20 Parallel transport and covariant differenti-

ation
20.1 Covariant derivatives on a vector bundle
Recall that we can pointwise multiply sections of a vector bundle with smooth
functions. It will be convenient to write this as a right-multiplication,
ψ · h, ψ ∈ Γ(E), h ∈ C ∞ (X, K).
Definition 87. A covariant derivative/connection on a vector bundle E → X
is a map
∇ : X(X) × Γ(E) → Γ(E)
(v, ψ) 7→ ∇v ψ
which is
ˆ C ∞ (X)-linear in the argument v;
ˆ ∇v (ψ · h) = ψ · v(h) + (∇v ψ) · h, for all ψ ∈ Γ(E), h ∈ C ∞ (X, K).
The curvature F ∇ of ∇ is the element of Ω2 (X, End(E)) defined by
F ∇ (u, v)ψ = ∇u ∇v ψ − ∇v ∇u ψ − ∇[u,v] ψ, u, v ∈ X(X), ψ ∈ Γ(E). (20.1)
If E has a bundle metric, then ∇ is metric-compatible if
v(⟨ψ, φ⟩E ) = ⟨∇ωv ψ, φ⟩E + ⟨ψ, ∇ωv φ⟩E , ψ, φ ∈ Γ(E), v ∈ X(X). (20.2)
Note: the tensorial nature of F ∇ , in the sense that
F ∇ (u, v)(ψ · h) = (F ∇ (u, v)ψ) · h,
follows from the abstract properties of ∇ (Exercise).
Example 20.1. Suppose E ∼ = X × Kn , so Γ(E) ∼ = C ∞ (X, Kn ). Then there is
the “trivial” covariant derivative of component-wise differentiation,

j
∇triv
v ψ = v(ψ j ) ≡ dψ j (v), j = 1, . . . , n,
triv
which is manifestly flat, F ∇ ≡ 0. But this depends on the choice of trivial-
ization.
Definition 87 axiomatically captures what “covariant differentiation” should
do to vector bundle sections. But it somewhat obscures the geometric mech-
anism making it possible. As we shall see, this mechanism is the “parallel
transport of frames”, coming from a connection on the frame bundle.

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20.2 Parallel transport in principal bundles
Definition 88. Let π : P → X be a principal G-bundle with connection ω.
Let γ : [0, 1] → X be a curve in X. A curve γ̃ : [0, 1] → P is a horizontal lift
of γ if π ◦ γ̃ = γ and its velocity vectors are horizontal for all t ∈ [0, 1].

The velocity vector field along γ admits a horizontal lift, but we still need
to check that the lift can be integrated into a curve γ̃.

Theorem 20.1. Let π : P → X be a principal G-bundle with connection, and

let γ : [0, 1] → X. For each p ∈ Pγ(0) in the initial fibre, there exists a unique
horizontal lift γ̃ with starting point γ̃(0) = p.

(Optional.) First, consider the case of a trivial bundle P = U × G. A lift of γ

with some given starting point p = (γ(0), g0 ) can be written as

γ̃(t) = (γ(t), g(t))

for some smooth g : [0, 1] → G with g(0) = g0 . The connection can always be
written as
∗
ω = ωtriv + A = πG Θ + A,
where A is some equivariant horizontal g-valued 1-form. (See Example 19.2
and Exercise 19.3.) The condition for γ̃ to be horizontal reads

0 = ωγ̃(t) (γ̇(t), ġ(t)) = A(γ(t),g(t)) (γ̇(t), 0) + Θg(t) (ġ(t))

∗
= (Rg(t) A)(γ(t),e) (γ̇(t), 0) + (Lg(t)−1 )∗ (ġ(t))
= Adg(t)−1 ◦ A(γ(t),e) (γ̇(t), 0) + (Lg(t)−1 )∗ (ġ(t))


= (Lg(t)−1 )∗ Rg(t) ∗ A(γ(t),e) (γ̇(t), 0) + ġ(t) , ∀t ∈ [0, 1].

So g : t 7→ g(t) ∈ G is the solution to the differential equation

ġ(t) = −Rg(t) ∗ A(γ(t),e) (γ̇(t), 0), t ∈ [0, 1], (20.3)

with initial condition g(0) = g0 . Rephrasing, t 7→ (g(t), t) is the integral curve

of the following vector field on G × R,
 ∂ 
v(h,t) = − (Rh )∗ (A(γ(t),e) (γ̇(t), 0)), ,
∂s s=t

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with starting point (g0 , 0) — this is valid at least for small times t ∈ [0, δ).
(Here, δ is independent of g0 ∈ G.) We obtain g(t), thus the desired γ̃(t) =
(γ(t), g(t)), for t ∈ [0, δ).
If we took another starting time t0 ∈ [0, 1], the same argument would
yield the horizontal lift γ̃, valid for some time interval t ∈ (t0 − δt0 , t0 + δt0 ).
Compactness of [0, 1] ensures that we only need to patch together finitely many
partial solutions.
Next, if γ lies within U with P |U trivializable, then we work in any local
trivialization to obtain (the unique) γ̃ as above. In the general case, we have
to subdivide γ into finitely many subcurves, each of which lies within some Ui
with P |Ui trivializable.
Theorem 20.1 allows us to make the following definition:
Definition 89. Let π : P → X be a principal G-bundle with connection ω,
and let γ : [0, 1] → X be a curve. Parallel transport along γ, with respect to
ω, is the map

τγω : Pγ(0) → Pγ(1)

p 7→ γ̃p (1),

where γ̃p is the unique horizontal lift of γ starting at p ∈ Pγ(0) .

Proposition 20.2. Parallel transport along a curve γ is a G-equivariant map,

τγω (p · g) = (τγω (p)) · g, p ∈ Pγ(0) , g ∈ G.

Proof. Exercise. (The G-invariance of horizontal-ness is relevant here.)

In words: Parallel transport respects relative frames.
Exercise 20.1. Show that τγω has the following properties:
ˆ It is independent of the parametrization of the curve γ.

ˆ If γ is the smooth concatenation of two paths γ1 , γ2 : [0, 1] → X,

(
γ1 (2t), t ∈ [0, 21 ],
γ(t) =
γ2 (2t − 1), t ∈ [ 21 , 1],

then τγω = τγω2 ◦ τγω1 .

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 ˆ For the flipped path γflip : t 7→ γ(1 − t),
τγωflip = (τγω )−1 .

Parallel transport transforms nicely under gauge transformations:

Proposition 20.3. Let ω be a connection on a principal G-bundle P . Let
F ∈ G(P ) be a gauge transformation, then
∗ω
τγF = F −1 ◦ τγω ◦ F.
Proof. Given p, let γ̃ be the ω-horizontal lift starting at F (p). Check that
Γ = F −1 ◦ γ̃ is the (F ∗ ω)-horizontal lift starting at p. (Exercise)

20.3 Holonomy of parallel transport

A loop on X is a smooth map γ : S 1 → X. Fix a basepoint x on the loop, and
regard γ as a curve with γ(1) = γ(0) = x. Parallel transport along the loop γ
is then a self-map of the fibre Px ,
τγω : Px → Px ,
which is a G-torsor automorphism by Prop. 20.2. It is called the holonomy of
ω along γ, and measures failure of horizontal lifts of loops to close.
We can view the holonomy map as right multiplication
τγω (p) = p · hω (γ; p), p ∈ Px ,
by a certain hω (γ; p) ∈ G. The conjugacy class of hω (γ; p) depends only on γ,
and the gauge-equivalence class of ω:
ˆ Changing starting point on fibre:
τγω (p · g) = τγω (p) · g = p · hω (γ; p) · g = (p · g) · (g −1 hω (γ; p)g ).
| {z }
hω (γ;p·g)

ˆ Changing basepoint on loop: Exercise.

ˆ Gauge transformation: Prop. 20.3.
Pick a representation ρ : G → GL(n), and a loop γ in X. By the above
discussion, the trace of ρ(h(γ; p)) is a numerical gauge-invariant of ω, called
a Wilson loop. If G is abelian (e.g. G = U(1)), then conjugations are trivial
operations, and the holonomy itself is gauge-invariant. The Aharonov–Bohm
effect provides a real world example.

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20.4 Covariant derivatives on associated vector bundles
Definition 90. Let P → X be a principal G-bundle and E = P ×ρ Kn be
an associated vector bundle. Given a connection ω, each curve γ : [0, 1] → X
determines a linear isomorphism

τγE,ω : Eγ(0) → Eγ(1)

[p, ξ] 7→ [τγω (p), ξ],

called the parallel transport in E along γ (with respect to ω).

It is straightforward to see that τγE,ω is well-defined: for any g ∈ G,

Prop. 20.2
τγE,ω [p·g, g −1 ·ξ] = [τγω (p·g), g −1 ·ξ] = [τγω (p)·g, g −1 ·ξ] = [τγω (p), ξ] = τγE,ω [p, ξ].

(We wrote g · ξ for ρ(g) · ξ.) That τγ is an isomorphism is easily checked.

Definition 91. Let P → X be a principal G-bundle with connection ω, and

let E be an associated vector bundle. The induced covariant derivative of
ψ ∈ Γ(E) along v ∈ X(X) is defined by

d
(∇ωv ψ) (x) := (τγ|E,ω )−1 (ψ(γ(t))) ∈ Ex , (20.4)
dt t=0 [0,t]

where γ is any curve representing vx .

In words: we first parallel transport all the ψ(γ(t)) ∈ Eγ(t) to the same
fibre Eγ(0) = Ex . Then we can compare them and take the usual t-derivative.
Let us verify that the covariant derivative at x only depends on the tangent
vector vx , not on the choice of curve γ. Pick a local gauge s : U → P around
x ∈ U , and write
ψ(x′ ) = [s(x′ ), ξ(x′ )], x′ ∈ U,
for some function ξ : U → Kn representing ψ. The local gauge gives a reference
curve s ◦ γ in P , starting at s(γ(0)) = s(x) ∈ Px . Use the parallel transport
to turn it into a curve in Px ,

(τγ|ω [0,t] )−1 ((s ◦ γ)(t)) =: s(x) · g(t), (20.5)

where g is a uniquely determined curve in G satisfying g(0) = e.

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 With these preparations, we compute

(τγ|E,ω
[0,t]
)−1 (ψ(γ(t))) = (τγ|E,ω
[0,t]
)−1 [(s ◦ γ)(t), ξ(γ(t))]
= (τγ|E,ω
[0,t]
)−1 [τγ|ω [0,t] (r(t)), ξ(γ(t))]
= [r(t), ξ(γ(t))] (Dfn. 90)
= [s(x) · g(t), ξ(γ(t))]
= [s(x), ρ(g(t)) · ξ(γ(t))].

Taking the t-derivative at t = 0, we obtain the formula

(∇ωv ψ) (x) = [s(x), dξx (vx ) + dρe (ġ(0)) · ξ(x)]. (20.6)

Now calculate
horizontal
 
  z }| {
connection d d d 
ġ(0) = ω (s(x) · g(t)) = ω  τγ|ω [0,t] (s(x)) + (s(x) · g(t))
dt t=0  dt t=0 dt t=0 

 
d ω
=ω τ (s(x)) · g(t)
dt t=0 γ|[0,t]
 
(20.5) d
= ω (s ◦ γ)
dt t=0
= s∗ ω(vx ).

So Eq. (20.6) becomes the formula

(∇ωv ψ) (x) = [s(x), dξx (vx ) + dρe (s∗ ω(vx )) · ξ(x)],

which refers only to vx , not the curve γ.

We record the above calculations, suppressing the representation dρe : g → Mn (K)
to simplify notation.
Proposition 20.4. With respect to a local gauge s : U → P , the local formula
for ∇ω is

∇ωv ψ = [s, dξ(v) + s∗ ω(v) · ξ], v ∈ X(X), ψ ∈ Γ(E), (20.7)

where ξ : U → Kn is the local function representing ψ with respect to s.

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 In the local formula (20.7), the first term dξ(v) = v(ξ) = (v(ξ 1 ), . . . , v(ξ n ))
is the ordinary directional derivative of the Kn -valued function ξ along v. The
local gauge potential s∗ ω appears as a linear adjustment map.
Let Ω be the curvature of ω. Just like (20.7), the local field strength s∗ Ω
appears in the local formula for the curvature of ∇ω (Exercise),
ω
F ∇ (u, v)ψ = [s, s∗ Ω(u, v) · ξ], u, v ∈ X(X), ψ ≡ [s, ξ] ∈ Γ(E). (20.8)

Exercise 20.2. Let P → X be a principal G-bundle with connection ω. Check

that the induced covariant derivative ∇ω on any associated vector bundle is
indeed a covariant derivative in the sense of Definition 87.

20.5 Connection coefficients and physics notation

Suppose the associated bundle has complex rank n. Let ∂j , j = 1, . . . , d be
coordinate tangent vector fields over U ⊂ X, and s : U → P be a local gauge.
So the local gauge potential may be expanded as
s∗ ω = Aj dxj , Aj = s∗ ω(∂j ) ∈ C ∞ (U, g).
Write ηa for the a-th basis vector of Cn , so ea := [s, ηa ] provide a local frame
for E. The j-covariant partial derivative of ea is
(20.7)
∇ωj ea := ∇ω∂j ea = [s, s∗ ω(∂j ) · ηa ] = [s, Aj · ηa ].
Above, Aj is acting as an n × n matrix according to the Lie algebra represen-
tation dρe , so it is usually written (Aj )ba ≡ Abja , with its matrix entries called
connection coefficients. In this notation,
∇ωj ea = [s, Aj · ηa ] = [s, Abja ηb ] = [s, ηb ]Abja = eb Abja .
A general section of E is locally expanded as ψ = ea ψ a . By the Leibniz
property of covariant derivatives,
∇ωj ψ = ∇ωj (ea ψ a ) = ea (∂j ψ a ) + (∇ωj ea )ψ a
= ea (∂j + Aj ψ)a
In physics, one would simply write the above local formula as
“ ∇j = ∂j − iAj ” acting on “Cn -valued functions” ψ.
The extra factor of −i comes from the differing Lie algebra convention in
physics.

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20.5.1 G = U(1) example
For an integer q, the charge-q unitary representation of G = U(1) is

ρ(q) : G = U(1) → U(1) ⊂ GL(1, C)

eiθ 7→ eiqθ .

The associated line bundle E = P ×ρ(q) C has a Hermitian metric. Also,

dρ(q)
e : u(1) = iR → End(C), iλ 7→ iqλ.

A local gauge potential s∗ ω is represented as

d
X
∗
dρ(q)
e (s ω) = −iq Aj dxj
j=1

for some R-valued functions Aj . If Aj refers to a magnetic vector potential,

then it is customary to include a ℏ factor to balance physical units. Then the
j-th covariant derivative is locally represented as
q
∇j = ∂j − i Aj .
ℏ

Note that if U(1) is replaced by the noncompact Lie group (R>0 , ×), which
has isomorphic Lie algebra to that of U(1), then

ρ(q) : R>0 → U(1)

eλ 7→ eiqλ

gives a unitary representation, whether or not q is integral. There is no “quan-

tization of charge”.

20.6 Metric connections

Suppose E is a Euclidean vector bundle. A metric connection on E is a connec-
tion ω on the orthonormal frame bundle FrO (E). Recall that E ∼
= FrO (E)×ρ Rn
where ρ is the defining representation of O(n) on Rn . Furthermore, as in Eq.
(16.7), the bundle metric is recovered through the formula

⟨[p, ξ], [p, ζ]⟩E = ⟨ξ, ζ⟩Rn .

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Since a metric connection defines parallel transport of orthonormal frames, the
induced parallel transport on E will preserve inner products. Let v ∈ X(X)
and γ be a curve representing vx . Then
d
(v⟨ψ, φ⟩E ) (x) = ⟨ψ(γ(t)), φ(γ(t))⟩Eγ(t)
dt t=0
d
= ⟨(τγ|E,ω )−1 ψ(γ(t)), (τγ|E,ω )−1 φ(γ(t))⟩Ex
dt t=0 [0,t] [0,t]

(20.4)
= ⟨(∇ωv ψ) (x), φ(x)⟩Ex + ⟨ψ(x), (∇ωv φ) (x)⟩Ex ,

verifying that ∇ω is metric-compatible in the sense of Definition 87, Eq. (20.2).

Similarly for Hermitian vector bundles, with a metric connection being
defined as a connection on FrU (E). In this case, the terminology unitary
connection is usually used.

20.6.1 Levi-Civita connection of Riemannian manifold

By definition, a Riemannian manifold X has a Euclidean bundle metric on
T X. It is natural to look for metric-compatible covariant derivatives ∇ on
T X. Furthermore, it makes sense to ask for an extra torison-free condition,

∇u v − ∇v u − [u, v] = 0, u, v ∈ X(X). (20.9)

A fundamental result in Riemannian geometry states that there is a unique

metric-compatible and torsion-free covariant derivative on T X, called the
Levi–Civita connection ∇LC . You may find a proof in any Riemannian ge-
ometry textbook.
Intuitively, if X is a submanifold of Euclidean RN , then ∇LC on T X
is obtained by “orthogonally projecting” the trivial covariant derivative on
T RN |X = X × RN . (Exercise)

Lemma 20.5. At any point x of a Riemannian manifold X, there exists a

local orthonormal tangent frame {e1 , . . . , ed }, such that ∇LC ei (x) = 0 for all
i = 1, . . . , d.

Proof. Pick U to be a coordinate ball centered at x, with T U trivializable.

Use spherical polar coordinates to obtain radial curves joining x to any other
point in U . Pick any orthonormal basis {e1,x , · · · , ed,x } of Tx X, and parallel
transport to obtain an orthonormal tangent frame {e1 , . . . , ed } over U . For

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j = 1, . . . , d, we have a radial curve with initial velocity ej,x . By the parallel
transport definition of ∇LC , Eq. (20.4),

∇LC LC
ej ei (x) = ∇ej,x ei = 0, ∀ i, j = 1, . . . , d.

Thus ∇LC ei = 0 holds at x.

Remark. In Lemma 20.5, vanishing of ∇LC ei is not guaranteed at any other
point x′ ∈ U . Furthermore, the ei do not generally arise from coordinate
tangent vector fields.

20.6.2 Gauge potential of Levi–Civita connection

We can think of ∇LC as the induced covariant derivative on T X coming from
a distinguished connection ω LC on the orthonormal frame bundle FrO (X).
Let us work in a local orthonormal frame e = {e1 , . . . , ed } over U ⊂ X,
i.e., a local section of FrO (X). In physics, e is called a tetrad or vielbein. So
each ei is a normalized local section of T U , and its covariant derivative along
v ∈ X(U ) may be expanded as
d
X
∇LC
v ei = ej ωji (v). (20.10)
j=1

The dependence on v is C ∞ (U )-linear, so the above ωji (·) are 1-forms over U .
They are given by the inner product formula

ωji (v) = ⟨ej , ∇LC

v ei ⟩T U . (20.11)

Metric-compatibility, Eq. (20.2), says that

0 = v(⟨ei , ej ⟩T U ) = ⟨∇LC LC
v ei , ej ⟩T U + ⟨ei , ∇v ej ⟩T U = ωji (v) + ωij (v),
| {z }
δij

thus ωij (·) is antisymmetric28 in the labels i, j. In the local frame e, the ei are
represented by constant functions ξi = (0, . . . , 0, |{z}
1 , 0, . . . , 0). So the local
i-th
formulae Prop. 20.4 and (16.7) give
∗ LC
⟨ej , ∇LC
v ei ⟩T U = ⟨ξj , e ω (v) · ξi ⟩Rd .
28
There are some differing conventions on the order of the labels i, j.

216
Comparing with (20.11), we learn that the local 1-forms ωji are exactly the
antisymmetric matrix entries of the o(d)-valued local gauge potential,

ωji = (e∗ ω LC )j i . (20.12)

20.6.3 Berry connection on a Hermitian subbundle

Consider a trivial Hermitian vector bundle, X × CN , with the trivial unitary
connection ∇triv . Let ι : E ,→ X × CN be the inclusion of a Hermitian
subbundle E of rank n < N . So there is a smooth family p of projection
matrices, p(x) = p(x)∗ = p(x)2 , such that each Ex is the range of p(x). The
Berry connection on the subbundle E is

∇Berry = p ◦ ∇triv ◦ ι. (20.13)

Exercise 20.3. Check that ∇Berry defines a metric-compatible covariant deriva-

tive on E.
Remark. The Berry connection has become a fundamental concept in modern
quantum mechanics. One has a fixed ambient finite-dimensional Hilbert space
CN , and a parameter space X for self-adjoint Hamiltonian operators H(x).
For n ≤ N , one may follow the lowest n-eigenvalues of H(x) as x is varied in
X. Assuming these low-lying eigenvalues never cross the (n + 1)-th eigenvalue,
their eigenspaces define a rank-n eigen-subbundle E ⊂ X × CN . This E is a
Hermitian vector bundle with structure group U(n), and is equipped with the
Berry connection, Eq. (20.13).
Remark (Optional). It is important to remember that a Berry connection is
defined on a subbundle of a trivial bundle. At least, the ambient bundle should
have a given connection. In solid-state physics, the Floquet–Bloch transform
of Zd -periodic Hamiltonians on Rd leads to a family H(k) parametrized by
a d-torus Td dual to Zd . A subtlety is that a choice of origin in Rd must
be made, so the ambient bundle of Hilbert space does not have a unique
connection, and this affects the resulting “Berry connection” on the eigen-
subbundles E. The possible choices parametrized by the fundamental domain
Rd /Zd . Nevertheless, certain topological invariants of E (e.g. Chern classes) do
not depend on the choice of connection (Berry or otherwise) used to compute
them, and they distinguish “topological insulators” from “normal insulators”.

217