LESSON 2: Limits of Some Transcendental Functions and Some

Indeterminate Forms
TIME FRAME: 4 hours

LEARNING OUTCOMES: At the end of the lesson, the learner shall be able to:

1. Compute the limits of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions using tables
of values and graphs of the functions;
sin t 1 cos t et 1
2. Evaluate the limits of expressions involving , , and using tables of
t t t
values; and
“ 0”
3. Evaluate the limits of expressions resulting in the indeterminate form .
0

LESSON OUTLINE:

1. Exponential functions
2. Logarithmic functions
3. Trigonometric functions
sin t
4. Evaluating lim
t!0 t
1 cos t
5. Evaluating lim
t!0 t
et 1
6. Evaluating lim
t!0 t
“ 0”
7. Indeterminate form
0

38
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 TOPIC 2.1: Limits of Exponential, Logarithmic, and Trigonomet-
ric Functions

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION
Real-world situations can be expressed in terms of functional relationships. These func-
tional relationships are called mathematical models. In applications of calculus, it is quite
important that one can generate these mathematical models. They sometimes use functions
that you encountered in precalculus, like the exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric
functions. Hence, we start this lesson by recalling these functions and their corresponding
graphs.

(a) If b > 0, b 6= 1, the exponential function with base b is defined by

f (x) = bx , x 2 R.

(b) Let b > 0, b 6= 1. If by = x then y is called the logarithm of x to the base b, denoted
y = logb x.

Teaching Tip
Allow students to use their calculators.

(B) LESSON PROPER

EVALUATING LIMITS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

First, we consider the natural exponential function f (x) = ex , where e is called the Euler
number, and has value 2.718281....

EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate the lim ex .

x!0

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ex . We start by approaching the
number 0 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

Teaching Tip
Some students may not be familiar with the natural number e on their scientific
calculators. Demonstrate to them how to properly input powers of e on their
calculators .

39
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 x f (x)
1 0.36787944117
0.5 0.60653065971
0.1 0.90483741803
0.01 0.99004983374
0.001 0.99900049983
0.0001 0.999900049983
0.00001 0.99999000005

Intuitively, from the table above, lim ex = 1. Now we consider approaching 0 from its
x!0−
right or through values greater than but close to 0.

x f (x)
1 2.71828182846
0.5 1.6487212707
0.1 1.10517091808
0.01 1.01005016708
0.001 1.00100050017
0.0001 1.000100005
0.00001 1.00001000005

From the table, as the values of x get closer and closer to 0, the values of f (x) get closer
and closer to 1. So, lim ex = 1. Combining the two one-sided limits allows us to conclude
x!0+
that
lim ex = 1.
x!0

We can use the graph of f (x) = ex to determine its limit as x approaches 0. The figure
below is the graph of f (x) = ex .
y

Looking at Figure 1.1, as the values of x approach 0, either

from the right or the left, the values of f (x) will get closer
and closer to 1. We also have the following:

(a) lim ex = e = 2.718...

x!1
y = ex
(b) lim ex = e2 = 7.389...
x!2

(c) lim ex = e 1
= 0.367...
x! 1 1

3 2 1 0 1 2 3 x

40
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 EVALUATING LIMITS OF LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

Now, consider the natural logarithmic function f (x) = ln x. Recall that ln x = loge x.
Moreover, it is the inverse of the natural exponential function y = ex .

EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate lim ln x.

x!1

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = ln x. We first approach the
number 1 from the left or through values less than but close to 1.

x f (x)
0.1 2.30258509299
0.5 0.69314718056
0.9 0.10536051565
0.99 0.01005033585
0.999 0.00100050033
0.9999 0.000100005
0.99999 0.00001000005

Intuitively, lim ln x = 0. Now we consider approaching 1 from its right or through values
x!1−
greater than but close to 1.

x f (x)
2 0.69314718056
1.5 0.4054651081
1.1 0.0953101798
1.01 0.00995033085
1.001 0.00099950033
1.0001 0.000099995
1.00001 0.00000999995

Intuitively, lim ln x = 0. As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x)
x!1+
get closer and closer to 0. In symbols,

lim ln x = 0.
x!1

We now consider the common logarithmic function f (x) = log10 x. Recall that f (x) =
log10 x = log x.

41
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 EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim log x.
x!1

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = log x. We first approach the
number 1 from the left or through the values less than but close to 1.

x f (x)
0.1 1
0.5 0.30102999566
0.9 0.04575749056
0.99 0.0043648054
0.999 0.00043451177
0.9999 0.00004343161
0.99999 0.00000434296

Now we consider approaching 1 from its right or through values greater than but close to 1.

x f (x)
2 0.30102999566
1.5 0.17609125905
1.1 0.04139268515
1.01 0.00432137378
1.001 0.00043407747
1.0001 0.00004342727
1.00001 0.00000434292

As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 0.
In symbols,

lim log x = 0.
x!1

Consider now the graphs of both the natural and common logarithmic functions. We can
use the following graphs to determine their limits as x approaches 1..

42
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 f (x) = ln x

f (x) = log x
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 x

The figure helps verify our observations that lim ln x = 0 and lim log x = 0. Also, based
x!1 x!1
on the figure, we have

(a) lim ln x = 1 (d) lim log x = log 3 = 0.47...

x!e x!3
(b) lim log x = 1 (e) lim ln x = 1
x!10 x!0+
(c) lim ln x = ln 3 = 1.09... (f) lim log x = 1
x!3 x!0+

TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim sin x.

x!0

Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (x) = sin x. We first approach 0 from
the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

x f (x)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.4794255386
0.1 0.09983341664
0.01 0.00999983333
0.001 0.00099999983
0.0001 0.00009999999
0.00001 0.00000999999

Now we consider approaching 0 from its right or through values greater than but close to 0.

43
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 x f (x)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.4794255386
0.1 0.09983341664
0.01 0.00999983333
0.001 0.00099999983
0.0001 0.00009999999
0.00001 0.00000999999

As the values of x get closer and closer to 1, the values of f (x) get closer and closer to 0.
In symbols,
lim sin x = 0.
x!0
.

We can also find lim sin x by using the graph of the sine function. Consider the graph of
x!0
f (x) = sin x.

⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡
2 2 2 2
1

The graph validates our observation in Example 4 that lim sin x = 0. Also, using the
x!0
graph, we have the following:

(a) limπ sin x = 1. (c) limπ sin x = 1.

x! 2 x! 2

(b) lim sin x = 0. (d) lim sin x = 0.

x!⇡ x! ⇡

Teaching Tip
Ask the students what they have observed about the limit of the functions above
and their functional value at a point. Lead them to the fact that if f is either
exponential, logarithmic or trigonometric, and if c is a real number which is in the
domain of f , then
lim f (x) = f (c).
x!c

This property is also shared by polynomials and rational functions, as discussed in

Topic 1.4.

44
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 (C) EXERCISES

I. Evaluate the following limits by constructing the table of values.

1. lim 3x 5. lim tan x

x!1 x!0
x
2. lim 5
x!2 ?6. lim cos x Answer: -1
3. lim log x x!⇡
x!4
4. lim cos x ?7. lim sin x Answer: 0
x!0 x!⇡

II. Given the graph below, evaluate the following limits:

y

y = bx

1. lim bx 2. lim bx 3. lim bx

x!0 x!1.2 x! 1

III. Given the graph of the cosine function f (x) = cos x, evaluate the following limits:

⇡ ⇡ ⇡ ⇡ 3⇡ 2⇡ 5⇡ 3⇡
2 2 2 2
1

1. lim cos x 2. lim cos x 3. limπ cos x

x!0 x!⇡ x! 2

45
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TOPIC 2.2: Some Special Limits

DEVELOPMENT OF THE LESSON

(A) INTRODUCTION

sin t
We will determine the limits of three special functions; namely, f (t) = , g(t) =
t
1 cos t et 1
, and h(t) = . These functions will be vital to the computation of the
t t
derivatives of the sine, cosine, and natural exponential functions in Chapter 2.

(B) LESSON PROPER

THREE SPECIAL FUNCTIONS

sin t
We start by evaluating the function f (t) = .
t
sin t
EXAMPLE 1: Evaluate lim .
t!0 t

sin t
Solution. We will construct the table of values for f (t) = . We first approach the
t
number 0 from the left or through values less than but close to 0.

t f (t)
1 0.84147099848
0.5 0.9588510772
0.1 0.9983341665
0.01 0.9999833334
0.001 0.9999998333
0.0001 0.99999999983

Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than but close to 0.

t f (t)
1 0.8414709848
0.5 0.9588510772
0.1 0.9983341665
0.01 0.9999833334
0.001 0.9999998333
0.0001 0.9999999983

46
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 sin t sin t
Since lim and lim are both equal to 1, we conclude that
t!0− t t!0+ t

sin t
lim = 1.
t!0 t

sin t
The graph of f (t) = below confirms that the y-values approach 1 as t approaches 0.
t

sin t
1 y=
t

0.5

−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8

1 cos t
Now, consider the function g(t) = .
t
1 cos t
EXAMPLE 2: Evaluate lim .
t!0 t
1 cos t
Solution. We will construct the table of values for g(t) = . We first approach the
t
number 1 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

t g(t)
1 0.4596976941
0.5 0.2448348762
0.1 0.04995834722
0.01 0.0049999583
0.001 0.0004999999
0.0001 0.000005

Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than but close to 0.

t g(t)
1 0.4596976941
0.5 0.2448348762
0.1 0.04995834722
0.01 0.0049999583
0.001 0.0004999999
0.0001 0.000005

47
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 1 cos t 1 cos t
Since lim = 0 and lim = 0, we conclude that
t!0− t t!0+ t
1 cos t
lim = 0.
t!0 t
.

1 cos t
Below is the graph of g(t) = . We see that the y-values approach 0 as t tends to 0.
t

1
1 cos t
y=
t
0.5

−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8

−0.5

et 1
We now consider the special function h(t) = .
t
et 1
EXAMPLE 3: Evaluate lim .
t!0 t
et 1
Solution. We will construct the table of values for h(t) = . We first approach the
t
number 0 from the left or through the values less than but close to 0.

t h(t)
1 0.6321205588
0.5 0.7869386806
0.1 0.9516258196
0.01 0.9950166251
0.001 0.9995001666
0.0001 0.9999500016

Now we consider approaching 0 from the right or through values greater than but close to 0.

t h(t)
1 1.718281828
0.5 1.297442541
0.1 1.051709181
0.01 1.005016708
0.001 1.000500167
0.0001 1.000050002

48
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 et 1 et 1
Since lim = 1 and lim = 1, we conclude that
x!0− t x!0+ t
et 1
lim = 1.
x!0 t
.
et 1
The graph of h(t) = below confirms that lim h(t) = 1.
t t!0

1.5

1
et 1
y=
t
0.5

−8 −6 −4 −2 0 2

“ 0”
INDETERMINATE FORM
0
There are functions whose limits cannot be determined immediately using the Limit The-
orems we have so far. In these cases, the functions must be manipulated so that the limit,
if it exists, can be calculated. We call such limit expressions indeterminate forms.

“ 0”
In this lesson, we will define a particular indeterminate form, , and discuss how to
0
evaluate a limit which will initially result in this form.

“ 0”
Definition of Indeterminate Form of Type
0
f (x)
If lim f (x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then lim is called an indeterminate form
x!c x!c x!c g(x)
“ 0”
of type .
0

“ 0”
Remark 1: A limit that is indeterminate of type may exist. To find the actual
0
value, one should find an expression equivalent to the original. This is commonly done by
factoring or by rationalizing. Hopefully, the expression that will emerge after factoring or
rationalizing will have a computable limit.

x2 + 2x + 1
EXAMPLE 4: Evaluate lim .
x! 1 x+1
Solution. The limit of both the numerator and the denominator as x approaches 1 is 0.
0
Thus, this limit as currently written is an indeterminate form of type . However, observe
0
that (x + 1) is a factor common to the numerator and the denominator, and
x2 + 2x + 1 (x + 1)2
= = x + 1, when x 6= 1.
x+1 x+1

49
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 Therefore,
x2 + 2x + 1
lim = lim (x + 1) = 0.
x! 1 x+1 x! 1
.

x2 1
EXAMPLE 5: Evaluate lim p .
x!1 x 1
p x2 1
Solution. Since lim x2 1 = 0 and lim x 1 = 0, then lim p is an indeterminate
x!1 x!1 x!1 x 1
“ 0”
form of type . To find the limit, observe that if x 6= 1, then
0
p p
x2 1 x+1 (x 1)(x + 1)( x + 1) p
p ·p = = (x + 1)( x + 1).
x 1 x+1 x 1

So, we have
x2 1 p
lim p = lim (x + 1)( x + 1) = 4.
x!1 x + 1 x!1
.

Teaching Tip
In solutions of evaluating limits, it is a common mistake among students to forget
to write the “lim" operator. They will write

x2 1 p
lim p = (x + 1)( x + 1) = 4,
x!1 x+1

instead of always writing the limit operator until such time that they are already
substituting the value x = 1. Of course, mathematically, the equation above does
p
not make sense since (x + 1)( x + 1) is not always equal to 4. Please stress the
importance of the “lim" operator.

Remark 2: We note here that the three limits discussed in Part 1 of this section,

sin t 1 cos t et 1
lim , lim , and lim ,
t!0 t t!0 t x!0 t
“ 0”
will result in upon direct substitution. However, they are not resolved by factoring or
0
rationalization, but by a method which you will learn in college calculus.

(C) EXERCISES

I. Evaluate the following limits by constructing their respective tables of values.

50
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 t 1cos(3t)
1. lim 4. lim
t!0 sin t t!0 3t
t sin t 1 cos t
2. lim t ?5. lim · Answer: 0
t!0 e 1 t!0 t t
sin(2t) 1 cos t
3. lim ?6. lim Answer: 0
t!0 2t t!0 sin t

II. Evaluate the following limits:

p
1. lim (1 + 3
w)(2 w2 + 3w3 ) x3 7x2 + 14x 8
w!1 6. lim
x!4
p x2 3x 4
t2 1 2
x +3 2
2. lim 7. lim
t! 1 t2+ 4t + 3 2
p x p1
x! 1
◆3
2z z 2
✓
3. lim 2x 6 x
z2 4 8. lim
z!2 x!2 4 x2
2
x2 x 2 x 256
4. lim ?9. lim p Answer: 256
x! 1 x3 6x2 7x x!16 4 x
p p
4 3y 2 y 3 9q 2 4 17 + 12q p
5. lim ?10. lim Answer: 3 5
y! 2 6 y 2y 2 q! 1 2
q + 3q + 2

51
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