LESSON 5: The Derivative as the Slope of the Tangent Line

TIME FRAME: 4 hours

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Illustrate the tangent line to the graph of a function at a given point;

2. Apply the definition of the derivative of a function at a given number; and
3. Relate the derivative of a function to the slope of the tangent line.

LESSON OUTLINE:

1. Tangent and secant lines to a circle

2. Tangent line to the graph of an arbitrary function
3. Cases where the tangent line does not exist
4. The slope of the tangent line of an arbitrary function
5. The equation of the tangent line
6. The definition and evaluation of the derivative

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 TOPIC 5.1: The Tangent Line to the Graph of a Function at a
Point

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION
You may start by writing the word “TANGENT LINE” on the board and asking the class
what they know about a tangent line or where they first heard the word “tangent”.

Possible answers:
(a) line which touches the graph at only one point
(b) line touching a circle at one point
(c) trigonometric function tangent (and cotangent)
(d) (from some dictionaries) touching but not intersecting (cutting through)
(e) right beside
(f) limiting position of a secant line
(g) tangent comes from the Latin word tángere meaning “to touch” (cf. Noli me Tángere)

Teaching Tip
Accept all of these and acknowledge that all of these are correct in almost all cases
but remark that these coud not be very precise in general. In fact, the formal
definition of a tangent line is stated using limits. You may list down the following
contentions/elaborations to the list above:

Point-by-point deliberations of the above list.

(a) Which of the following is a tangent line?

P `
`
P

at least two points of intersection only one point of intersection

(b) Correct; but what if the graph is not a circle?

(c) In fact, the tangent and contangent of an angle are measures of line segments which
are tangent to a circle (see enrichment).

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 (d) Touching and intersecting are very similar concepts in mathematics. The distinction
may arise from the interpretation that a line touching a curve stays entirely on one
side (below or above) of the curve, while intersecting means that the tangent line
“cuts through” the curve (the tangent line is above the curve to the left of the point
of tangency while it is below the curve to the right of the point of tangency, or vice
versa).

tangent line “touches” the graph tangent line “cuts through” the graph
Is the line on the second graph a tangent line or not?
(e) English usage: adjacent with no space in between

Teacher: Also, ask them what they think is the tangent line to a line.

P `
What is the tangent line to ` at P ?

Answer: The tangent line to a line is itself. See Example 3 below.

(B) ACTIVITY

TANGENT LINES TO CIRCLES

• Recall from geometry class that a tangent line to a circle centered at O is a line
intersecting the circle at exactly one point. It is found by constructing the line, through
a point A on the circle, that is perpendicular to the segment (radius) OA.

• A secant line to a circle is a line intersecting the circle at two points.

Remark 1: The difficulty in defining the concept of the tangent line is due to an axiom
in Euclidean geometry that states that a line is uniquely determined by two distinct
points.

Thus, the definition of a tangent line is more delicate because it is determined by only one
point, and infinitely many lines pass through a point.

Draw the unit circle and mark several points (including (0, ±1) and (±1, 0)) on it. Ask the
class how they would draw tangent lines at these points. Elicit from them the following
facts about the tangent lines to the circle at different points:

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 (a) At (±1, 0), the tangent lines are vertical;
(b) At (0, ±1), the tangent lines are horizontal;
(c) At points in the first and third quadrants, the tangent lines are slanting to the left;
and
(d) At points in the second and fourth quadrants, the tangent lines are slanting to the
right.

(C) LESSON PROPER

HOW TO DRAW TANGENT LINES TO CURVES AT A POINT

The definition of a tangent line is not very easy to explain without involving limits. Students
can imagine that locally, the curve looks like an arc of a circle. Hence, they can draw the
tangent line to the curve as they would to a circle.

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 y

y = f (x)

f (c)

x
c

One more way to see this is to choose the line through a point that locally looks most like
the curve. Among all the lines through a point (c, f (c)), the one which best approximates
the curve y = f (x) near the point (c, f (c)) is the tangent line to the curve at that point.
y

y = f (x)
tangent line

f (c)

x
c
Among all lines passing through (c, f (c)), the tangent line is the closest to the curve locally.

Another way of qualitatively understanding the tangent line is to visualize the curve as a
roller coaster (see [7], p. 103). The tangent line to the curve at a point is parallel to the
line of sight of the passengers looking straight ahead and sitting erect in one of the wagons
of the roller coaster.

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 y
y

tangent line tangent line

line of sight

P (c, f (c))

x
x
c c

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 EXAMPLE 1: Ask the class what they think are the tangent lines at the “peaks” and
“troughs” of a smooth curve.

Notice that on the unit circle, these points correspond to the points (0, 1) and (0, 1), so
whenever the graph is smooth (meaning, there are no sharp corners), the tangent lines at
the “peaks” and “troughs” are always horizontal.

Boardwork

1
y=2 2 (x 3)3

EXAMPLE 2: The following is the graph A

of y = 2 12 (x 3)3 . Ask the class to
draw the tangent lines at each of the given
B
points A, B, and C.
C

THE TANGENT LINE DEFINED MORE FORMALLY

Q
The precise definition of a tangent line relies
on the notion of a secant line. Let C be y = f (x)
the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) P
and let P be a point on C. A secant line to
y = f (x) through P is any line connecting
P and another point Q on C. In the figure
on the right, the line P Q is a secant line of
y = f (x) through P .

We now construct the tangent line to y = f (x) at P .

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 Choose a point Q on the right side of P , and
connect the two points to construct the secant Q2 Q1 Q
line P Q. y = f (x)
P
Choose another point Q1 in between P and Q.
Connect the two points P and Q1 to construct
the secant line P Q1 .

Choose another point Q2 in between P and Q1 .

Construct the secant line P Q2 .

Consider also the case when Q is to the left of P and perform the same process. Intuitively,
we can define the tangent line through P to be the limiting position of the secant lines P Q
as the point Q (whether to the left or right of P ) approaches P .
`

Q
y = f (x)
If the sequence of secant lines to the graph of
P
y = f (x) through P approaches one limiting
position (in consideration of points Q to the left
and from the right of P ), then we define this line
to be the tangent line to y = f (x) at P .

We summarize below the definitions of the secant line through a point, and the tangent
line at a point of the graph of y = f (x).

Definition
Let C be the graph of a continuous function y = f (x) and let P be a point on C.
1. A secant line to y = f (x) through P is any line connecting P and another
point Q on C.
2. The tangent line to y = f (x) at P is the limiting position of all secant lines
P Q as Q ! P .

Remark 2: Notice the use of the articles a and the in the definition above. It should
be emphasized that if a tangent line exists, then it must be unique, much the same as in
limits.

EXAMPLE 3: The tangent line to another line at any point is the line itself. (This debunks
the idea that a tangent line touches the graph at only one point!) Indeed, let ` be a line

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 and let P be on `. Observe that no matter what point Q on ` we take, the secant line P Q
is ` itself. Hence, the limiting position of a line ` is ` itself.

P `
The tangent line to ` at any point P is itself!

EXAMPLE 4: Our definition of the tangent line allows for

a vertical tangent line. We have seen this on the unit circle p
y= 3
x
at points (1, 0) and ( 1, 0). A vertical tangent line may also
p
exist even for continuous functions. Draw the curve y = 3 x
P
and mark the point P (0, 0). Allow the class to determine the
tangent line to the graph at P using the formal definition.
Consider the two cases: when Q is to the right of P and when `

Q is to the left of P .

CURVES THAT DO NOT HAVE TANGENT LINES

It is possible that the tangent line to a graph of a function at a point P (x0 , f (x0 )) does not
exist. There are only two cases when this happens:
1. The case when the function is not continuous at x0 : It is clear from the definition of
the tangent line that the function must be continuous.
2. The case when the function has a sharp corner/cusp at P : This case produces different
limiting positions of the secant lines P Q depending on whether Q is to the left or to
the right of P .

Remark 3: The word “sharp corner” is more commonly used for joints where only lines
are involved. For example, the absolute value function y = |x| has a sharp corner at
the origin. In contrast, the term “cusp” is often used when at least one graph involved
represents a nonlinear function. See the graphs below.

corner at P cusp at P

In the above examples, each has a sharp corner/cusp at P . Choosing Q to be points

to the left of P produces a different limiting position than from choosing Q to the
right of P . Since the two limiting positions do not coincide, then the tangent line at
P does not exist. (This is the same thing that happens when the limit from the left
of c differs from the limit from the right of c, where we then conclude that the limit
does not exist.)

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 Teaching Tip: Suggestions for learning assessment
1. Assess learning on this topic by drawing graphs on the board, marking points
and asking volunteers to draw the tangent line at each point. Make sure
that you mark all stationary points (where the tangent line is horizontal) and
inflection points (where the tangent line “cuts through” the graph).

2. To assess the students’ understanding of the formal definition, get a straight

edge and try to animate on the board what happens as the secant lines ap-
proach the tangent line. Of course, the pivot must be on the point where
the tangent line is wanted. This can also be done using a string that is fixed
at the point where we want the tangent line to be. Let the class try this as
boardwork. Consider points which are to the left and to the right of the fixed
point.

3. Notice that the formal definition of the tangent line involves a limit of a se-
quence of lines. This poses a problem because the limits that have been dis-
cussed before are for functions which involve numbers, and not for geometric
objects. Ask the class what number is associated with a line so that instead of
looking for a limiting position, we would be looking for a limit of an algebraic
expression. Answer: slope of a line

ENRICHMENT

1. Show using similar triangles that tan ✓ and cot ✓ are the
respective measures of line segments AR and BQ, which Q
B
are tangent to the unit circle. (Hint: It should be clear, S
P
beforehand, that |AO| = |OB| = 1, cos ✓ = |OC| = |SP |
and sin ✓ = |P C| = |SO|.) ✓
O C A

2. We have seen that for a smooth graph, the tangent lines at the stationary points are
always horizontal. Ask the class if the converse is true, that is, if the tangent line at a
point P is horizontal, does it follow that P is a local extremum point? Answer: No, see
point B in Example 2.

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TOPIC 5.2: The Equation of the Tangent Line

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION
In the previous lesson, we defined the tangent line at a point P as the limiting position of
the secant lines P Q, where Q is another point on the curve, as Q approaches P . There is
a slight problem with this definition because we have no means of computing the limit of
lines. Hence, we need to work on the numbers that characterize the lines.

Teaching Tip
Ask the class what things determine lines; in particular, what is the minimum that
you should know so that you can draw one and only one line. Expect correct answers
such as two points, slope and y-intercept, the two intercepts, a point and the slope.
Give prominence to the last of the list, emphasizing that there are infinitely many
lines passing thru a point; there are infinitely many (parallel) lines with the same
slope, but there is only one line passing through a point with a given slope.

• Recall the slope of a line passing through two points (x0 , y0 ) and (x, y).

Recall: Slope of a Line

A line ` passing through distinct points (x0 , y0 ) and (x, y) has slope
y y0
m` = .
x x0
EXAMPLE 1: Given A(1, 3), B(3, 2), and C( 1, 0), what are the slopes of the
lines AB, AC and BC?

Solution. The slope of AB is

2 ( 3) 1
mAB = = .
3 1 2

The slope of AC is
0 ( 3) 3
mAC = = .
1 1 2
The slope of BC is
0 ( 2) 2 1
mBC = = = .
1 3 4 2
.

• Recall the point-slope form of the equation of the line with slope m and passing
through the point P (x0 , y0 ).

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 Recall: Point-Slope Form
The line passing through (x0 , y0 ) with slope m has the equation

y y0 = m(x x0 ).

EXAMPLE 2: From Example 1 above, since mAB = 12 , then using A(1, 3) as our
point, then the point-slope form of the equation of AB is
1 1
y ( 3) = (x 1) or y + 3 = (x 1).
2 2

Teaching Tip
Ask the class what would happen if we had chosen B(3, 2) as our point
instead of A. Answer: We would get an equivalent equation.

(B) LESSON PROPER

THE EQUATION OF THE TANGENT LINE

Given a function y = f (x), how do we find the equation of the tangent line at a point
P (x0 , y0 )?

Consider the graph of a function y = f (x) whose graph is given below. Let P (x0 , y0 ) be a
point on the graph of y = f (x). Our objective is to find the equation of the tangent line
(T L) to the graph at the point P (x0 , y0 ).

TL
Q
y
y = f (x)

y0 P

x0 x

• Find any point Q(x, y) on the curve.

• Get the slope of this secant line P Q.
y y0
mP Q = .
x x0

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 • Observe that letting Q approach P is equivalent to letting x approach x0 .

Teaching Tip
Illustrate this by choosing points x1 and x2 in between x and x0 and projecting
it vertically to the corresponding points Q1 and Q2 on the graph. The class
should be able to see this equivalence.

We use the formal definition of the tangent line:

• Since the tangent line is the limiting position of the secant lines as Q approaches P ,
it follows that the slope of the tangent line (T L) at the point P is the limit of the
slopes of the secant lines P Q as x approaches x0 . In symbols,

y y0 f (x) f (x0 )
mT L = lim = lim .
x!x0 x x0 x!x0 x x0

• Finally, since the tangent line passes through P (x0 , y0 ), then its equation is given by

y y0 = mT L (x x0 ).

Teaching Tip
It is up to you if you want your students to put this into standard (slope-
intercept) form. This is of course not an objective but it helps for easy checking
of final answers.

SUMMARY AND EXAMPLES

Equation of the Tangent Line

To find the equation of the tangent line to the graph of y = f (x) at the point
P (x0 , y0 ), follow this 2-step process:

• Get the slope of the tangent line by computing

y y0 f (x) f (x0 )
m = lim or m = lim .
x!x0 x x0 x!x0 x x0

• Substitute this value of m and the coordinates of the known point P (x0 , y0 )
into the point-slope form to get

y y0 = m(x x0 ).

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 EXAMPLE 3: Find the equation of the tangent
line to y = x2 at x = 1.

Solution. To get the equation of the line, we need

the point P (x0 , y0 ) and the slope m. We are only
given x0 = 2. However, the y-coordinate of x0 is
easy to find by substituting x0 = 2 into y = x2 . This
gives us y0 = 4. Hence, P has the coordinates (2, 4). y = x2
Now, we look for the slope:

y y0 x2 4 P
lim = lim = 4.
x!x0 x x0 x!2 x 2
Finally, the equation of the tangent line with slope
2
m = 4 and passing through P (2, 4) is

y 4 = 4(x 2) or y = 4x 4.

Teaching Tip
If you want to make your own examples, make sure that P is a point on the curve.
For example, it does not make sense to find the equation of the tangent line to
y = x2 at the point P (2, 3) since P is not on the parabola (3 6= 22 ). You could
modify this to P (2, 4) or better yet, for later examples, you can just ask for the
tangent line at a specific x-coordinate.

p
EXAMPLE 4: Find the slope-intercept form of the tangent line to f (x) = x at x = 4.

p
y= x
P

p p
Solution. Again, we find the y-coordinate of x0 = 4: y0 = f (x0 ) = x0 = 4 = 2. Hence,
P has coordinates (4, 2). Now, we look for the slope of the tangent line. Notice that we

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 have to rationalize the numerator to evaluate the limit.
p p
f (x) f (x0 ) x 2 x+2
m = lim = lim ·p
x!x0 x x0 x!4 x 4 x+2
x 4
= lim p
x!4 (x 4)( x + 2)
1 1
= lim p = .
x!4 x+2 4

Finally, with point P (4, 2) and slope m = 41 , the equation of the tangent line is
1 x
y 2 = (x 4) or y= + 1.
4 4
.

The next example shows that our process of finding the tangent line works even for hori-
zontal lines.

EXAMPLE 5: Show that the tangent line to y = 3x2 12x + 1 at the point (2, 11) is
horizontal.

Solution. Recall that a horizontal line has zero slope. Now, computing for the slope, we
get:

y y0 (3x2 12x + 1) ( 11)

m = lim = lim
x!x0 x x0 x!2 x 2
3(x2 4x + 4)
= lim
x!2 x 2
= lim (3(x 2)) = 0.
x!2

Since the slope of the tangent line is 0, it must be horizontal. Its equation is

y ( 11) = 0(x 2) or y= 11.

EXAMPLE 6: Verify that the tangent line to the line y = 2x + 3 at (1, 5) is the line
itself.

Solution. We first compute for the slope of the tangent line. Note that x0 = 1 and y0 = 5.
y y0 (2x + 3) 5 2x 2
m = lim = lim = lim = 2.
x!x0 x x0 x!1 x 1 x!1 x 1
Therefore, substituting this into the point-slope form with P (1, 5) and m = 2, we get

y 5 = 2(x 1) i.e., y = 2x + 3.

This is the same equation as that of the given line. .

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 (C) EXERCISES

Find the standard (slope-intercept form) equation of the tangent line to the following
functions at the specified points:
1. f (x) = 3x2 12x + 1 at the point (0, 1) Answer: y = 12x + 1
2. f (x) = 2x2 4x + 5 at the point ( 1, 11) Answer: y = 8x 9
p x
3. f (x) = x + 9 at the point where x = 0 Answer: y = + 3
6
p
?4. f (x) = 25 x2 at the point where x = 4 Answer: y = 3 + 25
4x
3
p 5x 1
?5. f (x) = x2 + x at the point where x = 1 Answer: y = 2 2

Teaching Tip
It is not productive to dwell on finding the slope of the tangent line to very com-
plicated functions. A more efficient way of finding this will be given in the next
sections when we discuss derivatives.

(D) ENRICHMENT

This section explores the equation of vertical tangent lines. In the last topic, we remarked
that vertical tangent lines may exist. However, we know that the slope of a vertical line
does not exist or is undefined. How do we reconcile these seemingly contradicting ideas?
p
For example, consider the vertical tangent line to the y= 3x
p
graph of y = 3 x at P (0, 0). If we compute its slope,
we have P
p
y y0 3
x 0 1
m = lim = lim = lim p .
x!x0 x x0 x!0 x 0 x!0 3
x2 `
✓ ◆
1
Observe that the last expression is undefined if we substitute x with 0. Hence, the
0
slope of this tangent line is undefined.

Therefore, our computation for the slope of the tangent line to this curve is actually con-
sistent with our idea of the slope of a vertical line. The next question to ask is: Does
this tangent line have an equation? The answer is yes. Recall that a vertical line passing
through the point (x0 , y0 ) possesses the equation x = x0 .

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 Equation of Vertical Tangent Lines
Let f be a function that is continuous at x0 . Assuming that the tangent line to the
graph of y = f (x) at the point P (x0 , y0 ) is vertical, then its equation is

x = x0 .

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 TOPIC 5.3: The Definition of the Derivative

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION

The expression
f (x) f (x0 )
lim
x!x0 x x0
computes more than just the slope of the tangent line. The fraction in the limit also
gives us the relative change of the function on the time or space interval [x0 , x]. Thus,
we may interpret this limit as the instantaneous rate of change of f with respect to x.
(See Enrichment) It is therefore fitting to make an abstraction out of this. Afterwards, we
can regard this as a tool that can be used in finding the slope of the tangent line, or in
finding the instantaneous rate of change. In what follows, we define this expression as the
derivative of f (x) at x0 .

(B) LESSON PROPER

We present the formal definition of the derivative.

Definition of the Derivative

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ✓ R, and let x0 2 I. The derivative
of f at x0 is defined to be

f (x) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim
x!x0 x x0
if this limit exists. That is, the derivative of f at x0 is the slope of the tangent line
at (x0 , f (x0 )), if it exists.

Notations: If y = f (x), the derivative of f is commonly denoted by

d d dy
f 0 (x), Dx [f (x)], [f (x)], [y], .
dx dx dx

Remark 1: Note that the limit definition of the derivative is inherently indeterminate!
0
Hence, the usual techniques for evaluating limits which are indeterminate of type are
0
applied, e.g., factoring, rationalization, or using one of the following established
limits:

sin x 1 cos x ex 1
(i) lim =1 (ii) lim =0 (iii) lim = 1.
x!0 x x!0 x x!0 x

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 EXAMPLE 1: Compute f 0 (1) for each of the following functions:

1. f (x) = 3x 1 2x
3. f (x) =
x+1
p
2. f (x) = 2x2 + 4 4. f (x) = x + 8

Solution. Here, x0 is fixed to be equal to 1. Using the definition above,

f (x) f (1)
f 0 (1) = lim .
x!1 x 1
Remember that what we are computing, f 0 (1), is just the slope of the tangent line to
y = f (x) at x = 1.

1. Note that f (1) = 2, so by factoring

(3x
1) 2
f 0 (1) = lim
x!1 x 1
3(x 1)
= lim
x!1 x 1
= lim 3
x!1

= 3.

2. Here, f (1) = 6 so again, by factoring,

(2x2 + 4) 6
f 0 (1) = lim
x!1 x 1
2(x + 1)(x 1)
= lim
x!1 x 1
= lim 2(x + 1)
x!1

= 4.

3. We see that f (1) = 1. So, from the definition,

2x
x+1 1
f 0 (1) = lim .
x!1 x 1
We multiply both the numerator and the denominator by x + 1 to simplify the complex
fraction:
2x
x+1 x+1 1
f 0 (1) = lim ·
x!1 x 1 x+1
2x (x + 1)
= lim
x!1 (x 1)(x + 1)
x 1
= lim
x!1 (x 1)(x + 1)
1 1
= lim = .
x!1 x + 1 2

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 4. Note that f (1) = 3. Therefore, by rationalizing the numerator (meaning, multiplying
p
by x + 8 + 3),
p p
0 x+8 3 x+8+3
f (1) = lim ·p
x!1 x 1 x+8+3
(x + 8) 9
= lim p
x!1 (x 1)( x + 8 + 3)
1
= lim p
x!1 x+8+3
1
= .
6
.

AN EQUIVALENT DEFINITION OF THE DERIVATIVE

Recall that we have defined the derivative of a function f at x0 as follows:

f (x) f (x0 )
lim .
x x0
x!x0

There is another definition of the derivative which is derived by using the substitution

x = x0 + ∆x (2.1)

into the above limit definition of the derivative.

Observe that ∆x measures the displacement as we move from x to x0 . Thus, in the figure
below, the point to the right of x0 becomes x0 + ∆x, if ∆x > 0. It should be clear
algebraically from (2.1), and from the figure, that letting x approach x0 is equivalent
to letting ∆x approach 0. Applying the substitution, we now have
f (x0 + ∆x) f (x0 )
f 0 (x0 ) = lim .
∆x!0 (x0 + ∆x) x0

TL
Q
f (x0 + ∆x)
y = f (x)
P
f (x0 )

x0 x0 + ∆x
∆x

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 We present this fact formally below:

Alternative Definition of the Derivative

Let f be a function defined on an open interval I ✓ R, and let x 2 I. The derivative
of f at x is defined to be

f (x + ∆x) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim (2.2)
∆x!0 ∆x
if this limit exists.

Teaching Tip
Confusion may arise when students think of ∆x as ∆ ⇥ x or ∆ as an operator that
affects x. Here, ∆x should be treated like any other variable. This is why many
textbooks use h instead of ∆x. In this case, equation (2.2) becomes

f (x + h) f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
h!0 h
Usually, this is the definition used to obtain the general expression of the derivative
of a function at any point x 2 I.

Remark 2: Please remind the students that f (x0 + h) is basically a composition of two
functions. Therefore, it is determined by replacing all instances of x in the definition of f
by x0 + h. For example, if

f (x) = x2 + 3x and g(x) = cos(3x) ex ,

then

f (x0 + h) = (x0 + h)2 + 3(x0 + h) and g(x0 + h) = cos(3(x0 + h)) ex0 +h .

EXAMPLE 2: Let f (x) = sin x, g(x) = cos x, and s(x) = ex . Find f 0 (2⇡), g 0 (⇡), and
s0 (3).

Solution. We use the alternative definition of the derivative.

(a) Here, we substitute x0 = 2⇡.

f (2⇡ + h) f (2⇡)
f 0 (2⇡) = lim
h!0 h
sin(2⇡ + h) 0
= lim .
h!0 h

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 Using the sum identity of the sine function: sin(↵ + ) = sin ↵ cos + cos ↵ sin , and
noting that sin(2⇡) = 0 and cos(2⇡) = 1, we get

sin(2⇡) cos h + cos(2⇡) sin h

f 0 (2⇡) = lim
h!0 h
sin h
= lim
h!0 h

= 1. (Why?)

(b)

g(⇡ + h) g(⇡)
g 0 (⇡) = lim
h!0 h
cos(⇡ + h) ( 1)
= lim .
h!0 h
Using the sum identity of the cosine function: cos(↵ + ) = cos ↵ cos sin ↵ sin ,
and noting that cos ⇡ = 1 and sin ⇡ = 0, we get
cos ⇡ cos h sin ⇡ sin h + 1
g 0 (⇡) = lim
h!0 h
cos h + 1
= lim
h!0 h
= 0. (Why?)

(c)

s(3 + h) s(3)
s0 (3) = lim
h!0 h
e3+h e3
= lim .
h!0 h

Using the exponent laws, e3+h = e3 eh . Moreover, since e3 is just a constant, we can
factor it out of the limit operator. So,

e3 eh e3
s0 (3) = lim
h!0 h
e h 1
= e3 lim
h!0 h
= e3 . (Why?)

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 Seatwork: Let f (x) = 2x2 + 3x 1. Use the definition of the derivative to find f 0 ( 1).

Solution. Note that f ( 1) = 2. Thus,

f (x) f ( 1)
f 0 ( 1) = lim
x! 1 x ( 1)
2x2 + 3x 1 + 2
= lim
x! 1 x+1
(2x + 1)(x + 1)
= lim
x! 1 x+1
= lim (2x + 1) = 1.
x! 1

INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY OF A PARTICLE IN RECTILINEAR MOTION

The derivative of a function is also interpreted as the instantaneous rate of change. We

discuss here a particular quantity which is important in physics – the instantaneous ve-
locity of a moving particle. The general setting of the difference between the average and
instantaneous rates of change will be presented in the Enrichment section.

Suppose that an object or a particle starts from a fixed point A and moves along a straight
line towards a point B. Suppose also that its position along line AB at time t is s. Then
the motion of the particle is completely described by the position function

s = s(t), t 0

and since the particle moves along a line, it is said to be in rectilinear motion.

EXAMPLE 3: Suppose that a particle moves along a line with position function s(t) =
2t2 + 3t + 1 where s is in meters and t is in seconds.
a. What is its initial position?
b. Where is it located after t = 2 seconds?
c. At what time is the particle at position s = 6?

Solution. .
a. The initial position corresponds to the particle’s location when t = 0. Thus,

s(0) = 2(0)2 + 3(0) + 1.

This means that the particle can be found 1 meter to the right of the origin.
b. After 2 seconds, it can now be found at position s(2) = 2(2)2 + 3(2) + 1 = 15 meters.

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 c. We equate s(t) = 2t2 + 3t + 1 = 6. So,
5
2t2 + 3t 5 = 0 () (2t + 5)(t 1) = 0 () t = or t = 1.
2
Since time cannot be negative, we choose t = 1 second.
.

t=0 t=1 t=2

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Now, we ask: What is the particle’s velocity at the instant when time t = 1?

Recall that the formula for the average velocity of a particle is

displacement s(tfinal ) s(tinitial )
average velocity = = .
time elapsed tfinal tinitial
This poses a problem because at the instant when t = 1, there is no elapsed time. We
remedy this by computing the velocity at short time intervals with an endpoint at t = 1.

For example, on the time interval [1, 2], the velocity of the particle is
s(2) s(1) 15 6
v= = = 9 m/s.
2 1 2 1
We compute the particle’s velocity on shorter intervals:

Time Interval Average Velocity Time Interval Average Velocity

[1, 1.5] 8 [0.5, 1] 6
[1, 1.1] 7.2 [0.9, 1] 6.8
[1, 1.01] 7.02 [0.99, 1] 6.98
[1, 1.001] 7.002 [0.999, 1] 6.998

We see from the tables above that the velocities of the particle on short intervals ending
or starting at t = 1 approach 7 m/s as the lengths of the time intervals approach 0. This
limit
s(t) s(1)
lim
t!1 t 1
is what we refer to as the instantaneous velocity of the particle at t = 1. However, the
limit expression above is precisely the definition of the derivative of s at t = 1, and the
instantaneous velocity is actually the slope of the tangent line at the point t = t0 if the
function in consideration is the position function. We make the connection below.

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 Instantaneous velocity
Let s(t) denote the position of a particle that moves along a straight line at each
time t 0. The instantaneous velocity of the particle at time t = t0 is

s(t) s(t0 )
s0 (t0 ) = lim ,
t!t0 t t0
if this limit exists.

EXAMPLE 4: A ball is shot straight up from a building.

Its height (in meters) from the ground at any time t (in
seconds) is given by s(t) = 40 + 35t 5t2 . Find

a. the height of the building.

Ball’s Path
b. the time when the ball hits the ground.

c. the average velocity on the interval [1, 2].

d. the instantaneous velocity at t = 1 and 2. Building

e. the instantaneous velocity at any time t0 .

Solution. .

a. The height of the building is the initial position of the ball. So, the building is s(0) = 40
meters tall.
b. The ball is on the ground when the height s of the ball from the ground is zero. Thus
we solve the time t when s(t) = 0:

30 + 40t 5t2 = 0 () 5(8 t)(1 + t) = 0 () t = 8 or t = 1.

Since time is positive, we choose t = 8 seconds.

s(2) s(1) 90 70
c. The average velocity of the ball on [1, 2] is = = 20 m/s.
2 1 2 1
d. Then instantaneous velocity at time t = 1 is

s(t) s(1) (40 + 35t 5t2 ) 70 5(t 6)(t 1)

lim = lim = lim = 25 m/s.
t!1 t 1 t!1 t 1 t!1 t 1
At time t = 2,

s(t) s(2) (40 + 35t 5t2 ) 90 5(t 5)(t 2)

lim = lim = lim = 15 m/s.
t!2 t 2 t!2 t 2 t!2 t 2

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 e. The instantaneous velocity function at any time t0 is

s(t) s(t0 ) (40 + 35t 5t2 ) (40 + 35t0 5t20 )

lim = lim
t!t0 t t0 t!1 t t0
5(t t0 )(7 (t + t0 ))
= lim
t!1 t t0
= (35 10t0 ) m/s.

Remark 3: Note that in (e) of the previous example, if we set t0 = 4, then the instan-
taneous velocity is 5 m/s. The negative sign gives the direction of the velocity (since it
is a vector quantity), and means that the ball is moving towards the negative direction of
the line, in this case, moving downwards. If the sign of the velocity is positive, then the
particle is moving towards the positive direction (that is, in the direction from the origin
towards the positive numbers) of the s-axis.

(C) EXERCISES

1. For each of the following functions, find the indicated derivative using the definition.
a. f (x) = x2 4x + 1; f 0 (2) Answer: 0
b. f (x) = x3 + 2; f 0( 2) Answer: 12
c. f (x) = 2x4 + 3x3 2x + 7; f 0 (0) Answer: 2
p
d. f (x) = 2x + 7; f 0 (1) Answer: 1/3
p
e. f (x) = 1 + x2 + 3x + 6; f 0 (2) Answer: 7/8
x
f. f (x) = ; f 0 ( 3) Answer: 4
x+4
x2 + 3
g. f (x) = ; f 0 ( 1) Answer: 14/9
4p x2
x+3
h. f (x) = ; f 0 (1) Answer: 11/36
x p4
3 5x 9
i. f (x) = ; f 0 (2) Answer: 23/18
2x 1
j. f (x) = 2 sin(⇡x); f 0 ( 3) Answer: 2⇡
k. f (x) = x2 cos x; f 0 (0) Answer: 0
l. f (x) = ex+1 ; f 0 ( 1) Answer: 1
p
?m. f (x) = 3 x 1; f 0 (9) Answer: 1/12
p
?n. f (x) = 3 7x + 6; f 0 (3) Answer: 7/27
?o. f (x) = tan(3x); f 0 (⇡/4) Answer: 6
?p. f (x) = 2 cos x 3 sin(2x); f 0 (⇡/6) Answer: 4
2
p
?q. f (x) = 1 3 sin x; f 0 (⇡/3) Answer: 3 3/2

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 ?r. f (x) = xex ; f 0 (1) Answer: 2e
x
?s. f (x) = ; f 0 (1/2) Answer: 1/2
1 + sin(⇡x)
x + cos(3⇡x)
?t. f (x) = ; f 0 (1) Answer: 1
x2

2. A billiard ball is hit and travels in a straight line. If s centimeters is the distance of
the ball from its initial position at t seconds, then s = 100t2 + 100t. If the ball hits
the cushion at 39 cm from its initial position, at what velocity does it hit the cushion
at that particular instant? (Hint: Determine first the time when s = 39 and find the
instantaneous velocity at this time.)
3. A particle is moving along a straight line and its position at any time t 0 (in seconds)
is given by s(t) = t3 6t2 + 9t meters.
a. Find the average velocity of the particle on the time interval [0, 2]?
b. Find the velocity of the particle at the instant when t = 2?
4. A stone is thrown vertically upward from the top of a building. If the equation of the
motion of the stone is s = 5t2 + 30t + 200, where s is the directed distance from the
ground in meters and t is in seconds,
a. what is the height of the building?
b. what is the average velocity on the time interval [1, 3]?
c. what is the instantaneous velocity at time t = 1?
d. at what time will the stone hit the ground?
e. what is the instantaneous velocity of the stone upon impact?

(D) ENRICHMENT

In this section, we discuss average and instantaneous rate of change.

AVERAGE RATE OF CHANGE

There are several instances where the rate of change of a certain quantity is of interest.
(a) A statistician may be interested in how the population of a certain city changes with
time.
(b) A civil engineer may want to know how the length of metal bars changes with tem-
perature.
(c) A company manager can study how the production cost of a certain product increases
as the number of manufactured products also increases.
(d) A chemist may be interested in how the volume of a certain compound changes with
increased pressure.

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 To compute the average rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity x,
we need first to establish a function f that describes the relationship of x and y. Suppose
that this relationship is given by y = f (x). Now, fix x0 in the domain of f . Then, the
average rate of change of f over the interval [x0 , x] is

∆f f (x) f (x0 )
= .
∆x x x0

EXAMPLE 5: Suppose the cost (in pesos) of manufacturing x liters of a certain solution
is given by C(x) = 20 + 5x 2x2 + x3 . Compute the average rate of change of the cost y
of producing x liters over (i) [1, 4], (ii) [1, 2], (iii) [1, 1.5].

Solution. To solve this, we need the values of C(1), C(1.5), C(2), and C(4). Computing,
we get C(1) = 20 + 5(1) 2(1)2 + 13 = P24. Similarly, C(1.5) = P26.375, C(2) = P30, and
C(4) = P72.
C(4) C(1) 72 24 48
(i) = = = P16/liter
4 1 4 1 3
C(2) C(1) 30 24 6
(ii) = = = P6/liter
2 1 2 1 1
C(1.5) C(1) 26.375 24 2.375
(iii) = = = P4.75/liter
1.5 1 1.5 1 0.5
.

Further Discussion: Try to ask the class how these values are interpreted. So, for
instance, the values above mean that you need P24 to produce the first liter. Treating
this as our baseline, we see that we need C(4) C(1) = P48 to produce three more
liters, while C(2) C(1) = P6 more to produce one more liter. However, you need only
C(1.5) C(1) = P2.375 to produce half a liter more.

Teaching Tip
Ask the class why there are cases wherein the production cost of the jth product
is different from that of the kth product. In the above example, the first product
costs P24 while the second one costs only P6 given that the first liter is already
produced.

A possible answer to this is that most of the time, the cost of producing the first
product is significantly higher because it involves the overhead costs of running the
manufacturing process. This is also the reason why products that are manufactured
in bulk are cheaper compared to those that are “made-to-order.”

Hence, on the average, given that the company has already manufactured one liter, the
production of the next three liters will cost P16/liter while it only costs P4.75/liter for the
next half-liter. You can then ask the class how much the cost per liter is if the company

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 wants to produce only a small amount after the first liter.

This table gives the average rate of change of the cost over [1, a] where a is a number very
close to 1.
C(a) C(1)
a a 1
1.3 4.39
1.2 4.24
1.1 4.11
1.01 4.0101
We see that the average rate of change over [1, a] approaches 4 as a approaches 1. We say
that this limit is the instantaneous rate of change of the cost function at x = 1.

Average and Instantaneous Rate of Change

Suppose f is a function and y = f (x).
(a) The average rate of change of y with respect to x on [x0 , x] is
∆f f (x) f (x0 )
= .
∆x x x0
(b) The instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x at x = x0 is
∆f f (x) f (x0 )
lim = lim = f 0 (x0 ).
∆x!0 ∆x x!x0 x x0

The instantaneous rate of change is what we will define to be the derivative of y with
respect to x.

EXAMPLE 6: Verify that the instantaneous rate of change of the cost function above at
x = 1 is equal to P4/liter.

Solution. Recall that the instantaneous rate of change of a function C at x = 1 is precisely

the derivative of C at x = 1. Since C(1) = 24, then
C(x) C(1) (20 + 5x 2x2 + x3 ) 24
C 0 (1) = lim = lim .
x!1 x 1 x!1 x 1
(20 + 5x 2x2 + x3 ) 24
Using synthetic or long division, we see that = x2 x + 4.
x 1
Therefore, it follows that
C 0 (1) = lim (x2 x + 4) = 4.
x!1
.

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