HAND PROCESSES

HAMMERS

1. Claw Hammer
 The most common type of household hammer.
 Has a curved "claw" on the back end to help remove nails.
 Good for general home improvement tasks like hanging pictures, assembling
furniture, etc.
2. Ball Peen Hammer
 Has a rounded "ball" shape on one end of the head.
 Useful for shaping, bending, or peening metal.
 Often used in metalworking, blacksmithing, and machinist work.

3. Framing Hammer
 Larger and heavier than a claw hammer.
 Designed for driving large nails used in construction framing.
 Has a straight claw for removing nails.
4. Soft-Face Hammer

 The face is made of softer materials like plastic, rubber, or rawhide.

  Used to strike delicate or easily damaged surfaces without marring them.
 Common in watch/jewelry repair, automotive work, and other precision
applications.

HACKSAW

A hacksaw is a handheld saw typically used for cutting metal, plastic, or other hard
materials. Here are some key points about hacksaws:

a) Blade

The blade is thin and flexible, usually made of high-carbon steel or bi-metal (steel with a
thin layer of harder metal like tungsten carbide).
Blades come in different tooth counts per inch (TPI), with lower TPI (e.g. 14 TPI) or (14
teeth per 25 mm) for faster, coarser cuts and higher TPI (e.g. 32 TPI) for finer, smoother
cuts.

Types of hacksaw blades:

 Flexible
 All-hard
 Bimetallic
b) Frame

The frame holds the blade in tension and provides a handle for the user to grip and
guide the saw.

Frames are typically made of steel or aluminum and may be adjustable to

accommodate different blade lengths.

Some frames have a pistol grip for better control and leverage.

Usage

 Use a hacksaw with steady, controlled strokes, applying light pressure on the
forward stroke and allowing the blade to do the work.
 Support the workpiece securely to prevent vibration and wandering of the blade.
 Use a hacksaw lubricant or cutting oil to reduce friction and heat buildup.
 Replace blades when they become dull or damaged for optimal performance.

Applications:

 Cutting metal pipes, rods, and tubing

 Trimming plastic, PVC, and other hard materials
 Making precise cuts in wood, particularly when a power saw is not available
 Modifying or repairing metal components in various industries
Safety precautions:

Here are some important safety precautions to keep in mind when using a hacksaw:

 Wear Protective Gear: Wear safety glasses or goggles to protect your eyes from
debris. Consider wearing work gloves to protect your hands as well.
 Secure the Workpiece: Clamp the workpiece firmly in a vise or clamp to prevent
it from moving during the cutting process. This will help you maintain control and
avoid injury.
 Use Proper Posture: Stand with your feet shoulder-width apart and maintain
good balance. Keep your body positioned to the side of the saw blade to avoid
potential kickback.
 Start the Cut Carefully: Begin the cut gently, applying light pressure and
allowing the saw to do the work. Avoid forcing the saw, as this can cause the
blade to bind or break.
 Maintain Proper Blade Tension: Ensure the hacksaw blade is properly
tensioned and aligned. A loose or misaligned blade can break or cause the saw
to veer off course.
 Cut at the Proper Angle: Position the hacksaw at the correct angle to the
workpiece, typically around 45 degrees. This will help you make straight, clean
cuts.
 Apply Steady, Consistent Pressure: Apply firm, steady pressure on the forward
stroke and release the pressure on the return stroke. Avoid jerky or erratic
movements.
 Avoid Binding the Blade: If the blade begins to bind, stop cutting immediately
and adjust the workpiece or blade tension to prevent the saw from getting stuck.
 CHISELS:

A chisel is a hand tool used for woodworking, metalworking, and stone carving. It
typically consists of a sturdy, sharpened steel blade with a handle, usually made of
wood or metal. The blade is used to cut, shape, or smooth surfaces by applying force,
either through striking the handle with a mallet or by pushing and guiding the chisel with
the hands.

Types of chisels:

1. Flat chisel:

This chisel has a broad flat point and is used to cut thin sheet metal, remove rivet heads
or split corroded nuts. The cutting edge is ground to an angle of approximately 60°.

2. Cross-cut chisel:

This chisel has a narrower point than the flat chisel and is used to cut keyways, narrow
grooves, square corners and holes in sheet metal too small for the flat chisel.

Using the chisel:

When using a cold chisel on sheet material, great care must be taken not to distort the
metal. To prevent distortion, the sheet must be properly supported. A small sheet is best
held in a vice.
The chisel should be held firmly but not too tight, and the head should be struck with a
sharp blow from the hammer, keeping your eye on the cutting edge, not the chisel head.
Hold the chisel at approximately 40°, do not hold the chisel at too steep an angle,
otherwise, it will tend to dig into the metal. Too shallow an angle will cause the chisel to
skid and prevent it from cutting. Use a hammer large enough to do the job, grasping it
well back at the end of the handle, not at the end nearest the head. Never allow a large
‘mushroom’ head to form on the head of a chisel, as a glancing blow from the hammer
can dislodge a chip that could fly off and damage your face or hand. Always grind off
any sign of a mushroom head as it develops.

SCREWDRIVERS

The screwdriver is one of the most common tools, and is also the one most misused.
Screwdrivers should be used only to tighten or loosen screws. They should never be
used to chisel, open tins, and scrape off paint or lever off tight parts such as collars on
shafts. Once a screwdriver blade, which is made from toughened alloy steel, has been
bent, it is very difficult to keep it in the screw head.
There are a number of different head drives. The four most common are slotted,
Phillips, Pozidriv and Torx. Always select the screwdriver to suit the size and type of
head drive.

Use of the incorrect size or type results in damage to both the screwdriver and the
screw head, leading to a screw that is very difficult to loosen or tighten.

TAPS

Tapping is the operation of cutting an internal thread using a cutting tool known as a
tap.

When tapping by hand, straight-flute hand taps are used. These are made from
hardened high-speed

Steel and are supplied in sets of three. The three taps differ in the length of the chamfer
at the point,

Known as the lead. The one with the longest lead is referred to as the taper or first tap,
the next. The second or intermediate tap and the third, which has a very short lead,
as the bottoming or plug tap. A square is provided at one end so that the tap can be
easily rotated by holding it in a tap wrench. The chuck type of wrench is used for the
smaller tap sizes.
The first stage in tapping is to drill a hole of the correct size. This is known as the
tapping size and is normally slightly larger than the root diameter of the thread.

Tapping is then started using the taper or first tap securely held in a tap wrench. The
long lead enables it to follow the drilled hole and keep square. The tap is rotated,
applying downward pressure until cutting starts. No further pressure is required since
the tap will then screw itself into the hole. The tap should be turned back quite often, to
help clear chips from the flutes.

If the hole being tapped passes through the component, it is only necessary to repeat
the operation using the second or intermediate tap. Where the hole does not pass
through – known as a blind hole – it is necessary to use the plug or bottoming tap.
This tap has a short lead and therefore forms threads very close to the bottom of the
hole.

When tapping a blind hole, great care should be taken not to break the tap. The tap
should be occasionally withdrawn completely and any chips be removed before
proceeding to the final depth. For easier cutting and the production of good-quality
threads, a proprietary tapping compound should be used.
 DIES

Dies are used to cut external threads and are available in sizes up to approximately
36mm thread diameter. The common type, for use by hand, is the circular split die,
made from high-speed steel hardened and tempered and split at one side to enable
small adjustments of size to be made. The die is held in a holder known as a die stock,
which has a central screw for adjusting the size and two side locking screws that lock in
dimples in the outside diameter of the die.

The die is inserted in the holder with the split lined up with the central screw. The central
screw is then tightened so that the die is expanded, and the two side locking screws are
tightened to hold the die in position Dies have a lead on the first two or three threads, to
help start cutting, but it is usual also to have a chamfer on the end of the component.
The die is placed squarely on the end of the bar and is rotated, applying downward
pressure until cutting starts, ensuring that the stock is horizontal. No further pressure is
required since the die then screws itself forward as cutting proceeds. The die should be
rotated backward every two or three turns, to break up and clear the chips. The thread
can now be checked with a nut. If it is found to be tight, the central screw is slackened,
the side locking screws are tightened equally, and the die is run down the thread again.
This can be repeated until the final size is reached.

As with tapping, easier cutting and better threads are produced when a proprietary
cutting
Compound is used. Die nuts are also available and are generally used for reclaiming or
cleaning up existing threads, not for cutting a thread from solid.

POWERED HAND TOOLS

The main advantages of powered hand tools are the reduction of manual effort and
the speeding up of the operation. The operator, being less fatigued, can carry out the
task more efficiently, and the speeding up of the operation results in lower production
costs. Being portable, a powered hand tool can be taken to work, which can also lead to
a reduction in production costs. The accuracy of metal-removal operations is not as
good with powered hand tools, since it is difficult to remove metal from small areas
selectively.

A comparison of hand and powered hand tools is shown in the table below.
Powered hand tools can be electric or air-operated. In general, electric tools are heavier
than the equivalent air tool, due to their built-in motor, e.g. electric screwdrivers weigh
2kg while an equivalent air-operated screwdriver weighs 0.9kg.

The cost of powered tools is much greater than the equivalent hand tools and must be
taken into account when a choice has to be made.

Types of Powered Tools

The main categories of powered tools include:

a) Power drills and drivers - Used for drilling holes and driving/removing
screws/fasteners. Common types include cordless drills, hammer drills, and
impact drivers.
b) Saws - Powered saws like circular saws, jigsaws, miter saws, and reciprocating
saws for cutting wood, metal, and other materials.
c) Grinders - Used for grinding, sharpening, polishing, and cutting with abrasive
wheels. Common types include angle grinders and die grinders.
d) Sanders - Power sanders like orbital sanders, belt sanders, and palm sanders
for smoothing and finishing surfaces.
e) Multi-tools - Versatile tools with interchangeable heads for cutting, sanding,
scraping, and more.
Safety Considerations:

When using powered tools, it's important to prioritize safety:

 Always wear appropriate personal protective equipment like safety glasses,

gloves, and hearing protection.
 Ensure tools are in good working condition and used according to the
manufacturer's instructions.
 Secure the workpiece properly to prevent kickback and loss of control.
 Keep power cords out of the path of the tool.
 Unplug tools when making adjustments or changing accessories.
 Be aware of your surroundings and any bystanders.

Maintenance and Storage:

To keep powered tools performing well and lasting longer:

o Clean tools after each use to remove dust, debris, and built-up grime.
o Replace worn or damaged parts like blades, bits, and brushes.
o Store tools in a dry, secure location when not in use.
o Properly maintain power cords and batteries.
o Follow the manufacturer's recommendations for lubrication and calibration.

DRILLING

The majority of drilling work is carried out on pillar drilling machines, so-called because
the machine elements are arranged on a vertical pillar. The machines in the heavy-duty
range have power feed, are driven from the motor through a gearbox, and have a
drilling capacity in steel up to 50mm in diameter. Smaller sensitive machines have a
hand feed, giving the sensitivity, are belt driven from the motor through pulleys, and
have a maximum drilling capacity in steel ranging from 5mm up to 25mm diameter.
These machines may be bench- or floor-mounted.
The main elements of a typical sensitive drilling machine are:

1. Base – provides a solid foundation for the machine, into which the pillar is securely

Clamped.

2. Pillar – provides solid support for the drill head and worktable.

3. Worktable – provides a flat surface in correct alignment with the drill spindle upon
which the workpiece can be positioned. Tee slots are provided for clamping purposes.
The worktable can be raised, lowered, and swung about the pillar, and securely
clamped in the required position.

4. Motor – provides the drive to the spindle through a five-step pulley system and a two-
speed gearbox.

5. Hand wheel – provides feed to the drill using a rack and pinion on the quill.

6. Quill – this is the housing inside which the spindle rotates. Only the longitudinal
movement is transmitted by the quill, which itself does not rotate.

7. Spindle – provides the means of locating, holding, and driving the cutting tools and
obtains its drive through the pulley.

8. Depth stop – provides a means of drilling several holes to a constant depth.

9. Stop/start – the machine shown is switched on by a shrouded push-button starter

with a cover plate that can be padlocked to prevent unauthorized access. A mushroom-
headed stop button is situated on the starter and the machine can also be switched off
using the emergency kick-stop switch at the front of the base. A safety switch is also
incorporated under the belt guard and automatically stops the spindle should the guard
be lifted while the machine is running.

10. Drill guard – provided to protect the operator from contact with the revolving chuck
and drill while still retaining the visibility of the operation. These guards range from
simple acrylic shields to a fully telescopic metal construction with acrylic windows.
Notes prepared by Mr Mwanshi