches its final destination.
A delivery always involves one direct delivery but zero or more indirect
deliveries
The last delivery is always a direct delivery.
Que 3.15.’| What do you understand by forwarding ? Mention some
of the forwarding techniques.
Answer ,
a.
2.
3.
4.
Forwarding refers to the way a packet is delivered to the next station.
Forwarding requires a router to have a routing table.
With the help of routing table ae
Beers ie a router find the route for the pae
evebead ae solution is impractical due the large number of
eeded in the table which makes table lookups inefficient.
Forwardin, iques : i :
Koren ie techniques : Following are various forwarding techniques
make the size of the routing table manageable :
A
1
3.
Next-Hop Method :
One technig " ,
- jue to simplify the routing table is called the next-hop method.
2 s techni ‘
In this technique the routing table holds only the address of the °**
hop.
However, the entries of a routin, tent with
, a
me ing table must be consistent wit ”
4 Tel - Network Layer
(
specific Method:
a. Nema bens Teduce the routing table and simplify the
ing process
veehave ony one
network itself.
ll hosts connecte
entity
C Defal
ntry that defines the address of the destination
.d to the same network are treated as one single
ult Method =
another technique to simplify routing is called the default method.
i this technique instead of listing all networks in the entire Internet,
has one entry called the default.
t
bot ally defined as network address 0.0.0.0.
3. ‘Itisnorm
Jesse. | Explain static and dynamic routing.
Tower |
A. Static routing :
Static routing is a process in which we have to manually add routes in
routing table.
Static routes are manually configured by a network administrator by
adding in entries into a routing table.
Static routes are fixed and do not change if the network is changed or
reconfigured.
4 7 routing is used onarouter to maximise routing efficiency and to
provide backups in case dynamic routing information fails to be
exchanged.
5. Static routing can also be used in i
stub netwe y
oflast resort sub networks, or to provide a gateway
6 Static routing i
i a eee S also known as non-adaptive routing.
ome routing :
dynami ‘il
ee a router adds a new route in the routing table for
the oe response to the changes in the condition or topology of
Ifthe ro '
riter pay liseovers any change in the condition or topology, then
Druamic cast this information to all other routers.
q peas are used to discover the new routes to reach the
Ind
Ynamic routi;
; Protocol in eens all the routers must have the same dynamic routing
* fany ae er to exchange the routes.
Teac] 8oes down, th ic adj ade to
7 the destination en the automatic adjustments are mace
Touting i .
ng is also known as adaptive routing. 1X
Dee
Computer Networks
Que 3.17. | What are the advantages and disadvantag,
en
and dynamic routing ?
Answer
A. Advantages of static routing :
_ (C8IIT-g.,,
4)
of Atatie
1. No Overhead : It has no overhead on the CPU usage of th
Hence cheaper router can be used to obtain static routing. ME Toute,
Security : It provides security as t
Ho pp
routing table.
The system administrator should h:
XS
It is easier to configure.
Pra
in the condition or topology.
peg
It is less secure as compared to stati
Bandwidth : It has not bandwidth usage between the routers,
he system administrator is allowed
ed
only to have control over the routing to a particular network
Disadvantages of static routing :
For a large network, it is very difficult to add each route manually to the
ave a good knowledge of a topology
as he has to add each route manually.
Advantages of dynamic routing :
It is more effective in selecting the best route in response to the changes
Disadvantages of dynamic routing :
It is more expensive in terms of CPU and bandwidth usage.
ic routing.
Que 3.18. | Give difference between static and dynamic routing.
Answer
S.No. Static routing
1. In static routing routes are
| user defined.
Dynamic routing
In dynamic routing routes are
updated according to topology.
Dynamic routing uses complex
2. | Statie routing does not use
complex routing algorithms. routing algorithms.
a Static routing provides more | Dynamic routing provides less
| security. — - security. a
4. _| Static routing is manual. Dynamic routing is automated.
Static routing is implemented | Dynamic routing is implemented
in small networks, __| in large networks. —
Additional resources are not | Additional resources ®F@
required. ied
Failure of link disrupts the | Failure of link does not interrupt
__| rerouting.
the rerouting, 108
we
proto
-6)
eat Se Network Layer
what is unicast routing ? Discuss Unicast routing
19.
AKTU 2018-19, Marks 7
cols:
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
AKTU 2015-16,
oF
HH
OR
in path vector routing protocol.
psplain
er
Unicast routing *
7
routing, there is one-to-one relation between the source and
In pee That means only one source sends Packets to only one
the dest! :
destination. a 7 7
of source and destination addresses included in the IP datagram
as ea addresses assigned to the hosts as shown in Fig. 3.19.1,
are un.
‘1 i it forwards that
i ‘outing, when a router Teceives a packet, it 8
i crea ale one of its ports which corresponds to the optimum
pac
path, +
B
Source aap . &)
LA |
Ply
:
bd a
*) &) we
AlBr+[ Jays] | =
> 5
Fig. 3.19.1,
Following are the three unicast routing protocol :
i
ii
Distance vector routing protocol : :
1 Indistance vector Touting, each router maintains a routing table on
Touter knows the identity of every other router in the networl .
2 Routing table contains one entry for each router in the subnet.
is entry has two parts:
anol t
The first part shows the preferred outgoing line to be used to
Teach the Specific destination.
‘| is that
Second part Gives an estimate of the time or distance to that
destination,
State Youting ;
the
Thelink state Touting is simple and each router has to perform
‘allowing five operations :
, ae <<
Computer Networks 317R (can
Tg,
a. Discover its neighbours and learn their network ~ Sug,
b. Measure the delay or cost to each of its neighb reg,
rg
c. Construct a packet containing the network a a
delays of neighbours. P8¢9 and,
he
d. Send this packet to all other routers,
e. Compute the shortest path to every other Touter,
iii, Path vector routing :
Path vector routing is useful for interdomain Touting,
L
2. In path vector routing, there is one node in each Ay
System (ASs) that acts on behalf of the entire ASs, This Bey
is called the speaker node. Ingle n,
Dest. Path
= C1 Table
AS3
Fig, 3.19.2. Initial routing tables in path vector routing.
3. The speaker node in an authentication server creates a routing
table and advertises it to speaker nodes in the neighbouring ASs.
4. The principle of path vector routing is same as for distance vector
Touting except that only speaker nodes in each AS can communicate
with each other.
5. Aspeaker node advertises the path, not the metric of the nodes, in
its autonomous system or other autonomous systems.
Que'3.20. | Explain distance vector routing algorithm and how it
updates the routing tables with the help of example.
Answer
mn
Distance vector routing algorithm : Refer Q. 3.19, Page 3-16B, Us!
_ Network Layer
,sendsa copy of its distance vector to all its neighbours,
ne il
o yee! receives a distance vector from its neighbours, it tries to
ws a ou he ther its cost to reach any destination would decrease if it
snd a kets (0 othat destination through the particular neighbouring
out? shows how the D.V. at A is automatically modified when a
5 FEY ee ae ved from B.
calculation takes place at the other routers as well. So, the
ei router can change. In Fig. 3.16.1 the initial distance
enties ae own. The entries in each source represent the shortest
tweed the routers.
istan Ie, AC = 3 indicates the cost corresponding to the shortest
a oe of number of hops from A to C.
- ifs asynchronously update their distance vectors the routing
tls eventually converge.
nan Ford algorithm is commonly used in distance vector routing.
4
; Bell
inl”
a B/C D
mrad: (b) Given network
of]
dafof a]
| dafapol2
| q{ 1] 4] 0 Minimum cost\"\ Calculations at “AT when a
—§+ frmD we S\ distance vector arrives
Entry in each square
\ represent the shortest
distance from a nade to
\ destination. The entry shows
\ the mimumum cost fram D to B
\. from “B™
.
\
® AB=1 |. Cost ogotoB
\\@! Initial distance vectors at the
\ our routers z Ct
=
v
2] 1) 2] 2) .. Cast to destination
from A via B
0} 1] 3) =). Current cost to
destination from A
[0] 2] 2] 2] ..New distance
vector for A
New D.V. will replace the 7
inital Vol Aig the nest hop (€) Calculation at A when
a D.V. arrives from B
Fig. 820.1.Distance vector algorithm at router A.
a S
ou
Computer Networks 19 BCR
Sem 4
Que 3.21. | Discuss link state routing. Compare distances ,,
erty
routing with link state routing. .
Answer
Link state routing : Refer Q 9.19, Page 3 16B, Unit 3
Comparison ¢
TSN | Distance vector routing | Link state ro :
jel | routing
1 | Each router maintains It is advanced version of distanes
| routing table indexed by and | vector routing
| containing one entry for each
| router in the subnet
t : :
| Algorithmisslower, __| Algorithms faster
2
~ 3, | Bandwidthis less. Bandwidth is high
[Sai hishigh,
[eee
4. | Router measure delay All delays measured and
| directly with special ECHO | distributed to every router
| packets
5. | It does not consider line | It considers the line bandwidth
bandwidth into account |into account when choosing the
| when choosing the routes. routes.
‘Que 3.22, | What is meant by multicast routing ? Explain with
suitable diagrams.
Answer
1. In multicasting, a message from a sender is to be sent to a group ot
destinations but not all the destinations in a network.
2. A process has to send a message to all other processes in the group. For
asmall group it is possible to send a point-to-point message.
3. But this is expensive if the group is large. So, we have to send messsé=*
to a well defined group which are small compared to the network size
o—®- >
—_
®
@ Sender
Y — @ Forwarder
@ Receiver
Pig, 9.22.1. Network Layer
- such a group is called multicasting and the Touting
etos
ensins o se ed for multicasting 1s multicast routing.
4 ortho ating is @ special class of broadcast routing as shown in
st 10!
Fee be the problem of count-to-infinity associated with
eee or routing technique. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 7.5
ce
gam
om! ity problem :
ee jssue with Distance Vector Routing (DVR) protocols is routing
a
as loops in DVR network causes count-to-infinity problem.
iaance veetor routing, routing loops usually occur when an interface
dis
= down.
Routing loops usually occur when any interface goes down or
ut 2 :
:worouters send updates at the same time.
Explanation ¢
Consider a network connected with three routers as shown in
© Fig 23.1.
Fig. 3.23.1.
letthe matrices (weight or cost) between the routers is the number of
jumps to reach the neighbour router.
hn he Fig. 3.23.1 cost between B and C is 1 and cost between A and C
Now
“uppose the link betweer. B and C is disconnected, then B will
Pah “itcan no longer get to C via that link and will remove it from
itstable
= 4 7
ve ton send any updates, it may be possible that it will receive an
Sma which will be advertising that it ean get to Cat a cost of 2
© Bem
fy "A ata cost of 1, so it will update a route to C via A at a cost
Awilly
the = ‘eeeive updates from B later and update its cost to 4
This "1 Propagates through the network until it reaches infinity.
wil
my Cause Count-to-infinity problem.
Wri
Tite down class of routing algorithms.
a Computer Networks oe BOR Seng
saree nS CE eee eeeSer
OR
What is adaptive routing algorithm ? Explain VEMIONE pes gy
adaptive routing algorithm.
Answer
Various types (class) of routing algorithm are «
L Dynamic / Adaptive algorithme -
Adaptive algorithms (dynamic reuLine Use suet tiynany
information as current topology joad. delay ete. Ww siier cue
b A dynamic algorithm can be run erther penthenlis or an diner
response to topology or ink cost change
While dynamic algortthme are more responsive v0 Tetwrrme ciate
they are also more suscepuible to protueme such ae -miinp nm
and oscillation in router
ad Adapnive algorithms can be further divided a
i Isolated : Each router maker me roimang tecuson sig
only the local informatuon thet mt siore Specifically cme
do not even exchange information with the meypiionrs
ii Centralized: A cemtralaed aude maser al rormiug tec
Specifically. the centralzed oode has acvest wy puna
information
iii Distributed : Algormhms that user 2 commen we ord
and global informauon.
2 Static / Non-adaptive algorithms -
a In non-adaptive algorithms. routes never change ome mn
routes have been selected. also called samt roimane
b In static routing algorithms, rows change very slow! mwas Tne
often as a result of human intervention for exemgiie. ¢ Dum
manually editing 2 router's forwarding tae
¢ Non-adaptive algorithms do not handie failed mee
a
Sallinweing >
Que 3.25. | Differentiate between adzptive and nox-ateg7™
routing algorithms.
S.No. Adaptive routing
algorithm
Lo In adaptive algorithm
routers exchange and
update router table
information. Netw 0
gestsem®) ___ Network Layer
q
< algorithm, routers | In this algorithm, adjustments to
ee automatically in changes In network topology
a to changes in | require manual update,
network topology —
ty prevents packet delivery | It provides gr:
failure and improves packet paths,
network performance.
Tint
‘anular contro! over
|
i Itisdynamic routing. Itis static routing. |
|
4 | |
3 Ituses dynamic protocols to | It manually sets uy,
. P the optimal
update the routing table and_| paths between the Source and the |
to find the optimal path destination computers.
_ between the source and the |
destination computers.
PART-4
Congestion Control Algorithm, IPv6,
Questions-Answers
Long Answer
was] What is congestion and congestion control ? Discuss
°Pen-loop congestion control techniques.
OR
Nhatig “ongestion ? Name the t
echniques that prevent congestion.
AKTU 2015-16, Marks 05
OR :
“'S congestion ? Briefly describe the techniques that preven
“DReStion, AKTU 2017-18, Marks 10
er
Ongesti ae ich may occur if users send data
inno ¥Stion : Congestion is a situation which may
the network at a rate greater than that allowed by spats ——
ey i trol refers to techniques and
Stange control Congest eongestion, before it happens, or remove
‘Ms that can either prevent co
Coy .
"8Stion, after it has happened
~~ , A
Computer Netw orke IRE
SF Sony,
“
Techniques to preve'
nt congestion :
gestion control : In open-loop congns
ed to prevent congestion before it feene .
ation control is handled by either the “ In
Paton
Openloop con
policies are appl
mechanisms, cong
destination Following
Retransmission policy! The retransmission policy va dew,
ficiency and at the same time prevent oe i
are the policies that can preven
1 @Etinn
optimize e
ii, Window policy : The type
congestion The selective repeat window is better than « me
Back-N window for congestion control ne Gm
Acknowledgement policy : The acknowledgement policy im
by the receiver may also affect congestion. If the receiver on
acknowledge every packet it receives, it may slow down theses .
and help to prevent congestion oe
Closed-loop congestion control : Closed-loop congestion en
mechanisms try to reduce congestion after it happens
mechanisms have been used by different protocols which are as
i. Backpressure : The technique of backpressure refers ,
congestion control mechanism in which a congested node stp
receiving data from the immediate upstream node or nodes
Choke packet : Achoke packet is a packet sent by a node ta the
source to inform about congestion. In the choke packet method.
the warning is from the router, which has encountered congestis
to the source station directly.
: In implicit signaling, there 13 4
iii. Implicit signaling :
communication between the congested node or nodes and tt
of window at the sender may ali
lew,
E
source
iv. Explicit signaling + The node that experiences congestion
explicitly send a signal to the source or destination.
Que 3.27. | What is the difference between open-loop congestv"
control and closed-loop congestion control ?
Answer
le ———s - ———_,,,..
58. No. Open-loop Closed-loop
| congestion control | congestion cont
1. | Open-loop congestion Closed-loop congestion contral ®
control is based on | based on the solution tor
prevention of congestion, removing the congestion
2 It prevents the congestion It removes the congestion alte"
|
from happening took place sens) : Network Layer
dendtoend | It adjusts its data rate depending
" on some kind of feedhack
ms are as follow : Mechanisms are as follow
amsms 4
Retransmission policy |i. ae pressure
4 7 row policy ae hoke packet
a. Tr wledgement | iii, Implicit signaling
ii ae jiv. Explicit signaling
policy
Admission policy i
