6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis?

An Introduction & Guide — Delve

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What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction &

Guide

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Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method for studying “language in

context.”[1] The process goes beyond analyzing words and sentences,

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establishing a deeper context about how language is used to engage in actions

and form social identity.

In Gee’s (2011) view, language is always used from a perspective and always
occurs within a context. A chat with a police officer differs from one with a
close friend. Politicians often use vague double-talk to mask contradictions
between their actions and public stance. Even a car's user manual follows
specific structural conventions.

Contextualizing how we use language provides insights into its underlying

power dynamics and real-world consequences. That’s where discourse
analysis comes in.

Discourse Analysis in Qualitative Research | Delve

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What is Discourse Analysis?

Discourse analysis (DA) is a broad term for various qualitative methods that
explore the structure and expression of language within its social and cultural
context. It looks at the linguistic content (what's said) and language use (how
it's used) in a given text to convey meaning in different social settings.

By “going beyond the word or sentence,” discourse analysis aims to grasp how
language structures both texts and social contexts. [2,3] The main goal of this
qualitative research approach is to provide a deeper understanding and
appreciation of language and “how it becomes meaningful to users.”[4]

So, discourse analysts explore how relationships between people can shape
the language they use. And also how language presents different perspectives
and understandings of the world, helping us understand how it can help
create and maintain social reality, power relations, and even our own
identities.

A discourse analyst may examine how people in a given setting use a

particular word to understand their upbringing or other people's influences
on them. Likewise, qualitative researchers may analyze words written
centuries ago to understand the writer’s situation and get broader evidence
about the writer’s society.

Here are some questions that discourse analysts might ask:

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• How does language construct identity in different contexts?

• How does language negotiate or influence power?

• How does language create and maintain reality?

• How do frames of reference influence language interpretation?

• How can language promote social change?

By posing questions that delve beneath the surface of language, you can
uncover the subtleties that help us comprehend the power and influence of it.

Key Concepts of Discourse Analysis

Some of the core concepts in discourse analysis include:

• Context: Discourse analysts are interested in how the context of a

communicative event affects the meaning of the language used. For
example, the meaning of "home" will differ depending on whether it is
spoken to a family member, a friend, or a stranger.

• Power: Discourse analysts also examine how power relations are

reflected in language use. For example, how a manager speaks to an
employee will likely differ from how the employee speaks to the
manager.

• Identity: Discourse can also be used to construct and maintain different

identities. For example, how a politician speaks in a campaign speech
tends to differ from how they speak to their constituents in a private
meeting.

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What is Discourse?
Before continuing, let’s establish what “discourse” really means.

Discourse is not just language. It’s the way we use language to communicate
with each other in social situations. It is a way to share our thoughts and
ideas, build relationships, establish culture, influence others, and create
meaning in our world.

Think of discourse as the language tailored to social contexts. On one hand,

language is a tool to initiate social change or achieve specific objectives. For
example, in political discourse, people use persuasive language. A discourse
analyst would study what’s said in these situations to achieve particular
outcomes, such as winning an election.

But language is not limited to achieving grand objectives. It’s also intertwined
with our daily interactions, leading discourse analysts to study how it’s used.
Body language, pauses, and eye contact (among others) help us position
ourselves in regular conversations with others in day-to-day life and to make
meaning of the world.

Discourse analysis provides a lens through which we can view the many
functions of language. This includes shaping prevailing power structures,

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constructing societal narratives, influencing our everyday dialogues, molding

opinions, and more.

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What Are Types of

Discourse Analysis?
Discourse analysis is a broad, interdisciplinary field that includes various
qualitative methods for studying language use. Due to the ever-evolving
nature of the field, scholars have varying opinions on the specific number
of discourse analysis types.

Some common approaches to discourse analysis include:

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• Narrative Analysis

Narrative analysis is the study of how stories are told and how they
shape our understanding of the world. Narrative analysts are interested
in story structure, content, and function. They may also be interested in
how stories are told in different social contexts and how they are used to
construct and maintain social identities and power relations.

For example, you might study how the story of Christopher Columbus is
told in different cultures and how it shapes people's understanding of
heroism.

• Conversation Analysis (CA)

Conversation analysis studies everyday conversation. CA researchers

are interested in the micro-level details of conversation, such as turn-
taking (speaking vs. listening), gaze (eye contact), and body language.
They may also be interested in how conversation is used to achieve
different social goals, such as building relationships, managing conflict,
and exchanging information.

If you’re a conversation analyst, you could study how people use turn-
taking and gaze to negotiate social status in a job interview.

• Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

Critical discourse analysis focuses on the relationship between language

and power. CDA researchers are interested in how language is used to

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construct and maintain social inequalities. They may also be interested in

how language can be used to challenge and resist social oppression.

You might study how politicians use language to construct and maintain
social divisions in a campaign speech. Think “us vs. them” or “haves vs.
have-nots.”

• Foucauldian Discourse Analysis

Foucauldian discourse analysis is a type of CDA based on Michel

Foucault's theories. Foucault argued that discourse is not simply a tool
for communication but that it also plays a role in shaping our knowledge
and understanding of the world. Foucauldian discourse analysts are
interested in how discourse is used to construct and maintain social
norms and power relations.

If you’re a Foucauldian discourse analyst, you might study how medical

discourse constructs and maintains the power of doctors over patients.

• Rhetorical Analysis

Rhetorical analysis examines how language is used to persuade, inform,

and entertain. It looks at the speaker or writer's purpose, audience, and
the strategies they use to achieve their purpose. They may also be
interested in the use of rhetorical devices, such as metaphors, similes,
and rhetorical questions.

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In MLK’s “I Have A Dream” speech, he uses the metaphor of a

"promissory note" to expose the American government's hypocrisy. A
rhetorical analyst may study how metaphors are used in speeches to
appeal to an audience's emotions.

• Ethnography of Communication

Ethnography of communication is a research approach that combines

ethnography and discourse analysis methods. Ethnographers of
communication study how language is used in different cultural and
social contexts. They may be interested in how language is used to
construct and maintain relationships, negotiate social meaning, and
perform social identities.

An ethnographer of communication might study how people use

language to build relationships and negotiate social meaning in a
workplace setting.

• Pragmatics

Pragmatics is the study of how language is used in context. Pragmatists

are interested in how we use language to convey meaning beyond the
literal meaning of the words we use. They may be interested in the role
of factors such as intonation, body language, and shared knowledge in
communication.

A pragmatist might study how speakers use intonation and body

language like eye-rolling to convey sarcasm or politeness.

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• Variation Analysis

Variation analysis studies how language varies across different social

groups and contexts. It is interested in factors contributing to language
variation, such as age, region, social class, and gender. They may also be
interested in the implications of language variation for social identity
and power relations.

Tomayto or tomahtoe? A variation analyst might study how the

pronunciation of the word "tomato" varies across different regions of
the United States.

These approaches do occasionally cross paths. Narrative analysis and

critical discourse analysis can both be used to examine how language is
used to construct identity. Conversation analysis and ethnography of
communication can both be used to examine how language is used to
negotiate power relations in social interactions.

While there is overlap between these sub-types, each maintains its

unique focus and priorities, offering different prisms through which to
examine language use.

Where Different Discourse

Analysis Types Fit

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In Gee’s view, all sub-methods of discourse analysis fit within the two
broader approaches to discourse analysis: 1) language-in-use and 2)
socio-political.

Language-In-Use Approaches (How It’s Used)

You choose language-in-use approaches to focus on the linguistics of

language use, such as grammar, syntax, phonology, and structure. They
aim to identify and analyze how these finer language details are used and
manipulated in social contexts.

Lee & Bhuyan (2013) show how conversation analysts analyze

conversational markers by coding conversation transcripts. They aim to
code conversational markers according to their function (e.g., turn-
taking, overlap, exhalation, disagreement) and try to grasp how this
language is used to negotiate meaning and construct knowledge.

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Figure 1. Transcription symbols in conversation analysis (Lee

& Bhuyan, 2013, pp. 98-130)

Socio-Political Approaches (What’s Said)

Socio-political approaches to discourse analysis take a more

philosophical stance. They are primarily concerned with how language
constructs and sustains societal power dynamics. It's important to note
that while politics is one focal point of socio-political methods, these
approaches have broader applications.

For instance, discourse analysts may use socio-political methods, like

rhetorical analysis, to study climate change discourse in scientific
contexts. Supran and Oreskes (2021) examined 180 ExxonMobil climate-
change communications promoting the "Fossil Fuel Savior" (FFS). They
revealed how the corporation employs climate "risk" rhetoric and
consumer "demand" to downplay climate change, normalize fossil-fuel
consumption, and shift responsibility to individuals.

Applying rhetorical analysis allowed the researchers to reveal the

patterned framing of climate change in scientific discourse, whether as a
scientific, political, or moral issue.

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Figure 2. Graphical abstract of Fossil Fuel Savior (FFS) Frame

(Supran & Oreskes, 2021, pp. 696–719)

Here's a summary of how the specific approaches align with these

broader categories:

Language-in-use approaches:

• Narrative analysis

• Conversation analysis

• Pragmatics

Socio-political approaches:

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• Critical discourse analysis (CDA)

• Foucauldian discourse analysis

• Ethnography of communication

• Rhetorical analysis

Approach Type

Narrative analysis Language-in-use

Conversation analysis Language-in-use

Pragmatics Language-in-use

Critical discourse analysis (CDA) Socio-political

Foucauldian discourse analysis Socio-political

Ethnography of communication Socio-political

Rhetorical Analysis Socio-political

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When to Use Discourse

Analysis
Discourse analysis is used in linguistics, psychology, sociology,
anthropology, communication, education, and other fields.

Here are some common objectives of discourse analysis:

• To study how language creates and maintains social identities.

• To study how language creates and maintains power relations.

• To examine how language is shaped by and reflects social and

cultural values.

• To analyze how language is used to construct and maintain social

reality.

• To identify and understand the different ways in which language

can be used to persuade, inform, or entertain.

• To study the relationship between language and other social

phenomena, such as education, employment, and the media.

Materials For Discourse Analysis

You can apply DA to any instance of written or oral language, including

non-verbal aspects of communication like tones and gestures. Some
examples include:
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• Written texts

○ Books, newspapers, periodicals, magazines, brochures,

advertisements, business and government documents,
websites, forums, social media posts, and comments.

• Spoken texts:

○ Interviews, conversations, lectures, sermons, political

speeches, and courtroom testimony.

The following sections will cover how to analyze your materials for
discourse analysis.

Qualitative analysis
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overwhelming
Take Delve's free online course to learn
how to find themes and patterns in your
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How to Do Discourse
Analysis
There is no clear-cut method for conducting discourse analysis, as
several approaches exist. However, here are some fundamental
steps for conducting a research study involving discourse analysis.

SETUP
Step 1: Determine Your Research Approach

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The first step is to choose a discourse analysis approach that aligns

with your research questions and objectives. Consider the broader
context of your study, such as the field you are working in and the
type of data you will analyze when choosing an approach. You can
choose any of the seven subtypes listed above – or other options.

Step 2: Gather Data (Analytical & Contextual)

Once you have chosen an approach, you collect data. The type of
data you collect will depend on your research questions and the
approach you are using. Common data sources include interviews,
surveys, social media posts, news articles, and academic papers. You
can find a comprehensive list of material options in previous
sections.

You should also explore how the material was produced and the
medium (political speech, magazine, interview, etc.). By holistically
considering all these elements, you gain a better contextual
understanding of your data.

Step 3: Prepare Your Data

Once you have collected your data, you should organize it for
efficient analysis. If you are using hard copies, make additional
annotated versions. If you use digital data, create a system for
tagging and organizing your files.

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The interpretive steps in discourse analysis can be time-consuming.

It helps to organize your data for easy reference by establishing a
data-tracking process. There isn't a universal approach.

For reference, language-in-use methods tend to annotate small text

chunks for linguistic features, numbering each line of text as a
reference marker. Socio-political approaches tend to use larger data
sets to uncover larger, overarching ideas. You can organize the
process manually by pen and paper, using an Excel spreadsheet or
word processor or QDA software like Delve to streamline your data
analysis.

Systemizing the research process will make it easier to navigate to

the relevant passages in your data during analysis. It also lets you
start devising how to present reader-friendly results in the write-
up. Sunderland (2018) offers a simple outline of how one could
organize data but warns things are not always as neat as this table.

Figure 3. An example template for organizing discourse

analysis (Sunderland, 2018, pp. 9 - 28)

ANALYSIS
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Step 4: Contextualize Your Data

Your data was not created in a vacuum. Think back to our earlier
example of the critical discourse analyst studying centuries-old
texts. They use language as the key to unlock broader insights into
the author's society, achieving a better understanding of the data's
complete context. Your data should include social, historical, and
cultural background, as well as the source's origin, language, and
audience reception.

Here, the process actually began in step 2. Collecting information

about material production and its presentation medium is crucial
for putting your data into context.

In this section, we've focused on discourse analysis as an example.

Keep in mind that the approach might look entirely different when
dealing with language-in-use methods that stay much closer to the
text, such as conversation analysis or narrative analysis.

Step 5: Examine the Structure of the Text

After contextualizing your data, you analyze how the author has
organized their ideas and arguments. This forms its “structure,”
which can provide further context.

Look for key sections where the main ideas are concentrated, and
understand how they relate to one another. You also want to

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analyze how the author or speaker presents arguments through

headings, formatting, introductions, and conclusions.

For example, you can identify the key arguments that the author is
making and how they are supporting those arguments. You can also
identify the different viewpoints that are represented in the text
and how the author is negotiating those viewpoints.

Understanding the text structure, you can better understand the

author's purpose and meaning. It also helps improve the rigor of
your qualitative analysis and results.

Tips for analyzing text structure:

• Read the text carefully and take notes. As you read, pay
attention to the author's main ideas and how they are
organized. You may find it helpful to take notes or memos on
the key sections of the text and their connections to each
other.

• Look for signal words and phrases. Signal words and phrases
are used to indicate the structure of a text. For example,
words like "first," "second," and "third" often indicate a
chronological order. Words like "however," "on the other
hand," and "in contrast" often indicate a compare/contrast
structure.

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• Use graphic organizers. Graphic organizers can be helpful for

visualizing the structure of a text. Some common graphic
organizers include flow charts, co-occurrence matrices, Venn
diagrams, and mind maps.

Step 6: Collect and Analyze Discursive

Statements

After coding and analyzing text structure, you move on to collect

and dissect discursive statements. Let’s start here: what is a
discursive statement?

Discursive statements are the basic building blocks of discourse.

They are coherent units of meaning that are used to construct and
maintain social realities. Discursive statements can be simple or
complex, but they all share a common feature: they are sentences or
phrases used to convey ideas or arguments on a topic.

A discursive statement about climate change might be: "Climate

change is a real and serious threat to our planet." This statement is
coherent and meaningful, and it expresses a clear position on the
issue of climate change.

Equally important are discourse strands, which are coherent sets of

discursive statements that are related to a particular topic or issue.
They are often used to position a speaker or writer in relation to a

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particular audience. Discourse strands are the overarching themes

arising when grouping related discursive statements.

A climate change discourse strand might include discursive

statements like: "Human activities cause climate change," "Climate
change has global negative impacts," and "Climate change is a real
and serious threat to our planet."

This discourse strand is also coherent and meaningful, and it

positions the speaker or writer as someone who is concerned about
climate change and believes that action needs to be taken to
address it.

Tips for using discursive statements:

• Uncover key messages in a text.

• Grasp the author's positioning concerning the audience.

• Reveal underlying values and assumptions.

• Understand how text constructs social reality.

• Identify discourse strands.

If you’re new to discourse analysis, start by analyzing discursive

statements in different texts like news articles or political speeches.
This sharpens your ability to identify and analyze these statements
and deepens your grasp of discourse in various contexts.

Lenses For Analyzing Discursive Statements

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Gee offers 28 lenses or “tools” to help dissect discursive sentences.

[5] He suggests that by using different lenses to frame and interpret
data, we can better understand how language is used to
communicate, persuade, and construct meaning.

Here, you want to build upon the context gleaned during steps 3 and
4. Remember that qualitative analysis is an iterative process. The
more you can contextualize your research and understand all
frames of reference, the more rigorous your results become.

Here are some of the different lenses to choose from, each offering
a unique perspective on the structure and meaning of these
sentences:

• Identify Linguistic and Rhetorical Mechanisms: Linguistic and

rhetorical mechanisms are what authors use to create and
convey meaning in texts. These tools/lenses include word
groups, grammar features, rhetorical figures, direct and
indirect speech, modalities, and evidentiality.

○ Word groups are combinations of words that have a

specific meaning. For example, the phrase "climate
change" is a word group that refers to a specific
phenomenon.

○ Grammar features are the rules that govern how words

are combined to form sentences. For example, the

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grammar feature of subject-verb agreement ensures

that the subject and verb of a sentence agree in number.

○ Rhetorical figures are special ways of using language to

create a particular effect. For example, the rhetorical
figure of simile is used to compare two things using the
words "like" or "as."

○ Direct and indirect speech are two ways of reporting

what someone has said. Direct speech is when you
repeat someone's words exactly, while indirect speech is
when you report what they said without using their
exact words.

○ Modalities are words that express the speaker's or

writer's attitude towards the truth of a statement. For
example, the modal verb "may" expresses uncertainty,
while the modal verb "must" expresses certainty.

○ Evidentiality is a way of expressing how the speaker or

writer knows something. For example, the word "saw"
expresses that the speaker or writer witnessed
something directly, while the word "heard" expresses
that the speaker or writer heard something from
someone else.

• Subject Lens: Explore why speakers choose specific subjects

or topics and how they convey their message about them.
Consider whether alternative subjects could have been

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chosen and why they weren't. Analyze how information is

organized in terms of subjects and predicates. Ask questions
such as: "Why did the speaker select this subject?" and "How
does this choice affect the message?"

• Intonation Lens: Investigate how a speaker's intonation

contour, which refers to the rising and falling pitch patterns in
speech, influences the meaning of their utterance. Identify the
idea units used, the placement of intonational focus (the part
of the utterance that carries the most emphasis), and what is
foregrounded or backgrounded. Examine the attitudinal and
emotional meanings conveyed through intonation. When
dealing with written texts, read them aloud to determine the
necessary intonation contours for a complete understanding.
Ask questions like: "How does the speaker's intonation, or
pitch patterns, affect the message?" and "What emotions or
attitudes are conveyed through intonation?"

• Frame Lens: After completing the discourse analysis, revisit

the contextual aspects and consider additional contextual
information that may alter your analysis. Delve deeper into
the context to uncover relevant elements that may have
initially been overlooked. Ask yourself: "Is there more to the
context that could change my analysis?"

• Doing and Not Just Saying Lens: Analyze how discursive

sentences are employed to achieve specific purposes, such as

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persuasion, information, or entertainment. Look beyond the

explicit content to understand the underlying intentions of the
speaker, who may have multiple objectives. Consider
questions like: "What is the speaker trying to accomplish
beyond conveying information?" and "Are there multiple
layers of intention in the communication?"

• Stanza Lens: Study the organization and structure of

discursive sentences within individual sentences and larger
texts. Stanzas refer to distinct sections of text within a longer
communication. Identify stanzas and their clustering within
extended communication to aid in organizing your
interpretation of the data. Questions to consider include:
"How are discursive sentences organized within the text?" and
"Do stanzas provide a structural framework for the
communication?"

• Activities Building Lens: Examine how discursive sentences

contribute to the construction and maintenance of social
activities. Determine which practices or activities the
communication is promoting or performing. Consider the
social groups, institutions, and cultural norms that support
and normalize these activities. Ask questions like: "What
social activities are being built or enacted through this
communication?" and "Who are the intended participants in
these activities?"

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• Identities Building Lens: Investigate how discursive sentences

are used to shape and uphold social identities. Identify the
recognizable identities the speaker aims to enact or make
others acknowledge. Examine how the speaker addresses the
identities of others in relation to their own and the invitations
for others to adopt specific identities. Key questions include:
"What social identities is the speaker trying to establish or
recognize?" and "How is the speaker positioning others in
terms of identity?"

• Situated Meaning Lens: This lens examines how the meaning

of discursive sentences is shaped by the social context in
which they are used. It focuses on the specific meanings that
listeners must attribute to words and phrases based on the
contextual interpretation. Questions to address include: "How
does the social context shape the meaning of words and
phrases?" and "What specific meanings are attributed to
language in this context?"

• Figured World Lens: This lens analyzes how discursive

sentences are used to create and sustain figurative worlds,
such as those found in stories, poems, or plays. It identifies the
assumed and implied typical stories or figured worlds that the
communication conveys and invites listeners to adopt. Explore
the participants, activities, interactions, language forms,
people, objects, environments, institutions, and values within
these figurative worlds. Ask questions like: "What kind of
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figurative world is being constructed here?" and "What

elements define the world within this communication?"

• Big D Discourse Lens: Examine how discursive sentences are

used to construct and maintain broader social discourses,
such as the discourse of science or politics. Analyze how
language, as well as actions, interactions, beliefs, values, and
various objects and technologies in specific environments,
enact socially recognizable identities and engage in socially
recognized activities. Identify the Discourse (with a capital 'D')
that this language belongs to and understand the kind of
identity the speaker or writer seeks to enact. Questions to
consider include: "What Discourse is this language part of?"
and "What type of identity is the speaker trying to establish or
acknowledge?"

• Big C Conversation Lens: Investigate how discursive

sentences contribute to the creation and preservation of
social conversations. Determine the assumed knowledge or
information that hearers or readers are expected to possess.
Analyze the communication's connection to broader historical
and social issues, debates, and discussions among Discourses.
Questions to address include: "What issues and debates does
the communication assume its audience knows?" and "Is the
communication participating in a larger historical or social
conversation?"

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You can use these lenses to analyze discursive sentences in various

ways. The linguistics and rhetorical mechanism lens helps dissect
how a politician persuades voters in a campaign speech. The subject
lens helps look at how news articles cover specific events. The
figured world lens unveils how poets create moods in their poems.

Identifying data through these different lenses helps you gain

insights into the author's intentions and how the text shapes
meaning. All this information can be useful for understanding the
author's point of view, analyzing the effectiveness of a persuasive
text, identifying bias in news reporting, and more.

INTERPRETATION
Step 7: Interpret the Data

The final step in discourse analysis is to interpret your findings. This

involves connecting your findings to explain the essence and
functionality of the discourse. You have spent the previous steps
considering the discourse's background, authorship, and societal
implications. Now, you tie it all together into a cohesive, well-
organized write-up.

Step 8: Present Your Findings

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Once you have interpreted your findings, you need to convey your
results in an organized way. This may involve writing a research
paper, giving a presentation, or creating a multimedia product. Be
sure to emphasize the relevance of your findings and present a
compelling case supported by evidence from your analysis.

Framing the Analytical

Process
Let’s connect the dots to wrap our heads around what is actually
happening during the research process.

Within discourse analysis, there are three main steps that occur:

1. Understanding context (Steps 1-4)

2. Examining the structure (Step 5)

3. Dissecting statements with various lenses (Step 6)

In a nutshell, your analysis will involve honing in on individual

statements while considering the broader context. Think of this
process as a pyramid.

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Figure 3. Pyramid depicting the analytical heirarchy for

discourse analysis ( Ho & Limpaecher, 2023)

• At the base of the pyramid lies the context. Every interview,

document, or text is situated within some context, be it
cultural or otherwise.

• Moving up a level, we encounter the structure of these

interviews, documents, or texts. While they consist of
discursive statements, these statements are part of a larger
rhetorical structure that's important to understand.

• At the apex of the pyramid are the statements themselves.

Statements form the core of texts, and discourse analysis
offers various lenses that delve deeply into these statements.

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Advantages of Discourse
Analysis
• Deeper Understanding: Discourse analysis helps you get
beneath the surface of texts and conversations. It reveals the
underlying meanings and structures that may not be
immediately apparent, providing a richer grasp of the subject
matter.

• Contextual Insight: By analyzing language within its context,

you gain insights into the social, cultural, and historical factors
influencing communication. This makes it particularly useful
for understanding complex or sensitive issues.

• Exploring Power Dynamics: Discourse analysis is a powerful

tool for uncovering power imbalances and hierarchies in
communication. It can highlight whose voices are heard and
whose are marginalized, shedding light on social injustices.

• Research Versatility: It's adaptable and can be applied to a

wide range of materials. From literature and politics to
everyday conversations and social media, this versatility
allows you to explore various aspects of communication.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Disadvantages of
Discourse Analysis
• Complexity: Discourse analysis can be intricate, demanding a
deep understanding of linguistic and social theories. This
complexity might deter some researchers from using it.

• Subjectivity: Interpretation plays a significant role, and

different analysts may arrive at varied conclusions when
examining the same text. Subjectivity is inherent in qualitative
analysis, so you should take steps to validate your results, such
as through peer debriefing, reflexivity, or by using a mixed-
method study.

• Time-Intensive: Comprehensive discourse analysis can be

time-consuming, especially for newcomers. It involves
meticulous interpretation of texts and can be particularly
demanding for longer or more extensive materials.

Thematic Analysis vs.

Qualitative Content

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Analysis vs. Discourse

Analysis
Discourse analysis is an interpretive approach for examining texts,
differing from more structured methods like qualitative content
analysis and thematic analysis. It involves making interpretations
based on the material itself and your own contextual knowledge.

At a high level, discourse analysis takes a particularly close look at a

particular conversation. The corpus tends to be smaller because you
generally dedicate a larger amount of time to analyzing smaller
amounts of data. Content analysis and thematic analysis tend to
take a broader look at themes across a large data set.

Here’s a more detailed explanation of each qualitative method:

Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is a broad approach that examines how language

is used in social contexts to create meaning. It is interested in how
language is used to construct and maintain social reality, power
relations, and identity. Discourse analysts often use a critical lens to
examine language, paying attention to how it can be used to
reproduce or resist social inequalities and power dynamics.

Thematic Analysis

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Thematic analysis is a qualitative approach that identifies and

analyzes themes across a dataset. Themes are patterns of meaning
that occur in multiple parts of the data. Thematic analysts may use a
variety of methods to identify themes, such as coding and line-by-
line analysis.

Qualitative Content Analysis

Content analysis is a systematic approach to analyzing the content

of data. It is often used to quantify the frequency of certain words
or phrases in the data, as you would in summative content analysis.
Content analysts may also use coding to categorize the data into
different categories.

Here is an example of how to differentiate these qualitative

methods:

Discourse analysis of a news article about a crime might examine

how the language used in the article constructs the victim and the
perpetrator. It might also examine how the article uses language to
frame the crime and promote a particular viewpoint.

Thematic analysis would look at more than one news article. A

thematic analyst could identify themes in news articles across five
different news outlets, examining how these themes are
represented differently by each news outlet.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Content analysis of the same news article might count the number
of times that certain keywords are used, such as "victim,"
"perpetrator," "crime," and "punishment.", comparing the frequency
of these words to other news articles about similar crimes.

In general, discourse analysis is more interested in the social and

communicative aspects of language, such as how it is used to convey
power dynamics. Thematic analysis and content analysis are more
interested in the meaning and content of language, including
identifying overarching themes or patterns in the text.

Read The Essential Gui de to

Qualitative Cod ing

Examples & Resources For

Discourse Analysis
It might be beneficial to look at practical instances of discourse
analysis, as they have been instrumental in creating the article
you're currently reading. Here are some useful resources to further
your understanding of discourse analysis in qualitative research.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

1. An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory

and Method (Gee 2011)

Gee is generally considered a leading voice in modern-day discourse

analysis. His book serves as an excellent introduction to discourse
analysis. The book offers a comprehensive overview of various
methodologies and theories, presented in an easily understandable
manner. You also find valuable guidance on transcribing data for
discourse analysis and effectively conducting this type of analysis.

Samples of discourse analysis are included in later chapters. The

glossary is a very handy reference for new discourse analysts.
We’ve included an excerpt from the book, which highlights the
significance of considering language use in discourse analysis.

Gee offers one example where a researcher initiates an interaction

with a student. The student is asked to explore the concept of light
by using a lightbox to observe how a focused light beam interacts
with various plastic shapes, including a prism that creates a colorful
rainbow effect. Notational symbols are used to highlight speech
features, which we explain below.

Gee also touches upon “stanzas,” which he describes as “tone units

that deal with a single topic or perspective, and which “appear to
have been planned together.” Tone units are a set of words said with
one uniform intonation contour, meaning they are said as if they “go
together.”

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

For instance, if a friend says, "I can't believe we're going to the
beach!" In this sentence, "I can't believe" and "we're going to the
beach" are two-tone units. Each is said with the same level of
enthusiasm, making them feel like they "go together" in the
conversation.

Gee shows that stanzas are created through interaction. He

provides a simple example of how discourse analysts can flesh out
meaning from a language-in-use approach by applying the Stanza
Lens:

• Double slash (“//”): Tone unit is said with a rising or falling

pitch of voice that sounds “final,” as if a piece of information is
coming to a finish.

• Underlined words: Carry the primary stress within their tone

unit.

• Two periods (".."): Signify a noticeable pause.

• "Low pitch": Refers to the preceding unit being spoken at an

overall low pitch.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Figure 4. Example of how to transcribe a stanza in

discourse analysis (Gee, 2011, pp. 118)

While this example isn't from Gee's book, Medina (2005) used
discourse analysis to interpret Latina/o children's writing in role-
play and explore issues related to identity and power in drama. We
offer this illustration to show how stanzas can be structured and
defined, along with the discourses she discovered within each
stanza.

Figure 5. Extract defining and structuring stanzas in

discourse analysis (Medina, 2005, pp. 109)

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

2. Discursive Psychology and Discourse Analysis

(Potter 2012)

In this book, you'll find comprehensive examples that showcase the

practical application of discourse analysis. It also illustrates the
common practice of transcribing data before embarking on the
analysis. The book serves as a valuable resource to see how
discourse analysis actually works in practice. In this extract, pay
close attention to the line numbers on the left. These lines are
typically referred to in the analysis and interpretation of the data.

Figure 6. Extract showing how to use markers in

transcribing data (Medina, 2005, pp. 109)

In this transcript example, "Dad" signals the call's end in the

Announcement. He then provides two dentist-related Accounts as
to why. This indicates the need to close the call while also showing
care for Sue. Accounts help maintain relationships by highlighting
the speaker's consideration for the other person. It's a helpful
example, but sometimes call closings are more complex as people
focus on the other's situation.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

3. Conversation Analysis and Institutional Talk:

Analyzing Data (Heritage 2004)

This is an influential book on how to conduct conversation analysis.

It contains good examples of how to conduct the analysis and how
to interpret the data as well (see screenshots below). It deals with
various levels of analysis like turn-taking, the overall organization of
the interaction, sequence organization, and more.

This is a typical high-level text, which would commonly be found in

graduate courses where students are learning about discourse
analysis. It is both theoretical and practical and a useful guide for
how to conduct a type of discourse analysis.

The following extract shows a typical way of transcribing data for

discourse analysis. As in Potter’s example, mind the line numbers on
the left, as well as the specific notational devices and markers
discussed by Gee.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Figure 7. Line numbers in transcriptions for conversation

analysis (Heritage, 2004, pp. 227)

The following extract displays a typical approach to presenting your

analysis. The transcription includes the referenced lines, structured
into distinct sections. This emphasizes their significance and
enables readers to navigate to those parts quickly.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Figure 8. Presenting interpretations by referencing line

numbers (Heritage, 2004, pp. 228)

Try Delve For Discourse

Analysis
If you want to streamline your research and not rely on pen and
paper, here are some tips for using Delve to code your data for
discourse analysis:

1. Start by creating a list of coding categories. These categories

should be based on your research questions and the
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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

theoretical framework you are using. As you code your data,

you may need to add or refine new categories.

2. Import your data into Delve. The software supports various

data formats, including text files, transcripts, and social media
posts.

3. Assign codes to specific passages of text. You can do this by

clicking on the passage and selecting the appropriate code
from the coding menu. You can also assign multiple codes to a
single passage.

4. Use Delve’s search and filtering features to analyze your data.

You can search for all passages that have been assigned a
particular code or you can filter your data to only show
passages that have been assigned multiple codes.

5. Use Delve's other features to support your discourse analysis.

For example, you can take notes on your data, create
transcripts, and generate visualizations.

Delve is a powerful tool that can help you to code your data more
efficiently and effectively for discourse analysis. By following the
tips above, you can use Delve to gain valuable insights into the use
of language in your data. Start your 14 day free trial today.

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

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References

1. Gee, J.P. (2011). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory

and Method (3rd ed.). Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203847886
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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

2. Stubbs, M. (2001). Words and Phrases: Corpus Studies of Lexical

Semantics. New York: Blackwell.

3. Paltridge, B. (2012). Discourse Analysis: An Introduction (2nd

ed.). London: Bloomsbury.

4. Chimombo, M., & Roseberry, R.L. (1998). The Power of

Discourse: An Introduction To Discourse Analysis (1st ed.).
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203053720

5. Gee, J.P. (2010). How to do Discourse Analysis: A Toolkit: A Toolkit

(1st ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203850992

6. Lee, E., & Bhuyan, R. (2013). Negotiating within whiteness in

cross-cultural clinical encounters. Social Service Review, 87(1),
98–130. https://doi.org/10.1086/669919

7. Supran, G., & Oreskes, N. (2021). Rhetoric and frame analysis

of ExxonMobil's climate change communications. One Earth,
4(5), 696-719.

8. Sunderland, J. (2018). Research questions in linguistics. In L.

Litosseliti (Ed.), Research Methods in Linguistics (pp. 9 - 28).
Continuum.

9. Potter, J. (2012). Discursive psychology and discourse

analysis. In J. P. Gee and M. Handford (Eds.) The Routledge
Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Routledge.

10. Heritage, J. (2004). Conversation analysis and institutional

talk: Analyzing data. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research:

https://delvetool.com/blog/discourseanalysis 47/50
6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

Theory, method and practice (pp. 222-245). SAGE Publications.

11. Medina, Carmen. (2005). Discourse and Ideology in Writing in

Role: Critical Discourse Analysis as a Tool for Interpretation.
Youth Theatre Journal. 19. 102-116.

12. Van Dijk, T. A. (Ed.). (2011). Discourse studies: A

multidisciplinary introduction (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.

13. Mogashoa, Tebogo (2014). Understanding Critical Discourse

Analysis in Qualitative Research. International Journal of
Humanities, Social Sciences, and Education.

14. Shaw, Sara; Bailey, Julia (2009). Discourse analysis: what is it

and why is it relevant to family practice. Oxford Journals.

Image References

1. Lee, E., & Bhuyan, R. (2013). Negotiating within whiteness in

cross-cultural clinical encounters. Social Service Review, 87(1),
98–130. https://doi.org/10.1086/669919

2. Supran, G., & Oreskes, N. (2021). Rhetoric and frame analysis

of ExxonMobil's climate change communications. One Earth,
4(5), 696-719.

3. Sunderland, J. (2018). Research questions in linguistics. In L.

Litosseliti (Ed.), Research Methods in Linguistics (pp. 9 - 28).
Continuum.

https://delvetool.com/blog/discourseanalysis 48/50
6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

4. Delve. Ho, L., & Limpaecher, A. (2023, November 1). What is

Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide Essential Guide
to Coding Qualitative Data.
https://delvetool.com/blog/discourse-analysis

5. Gee, J.P. (2011). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory

and Method (3rd ed.). Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203847886.

6. Potter, J. (2012). Discursive psychology and discourse

analysis. In J. P. Gee and M. Handford (Eds.) The Routledge
Handbook of Discourse Analysis. Routledge.

7. Heritage, J. (2004). Conversation analysis and institutional

talk: Analyzing data. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research:
Theory, method and practice (pp. 222-245). SAGE Publications.

8. Heritage, J. (2004). Conversation analysis and institutional

talk: Analyzing data. In D. Silverman (Ed.), Qualitative research:
Theory, method and practice (pp. 222-245). SAGE Publications.

Cite this blog post:

• Delve. Ho, L., & Limpaecher, A. (2023, November 1). What is

Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide Essential Guide
to Coding Qualitative Data.
https://delvetool.com/blog/discourse-analysis

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6/16/24, 7:53 AM What is Discourse Analysis? An Introduction & Guide — Delve

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