Research Methodology and IPR

Module 1: Introduction to Research Methodology

Topics

• Meaning of Research

• Objectives of Research

• Motivation in Research

• Types of Research

• Research Approaches

• Significance of Research

• Research Methods versus Methodology

• Research and Scientific Method

• Importance of Knowing How Research is Done

• Research Process

• Criteria of Good Research

• Problems Encountered by Researchers in India

What is research?

• Research refers to a systematic study regarding a particular concern or problem for

search for knowledge.

• Research is an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement.

• The search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding
solution to a problem is research.

• Research is a process of systematic inquiry that entails collection of data;

documentation of critical information; and analysis and interpretation of that
data/information, in accordance with suitable methodologies set by specific
professional fields and academic disciplines.

Objectives of Research

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think of
research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:

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• To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies)

• To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a

group (studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies)

• To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is

associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies)

• To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

• To solve societal problems.

Motivation in research

1. Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;

2. Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over practical
problems initiate’s research;

3. Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;

4. Desire to be of service to society;

5. Desire to get respectability.

However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research studies.
Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions, curiosity about new
things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and awakening, and the like may
as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research operations.

Types of Research

1. Quantitative Research

2. Qualitative Research

3. Descriptive Research

4. Analytical Research

5. Applied Research

6. Conceptual Research

7. Empirical Research

8. Other types… Historical, Ethnographic, etc.

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Qualitative Research

• Qualitative Research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena

relating to or involving quality or kind.

• Qualitative research is a process that is about the inquiry.

• It is unstructured.

• Qualitative research is heavily dependent on the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample.

E.g., Study of customer buying pattern in Online Shopping,

Qualitative research methods

Observation, survey, interview, focus groups, secondary group (collecting existing data)

Quantitative Research

• Refers to systematic investigation of any phenomena via statistical, mathematical or

computational techniques.

• It is highly structured.

• Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential customers using
sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls, questionnaires, etc.,
the results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical. After careful
understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or service and make
changes accordingly.

E.g., A survey was conducted among teenagers to study the impact of the usage of mobile
phones on children.

The survey was conducted on some of the offices of one city to study the number of hours
spent by the employees in the office.

Covid Data analysis to find out the next wave.

Descriptive Research

• Descriptive research is used to describe characteristics of a population or phenomenon

being studied.

• It does not answer questions about how/when/why the characteristics occurred. Rather
it addresses the "what" question (what are the characteristics of the population or
situation being studied?)

• Descriptive research classifies, describes, compares, and measures data.

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E.g., Symptoms of COVID-19, Pizza liked by customers, Cancer patients from Community A
and B, fashion trends among teenagers.

Analytical Research

• In analytical research the researcher has to use facts or information already available,
and analyze these to make a critical evaluation of the material.

• Analytical research attempts to stablish why it is that way or how it came to be.

• Analytical research focuses on cause and effect.

E.g., Explaining how and why this surge in COVID19.

Applied Research

• Applied research is usually conducted to solve a particular and concrete problem.

• Used to solve societal, industry, business problems.

Eg., Vaccine for COVID19, Improve energy efficiency, Improve agriculture crop production,
etc.

Basic Research

• Basic research focuses on determining or establishing the basic or fundamental

relationships within a discipline without paying attention to any practical applications
to the real world.

• This type of research is primarily focused on the advancement of knowledge rather

than solving a specific problem.

• Usually, these involve "how," "what" and "why" questions to explain occurrences.

• Basic research is also referred to as pure research or fundamental research

E.g.,

An investigation into the evolution of Coronavirus.

A study to discover the components making up human DNA

How did Universe begin?

A study looking at how alcohol consumption impacts the brain.

A study examining whether a vegetarian diet is healthier than one with meat

Conceptual Research

• Conceptual research is defined as a methodology wherein research is conducted by

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observing and analyzing already present information on a given topic.

• Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or theory or concepts.

• It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to

reinterpret existing ones.

• Conceptual research doesn’t involve any experiments.

E.g., Philosophical research study , Copernicus used conceptual research to come up with the
concepts about stellar constellations based on his observations of the universe, Sir Issac
Newton observed his surroundings to conceptualize and develop theories about gravitation
and motion.
An example of conceptual research is Thomas Malthus’ philosophy outlined in his book, “An
Essay on the Principle of Population”. In his book, Malthus theorized that due to disease,
famine, war, and/or calamity, the human population would stop expanding.

Empirical Research

• Empirical research involves research based on observation, experiments and verifiable

evidence.

• It can also be called as experimental type of research.

• In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results.

• He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis.

• He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or
the materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.

E.g., Covid 19 effects on Infants, A research is being conducted to find out if listening to
happy music while working may promote creativity?

A particular product company is trying to find what is the reason for them to not be able
to capture the market. So the organization makes changes in each one of the processes
like manufacturing, marketing, sales and operations. Through the experiment they
understand that sales training directly impacts the market coverage for their product. If
the person is trained well, then the product will have better coverage.

Research Approaches

• There are two basic approaches to research:

– quantitative approach: involves the generation of data in quantitative form

which can be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid
fashion.

• Inferential- generate inferences about the data studied

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• Experimental- Do experiments and observe the behavior

• Simulation approaches- construction of an artificial environment

within which relevant information and data can be generated.

– qualitative approach: Qualitative approach to research is concerned with

subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior.

Significance of Research

• Research inculcates scientific and inductive thinking and it promotes the

development of logical habits of thinking and organization.
• The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to
business or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times.

• Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic
system.

• Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning
problems of business and industry.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems.

Significance of research can also be understood keeping in view the following points:

(a) To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;

(b) To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;

(c) To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and insights;

(d) To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;

(e) To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalizations of new theories.

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Difference between research method and methodology

Research Methods Research Methodology

• The research method is defined • Research methodology is a way to
as the procedure or technique systematically solve the research
applied by the researcher to problem. It may be understood as a
undertake research. science of studying how research is
• The methods include three broad done scientifically. The methodology
groups. is the study of methods.
• The first group includes methods • The research methodology is a way to
dealing with collection and study the various steps that are
description of data; generally adopted by a researcher in
• The second group consists of studying his research problems
techniques used for establishing a systematically, along with the logic,
statistical relationship between assumptions, justification, and
variables; rationale behind them.
• The third group deals with methods • Whenever we choose a research
used to evaluate the reliability, method, we must justify why we prefer
validity, and accuracy of the results this particular method over others. The
discerned by the data. methodology seeks to answer this
question.
• The research method is nothing but • Research methodology implies the
the behavior or tool, employed in science of analyzing, the manner in
selecting and building research which research is conducted
technique. appropriately.
• The research method is concerned • Research methodology is concerned
with carrying out experiment, test, with learning various techniques
surveys, focus groups, ethnography, which can be employed in the
interviews, observations, collecting performance of experiment, test or
existing data, etc. survey.
• The research method aims at finding • Research methodology ensures
solutions to research problems. the employment of the correct
procedures to solve the problems.
• Research method intends to discover • Research methodology aspires to
thesolution to the problem at hand. apply appropriate procedures,
with a view to ascertaining
solutions.

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Research and Scientific Method

• Scientific method implies an objective, logical and systematic method,

• i.e., a method free from personal bias or prejudice,

• a method to ascertain demonstrable qualities of a phenomenon capable of being

verified,

• a method wherein the researcher is guided by the rules of logical reasoning,

• a method wherein the investigation proceeds in an orderly manner and

• a method that implies internal consistency.

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as
under:

1. It relies on empirical evidence;

2. It utilizes relevant concepts;

3. It is committed to only objective considerations;

4. It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct

statements about population objects;

5. It results into probabilistic predictions;

6. Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in testing

the conclusions through replication;

7. It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific theories.

Importance of Knowing How Research is Done?

• Knowledge helps to use the appropriate methodology for the problem.

• Helps to carry our research with confidence.

• Gives additional dimension which can be used for all the applications and look at
things in a objectively.

• Helps to take rational decisions.

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Research Process

• Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry

out research

• These steps need not be followed in strict prescribed sequences

• All the steps are interconnected and interrelated

The following are the various steps of research process

1. Formulating the research problem.

2. Extensive literature survey.

3. Developing the hypothesis.

4. Preparing the research design.

5. Determining sample design.

6. Collecting the data.

7. Execution of the project.

8. Analysis of data.

9. Hypothesis testing.

10. Generalizations and interpretation.

11. Preparation of the report or presentation of the results, i.e., formal write-up of
conclusions reached.

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1. Formulating the research problem: Identify the Problem

• A research problem identifies your destination: it should tell about you, your research
supervisor and your readers what you intend to research.

• The first step in the process is to identify a problem or develop a research question.
There are two types of research problems, viz., related to i) states of nature and
ii) relationships between variables.

• A researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter to

study. This serves as the focus of the study.

• Essentially two steps are involved in formulating the research problem, viz.,
understanding the problem thoroughly and rephrasing the same into meaningful terms
from an analytical point of view.

• The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues
or with some expertise in the matter.

• In an academic institution the researcher can seek the help from a guide who is
usually an experienced man and has several research problems in mind.

• The task of formulating, or defining, a research problem is a step of greatest

importance in the entire research process.
2. Extensive literature survey/ Review the Literature
• Once the problem has been identified, a brief summary (synopsis) of it should be
prepared. It is compulsory for a research worker writing a thesis for a Ph.D degree.
The synopsis of the topic is to be submitted to the necessary Committee or the
Research Board for approval.
• To do this, the researcher must review the literature related to the research problem.
This step provides foundational knowledge about the problem area.
• The review of literature also educates the researcher about what studies have been
conducted in the past, how these studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the
problem area.

3. Development of Working Hypothesis

• After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. It is the focal point for research

• The development of working hypothesis plays an important role.

• Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by
delimiting the area of research and to keep him on the right track. It sharpens his
thinking and focuses attention on the more important facets of the problem.

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• The development of working hypotheses can be developed by using the following

approach:

o Discussions with colleagues and experts about the problem, its origin and the
objectives in seeking a solution;

o Examination of data and records, if available, concerning the problem for

possible trends, peculiarities and other clues;

o Review of similar studies in the area or of the studies on similar problems; and

o Exploratory personal investigation which involves original field interviews on

a limited scale with interested parties and individuals with a view to secure
greater insight into the practical aspects of the problem.

4. Preparing the research design

A research design is a strategy for answering your research question using empirical data.
Creating a research design means making decisions about:

• Your overall aims and approach

• The type of research design you’ll use

• Your sampling methods or criteria for selecting subjects

• Your data collection methods

• The procedures you’ll follow to collect data

• Your data analysis methods

• Timeline

Design types

• There are many ways to classify research designs. Nonetheless, the list below offers a
number of useful distinctions between possible research designs.

• A research design is an arrangement of conditions or collection.

– Descriptive (e.g., case-study, naturalistic observation, survey)

– Correlational (e.g., case-control study, observational study)

– Experimental (e.g., field experiment, controlled experiment, quasi-experiment)

– Review (literature review, systematic review)

– Meta-analytic (meta-analysis)

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5. Determining sample design

• The way of selecting a sample is popularly known as the sample design. In other
words, a sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually
collected. Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples.
• The probability samples are those based on random way of selecting the samples.
Here all the members of the population have equal chance of being selected.
• The non-probability samples are those based on non- random way of selecting the
samples. Here the members of the population will not have an equal chance of
being selected.

The important sample designs are as follows:

a. Deliberate sampling

b. Simple random sampling

c. Systematic sampling

d. Stratified sampling

e. Quota sampling

f. Cluster sampling and area sampling

g. Multi-stage sampling

h. Sequential sampling

a) Deliberate sampling

• Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-probability sampling.

– Judgment sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the

researcher selects units to be sampled based on his own existing knowledge, or
his professional judgment. E.g., slecting only set of candidates under a specific
age group.

– Convenience sampling: sample selected based on ease of access. E.g., asking

survey questions to people coming to a mall.

b) Simple random sampling

• This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability sampling. In

this each and every item in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the
sample.

E.g., the names of 25 employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250
employees.

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c) Systematic sampling

• Systematic sampling is a type of probability sampling method in which sample

members from a larger population are selected according to a random starting point
but with a fixed, periodic interval. Sampling of this type is known as systematic
sampling.

E.g., in a population of 10,000 people, a statistician selects every 100th person for sampling.

d) Stratified sampling

• It is important that the sample includes representative groups of study units with
specific characteristics. E..g., Residents from urban and rural areas. The sampling
frame must be divided into groups, or strata, according to these characteristics.
Random or systematic samples of a predetermined size will then have to be obtained
from each group (stratum). This is called stratified sampling.

e) Quota sampling

• Quota sampling is a sampling methodology wherein data is collected from a

homogeneous group. The actual selection of items for the sample is left to the
interviewer’s judgment.

E.g., a cigarette company wants to find out what age group prefers what brand of cigarettes in
a particular city. He/she applies quotas on the age groups of 21-30, 31-40, 41-50, and 51+.

f) Cluster sampling and area sampling

• In cluster sampling, researchers divide a population into smaller groups known as

clusters. They then randomly select among these clusters to form a sample.

g) Multi-stage sampling

• Under multi-stage sampling the first stage may be to select large primary sampling
units such as states, then districts, then towns and finally certain families within
towns. If the technique of random-sampling is applied at all stages, the sampling
procedure is described as multi-stage random sampling.

h) Sequential sampling

• This design is usually adopted under acceptance sampling plan in the context of
statistical quality control. Sequential sampling is a sampling technique that involves
the evaluation of each sample taken from a population to see if it fits a desired
conclusion;

6. Collecting the data

• There are several ways of collecting the appropriate data. They are differing
considerably in context of money costs, time and other resources of the researcher.

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• Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. The
researcher conducts an experiment and observes some quantitative measurements or
the data. With the help of data the truth contained in the hypothesis can be examined.

• In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following
ways:

i) By observation: This method implies the collection of information by way of investigator’s

own observation. The information obtained relates only to what is currently happening and is
not about either the past or future. This method is no doubt an expensive method. The
information provided by this method is also very limited. This method is not suitable for large
samples are concerned.

ii) Through personal interview: The investigator follows a rigid procedure and seeks answers
to a set of questions through personal interviews. In this method the output depends upon the
ability of the interviewer to a large extent.

iii) Through telephone interviews: This method of collecting information involves contacting
the respondents on telephone itself. This is not a very widely used method but it plays an
important role in industrial surveys in developed regions. Particularly, the survey has to be
accomplished in a very limited time.
iv) By mailing of questionnaires: Questionnaires are mailed by the researches to the
respondents with a request to return after completing the same. It is the most extensively
used method in various economic and business surveys.

v) Through schedules: Under this method the enumerators are appointed and given training.
They are provided with schedules containing relevant questions. These enumerators go to
respondents with these schedules. Data are collected by filling up the schedules by
enumerators on the basis of replies given by respondents. Much depends upon the capability
of enumerators so far as this method is concerned. Some occasional field checks on the work
of the enumerators may ensure sincere work.

7. Execution of the project

• Execution of the project is a very important step in the research process.

• The data to be collected would be adequate and dependable.

• The project should be executed in a systematic manner and in time.

• The data are to be collected through interviewers.

• The training may be given with the help of instruction manuals. Manuals explain
clearly the job of the interviewers at each step.

• A careful watch should be kept for unanticipated factors in order to keep the survey as
much realistic as possible.

• The steps should be taken to ensure that the survey is under statistical control So that
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the collected information is in accordance with the pre-defined standard of accuracy.

• If some of the respondents do not cooperate, then some suitable methods should be
designed to tackle this problem.

• To deal with the non-response problem, make a list of the non-respondents and take a
small sub-sample of them. Then with the help of experts vigorous efforts can be made
for securing response.

8. Analysis of data

• After the collection of data the next task is of analysis of the data. The analysis of data
requires a number of operations. Such as

• Establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through

coding, tabulation and then drawing.

• The unwieldy data should be converted into a few manageable groups and tables for
further analysis.

• The raw data should be classified into some purposeful and usable categories.

• Coding operation is done at this stage. Through this coding the categories of data are
transformed into symbols. Then they may be tabulated and counted.

• Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding. With coding
the stage is ready for tabulation.

• Tabulation is a part of the technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in
the form of tables.

• The mechanical devices can be made use of at this juncture. A large data in large
inquiries is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it
possible to study large number of variables of a problem simultaneously.

• Analysis work is based on the computation of various percentages, coefficients, etc.,

by applying various well defined statistical formulae.

• In the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with

original or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine
with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

9. Hypothesis-testing

• After analyzing the data the next step is the hypotheses test.

• Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by
statisticians for the purpose. These test depending upon the nature and object of
research inquiry.

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• Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it.

10. Generalizations and interpretation

• When hypothesis is tested several times, it is possible to arrive to build a theory.

• The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations.

• When there is no hypothesis to start with, findings can be explained on the basis of
some theory. It is known as interpretation.

• The process of interpretation will trigger off new questions. In turn it may lead to
further researches.

11. Preparation of the report or the thesis

Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done by him.

Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in view the following:

1. The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main text,
and (iii) the end matter.

• In its preliminary pages the report should carry title and date followed by
acknowledgements and foreword. Then there should be a table of contents followed
by a list of tables and list of graphs and charts, if any, given in the report. The main
text of the report should have the following parts:

a) Introduction: It should contain a clear statement of the objective of the research and an
explanation of the methodology adopted in accomplishing the research. The scope of the
study along with various limitations should as well be stated in this part.

b) Summary of findings: After introduction there would appear a statement of findings and
recommendations in non-technical language. If the findings are extensive, they should be
summarized.

c) Main report: The main body of the report should be presented in logical sequence and
broken-down into readily identifiable sections.

d) Conclusion: Towards the end of the main text, researcher should again put down the
results of his research clearly and precisely. In fact, it is the final summing up. At the end of
the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data. Bibliography, i.e.,
list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given in the end. Index should
also be given specially in a published research report.

2. Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language avoiding
vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.

3. Charts and illustrations in the main report should be used only if they present the
information more clearly and forcibly.
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4. Calculated ‘confidence limits’ must be mentioned and the various constraints experienced
in conducting research operations may as well be stated.

Criteria of good research

• Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important
is that they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them.

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.

• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.

• The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.

• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.

• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance. The
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.

• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.

• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a

good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Criteria for good research

• Good research is systematic- structured process

• Good research is logical- guided by rules of logic ie., clear and sound reasoning

• Good research is empirical- experience which can be verifiable

• Good research is replicable- results can verified by replicating the study

Problems Encountered by Researchers in India

• The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research.

• There is insufficient interaction between the university research departments on one

side and business establishments, government departments and research institutions
on the other side.

• Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
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supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often
reluctant in supplying the needed information to researchers.

• Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of . This
results in duplication and fritters away resources.

• There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.

• Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely
secretarial assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary
delays in the completion of research studies.

• Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of
the time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports,
etc., rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.

• There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old
and new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.

• There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various
government and other agencies doing this job in our country. take place the problem
of conceptualization and also problems relating to the process of data collection and
related things.

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