COMPUTER NETWORKS

Subject Code 18ITITT6030 IA Marks 30

Number of Lecture Hours/Week 3 Exam Marks 70
Total Number of Lecture Hours 50 Exam Hours 03

Credits – 03
Unit -1: Introduction Hours
Network Topologies, WAN, LAN, MAN. OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Reference
Model, Multiplexing (Frequency Division, Wavelength Division, Synchronous
08
Time Division and Statistical Time Division Multiplexing Techniques), Switching
Techniques (Circuit-switching, Datagram, Virtual Circuit Networks).

Unit -2:The Data Link Layer

Design Issues, Services Provided to the Network Layer, Framing, Error Control,
Flow Control, Error Detection and Correction, Error Correcting Codes, Error
Detecting Codes, A Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for an Error free channel, A
Simplex Stop and Wait Protocol for a Noisy Channel, Sliding Window Protocols (A 10
One Bit Sliding Window Protocol-A Protocol Using Go-Back-NA Protocol Using
Selective Repeat), Data Link Layer in HDLC: Configuration and transmission
modes, frames, control fields.
Unit – 3:The Medium Access Control Sub layer
The Channel Allocation Problem, Static Channel Allocation, Assumptions for
Dynamic Channel Allocation, Multiple Access Protocols (Aloha, Carrier Sense 10
Multiple Access Protocols, Collision-Free Protocols, Limited Contention Protocols,
Wireless LAN Protocols).

Unit – 4: Routing Algorithms

Routing Algorithms- Shortest-Path Routing, Flooding, Hierarchical routing, 10
Broadcast, Multicast and Distance Vector Routing.

Unit – 5: Congestion Control

Congestion Control Algorithms, Approaches to Congestion Control-Traffic Aware
Routing-Admission Control-Traffic Throttling-Load Shedding, IP Addressing,
Classless and Class full Addressing, Sub-netting. 12
Application Layer:The Domain Name System- The DNS Name Space, Resource
Records, Name Servers, Electronic Mail Architecture and Services, The User
Agent, Message Formats, Message Transfer, Final Delivery.

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Unit -1: Introduction
Network Topologies, WAN, LAN, MAN. OSI Reference Model, TCP/IP Reference
Model, Multiplexing (Frequency Division, Wavelength Division, Synchronous Time
Division and Statistical Time Division Multiplexing Techniques), Switching Techniques
(Circuit-switching, Datagram, Virtual Circuit Networks).

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are
interconnected to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and
logical topology.
Types of Network Topology
Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network.
There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring
Topology, Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology

o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are
connected through a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or
directly connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message
over the network. All the stations available in the network will receive the
message whether it has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and
802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other
topologies.The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane"
through which the message is broadcast to all the stations.
o The most common access method of the bus topologies is CSMA
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access).
CSMA: It is a media access control used to control the data flow so that data
integrity is maintained, i.e., the packets do not get lost. There are two alternative
ways of handling the problems that occur when two nodes send the messages
simultaneously.
o CSMA CD: CSMA CD (Collision detection) is an access method used to
detect the collision. Once the collision is detected, the sender will stop

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 o transmitting the data. Therefore, it works on "recovery after the
collision".
o CSMA CA: CSMA CA (Collision Avoidance) is an access method used
to avoid the collision by checking whether the transmission media is busy
or not. If busy, then the sender waits until the media becomes idle. This
technique effectively reduces the possibility of the collision. It does not
work on "recovery after the collision".
Advantages of Bus topology:
o Low-cost cable: In bus topology, nodes are directly connected to the cable
without passing through a hub. Therefore, the initial cost of installation is
low.
o Moderate data speeds: Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-
based networks that support upto 10 Mbps.
o Familiar technology: Bus topology is a familiar technology as the
installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known, and hardware
components are easily available.
o Limited failure: A failure in one node will not have any effect on other
nodes.
Disadvantages of Bus topology:
o Extensive cabling: A bus topology is quite simpler, but still it requires a
lot of cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Signal interference: If two nodes send the messages simultaneously, then
the signals of both the nodes collide with each other.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.Attenuation: Attenuation is a loss of signal leads to
communication issues. Repeaters are used to regenerate the signal.
2) Ring Topology

o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.

o The node that receives the message from the previous
computer will retransmit to the next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless
loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node
and having no termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
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 o The most common access method of the ring topology
is token passing.
o Token passing: It is a network access method in
which token is passed from one node to another node.
o Token: It is a frame that circulates around the
network.
Working of Token passing
o A token moves around the network, and it is passed from computer to
computer until it reaches the destination.
o The sender modifies the token by putting the address along with the data.
o The data is passed from one device to another device until the destination
address matches. Once the token received by the destination device, then
it sends the acknowledgment to the sender.
o In a ring topology, a token is used as a carrier.
Advantages of Ring topology:
o Network Management: Faulty devices can be removed from the network
without bringing the network down.Product availability: Many hardware
and software tools for network operation and monitoring are available.
o Cost: Twisted pair cabling is inexpensive and easily available. Therefore,
the installation cost is very low.
o Reliable: It is a more reliable network because the communication system
is not dependent on the single host computer.
Disadvantages of Ring topology:
o Difficult troubleshooting: It requires specialized test equipment to
determine the cable faults. If any fault occurs in the cable, then it would
disrupt the communication for all the nodes.
o Failure: The breakdown in one station leads to the failure of the overall
network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: Adding new devices to the network would slow
down the network.
o Delay: Communication delay is directly proportional to the number of
nodes. Adding new devices increases the communication delay.
3) Star Topology

o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is

connected to the central hub, switch or a central computer.
o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices
attached to the server are known as clients.
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 o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical
star topology.
Advantages of Star topology
o Efficient troubleshooting: Troubleshooting is quite efficient in a star
topology as compared to bus topology. In a bus topology, the manager has
to inspect the kilometers of cable. In a star topology, all the stations are
connected to the centralized network. Therefore, the network
administrator has to go to the single station to troubleshoot the problem.
o Network control: Complex network control features can be easily
implemented in the star topology. Any changes made in the star topology
are automatically accommodated.
o Limited failure: As each station is connected to the central hub with its
own cable, therefore failure in one cable will not affect the entire
network.
o Familiar technology: Star topology is a familiar technology as its tools
are cost-effective.
o Easily expandable: It is easily expandable as new stations can be added
to the open ports on the hub.
o Cost effective: Star topology networks are cost-effective as it uses
inexpensive coaxial cable.
o High data speeds: It supports a bandwidth of approx 100Mbps. Ethernet
100BaseT is one of the most popular Star topology networks.
Disadvantages of Star topology
o A Central point of failure: If the central hub or switch goes down, then
all the connected nodes will not be able to communicate with each other.
o Cable: Sometimes cable routing becomes difficult when a significant
amount of routing is required.
4) Tree topology

o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star

topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are
connected with each other in hierarchicalfashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other
nodes are the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission.
Thus, it forms a parent-child hierarchy.
Advantages of Tree topology
o Support for broadband transmission: Tree topology is mainly used to
provide broadband transmission, i.e., signals are sent over long distances
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 without being attenuated.
o Easily expandable: We can add the new device to the existing network.
Therefore, we can say that tree topology is easily expandable.
o Easily manageable: In tree topology, the whole network is divided into
segments known as star networks which can be easily managed and
maintained.
o Error detection: Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
o Limited failure: The breakdown in one station does not affect the entire
network.
o Point-to-point wiring: It has point-to-point wiring for individual
segments.
Disadvantages of Tree topology
o Difficult troubleshooting: If any fault occurs in the node, then it
becomes difficult to troubleshoot the problem.
o High cost: Devices required for broadband transmission are very costly.
o Failure: A tree topology mainly relies on main bus cable and failure in
main bus cable will damage the overall network.
o Reconfiguration difficult: If new devices are added, then it becomes
difficult to reconfigure.
5) Mesh topology

o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers

are interconnected with each other through various redundant
connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as
a central point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where
communication failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.
Mesh topology is divided into two categories:
o Fully connected mesh topology
o Partially connected mesh topology
o

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 o Full Mesh Topology: In a full mesh topology, each computer is
connected to all the computers available in the network.
o Partial Mesh Topology: In a partial mesh topology, not all but certain
computers are connected to those computers with which they
communicate frequently.
Advantages of Mesh topology:
Reliable: The mesh topology networks are very reliable as if any link breakdown
will not affect the communication between connected computers.
Fast Communication: Communication is very fast between the nodes.
Easier Reconfiguration: Adding new devices would not disrupt the
communication between other devices.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology
o Cost: A mesh topology contains a large number of connected devices
such as a router and more transmission media than other topologies.
o Management: Mesh topology networks are very large and very difficult to
maintain and manage. If the network is not monitored carefully, then the
communication link failuregoes undetected.
o Efficiency: In this topology, redundant connections are high that reduces
the efficiency of the network.

6) Hybrid Topology

o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid

topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to
transfer the data.
o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as
Hybrid topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other
will not result in Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring
topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus topology in another branch
of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will result in Hybrid
topology.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
o Reliable: If a fault occurs in any part of the network will not affect the

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 functioning of the rest of the network.
o Scalable: Size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices without affecting the functionality of the existing network.
o Flexible: This topology is very flexible as it can be designed according to the
requirements of the organization.
o Effective: Hybrid topology is very effective as it can be designed in such a
way that the strength of the network is maximized and weakness of the
network is minimized.
Disadvantages of Hybrid topology
o Complex design: The major drawback of the Hybridtopology is
the design of the Hybrid network. It is very difficult to design the
architecture of the Hybrid network.
o Costly Hub: The Hubs used in the Hybrid topology are very expensive as
these hubs are different from usual Hubs used in other topologies.
o Costly infrastructure: The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid
network requires a lot of cabling, network devices, etc.
What is a Computer Network?
A Computer Network is a group of two or more interconnected computer
systems that use common connection protocols for sharing various resources and
files. You can establish a computer network connection using either cable or
wireless media. Every network involves hardware and software thatconnects
computers and tools.
Different Types of Computer Networks
There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The
classification of network in computers can be done according to their size as
well as their purpose.
The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of
computers, which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a single
room to millions of devices spread across the world. Following are the popular types
of Computer Network:
Types of Computer Networks
Some of the most popular computer network types are:

 PAN (Personal Area Network)

 LAN (Local Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
Let‘s study all of these types of networking in detail.

What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It
generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can
be used for establishing communication among these personal devices for
connecting to a digital network and the internet.
Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

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  It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.
 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding
of a single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and
Bluetooth systems.
Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:
 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small areaDisadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:
 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio
bands.
 Distance limits.
What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices
which are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and
office building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files,
printers, games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN network is to
connect computers and a printer in someone‘s home or office. In general, LAN will
be used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of
less than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.
Local Area Network (LAN)
Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN
systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token
ring and ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:
 Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share
local area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware
purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the
server computer.

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  You can easily transfer data and messages over networkedcomputers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet
connection among all the LAN users.
Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:
 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the
initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it
does not offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are
issues related to software setup and hardware failures
What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?
WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is
spread across a large geographical area. WAN network system could be a
connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN‘s using telephone lines and
radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
Wide Area Network (WAN)
Characteristics of WAN

Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users;
therefore, all can access to the latest files.
 Any organization can form its global integrated networkusing WAN.
Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:
 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business
offices situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into
client devices.
Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:
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  The initial setup cost of investment is very high.
 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians
and network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide
coverage and the use of different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the
involvement of multiple wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.
Difference Between LAN, MAN and WAN

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different

computers via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three types of the
network designed to operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities
and dissimilarities between them.
One of the significant differences is in the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN
covers the smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN
comprises the largest of all.
Furthermore, LAN networks rely on the hardware and communication devices
owned by them for the transmission. As against, this could not be possible in
case of MAN and WAN which are obliged to use public, private, leased
communication hardware as these networks are spanned across a magnificent
area.Comparison Chart
BASIS OF LAN MAN WAN
COMPARISO
N
Expands to Local Area Metropolitan Wide Area Network
Network Area Network
Meaning A network It covers It spans large locality
that connects a relatively large and
group of region such connects countries
computers in a as cities, together. Example
small towns. Internet.
geographical
area.

Ownership of Private Private or Private or Public

Network Public
Design and Easy Difficult Difficult
maintenance
Propagation Short Moderate Long
Delay
Speed High Moderate Low
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 Fault More Less Tolerant Less Tolerant
Tolerance Tolerant
Congestion Less More More
Used for College, Small towns, Country/Continen t.
School, City.
Hospital.
Allows Single pair of Multiple A huge group of
devices to computers can computers
communicat e. simultaneousl communicate at
y interact. the same time.

INTERNETWORK: Internetworking is the practice of connecting a computer

network with other networks through the use of gateways that provide a common
method of routing information packets between the networks. The resulting system
of interconnected networks are called an internetwork, or simply an internet.

What is OSI Model?

The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication used by systems open to interconnection and communication
with other systems. The Open System Interconnection (OSI Model) also defines
a logical network and effectively describes computer packet transfer by using
various layers of protocols.
Characteristics of OSI Model
Here are some important characteristics of the OSI model:
 A layer should only be created where the definite levels of abstraction are
needed.
 The function of each layer should be selected as per the internationally
standardized protocols.
 The number of layers should be large so that separate functions should not
be put in the same layer. At the same time, it should be small enough so
that architecture doesn‘t become very complicated.
 In the OSI model, each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform
primitive functions. Every level should able to provide services to the next
higher layer
 Changes made in one layer should not need changes in other lavers.
Why of OSI Model?
 Helps you to understand communication over a network
 Troubleshooting is easier by separating functions into
different network layers.
 Helps you to understand new technologies as they are developed.
 Allows you to compare primary functional relationships on various
network layers.

History of OSI Model

Here are essential landmarks from the history of OSI model:
 In the late 1970s, the ISO conducted a program to develop general
standards and methods of networking.
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  In 1973, an Experimental Packet Switched System in the UK identified
the requirement for defining the higher-level protocols.
 In the year 1983, OSI model was initially intended to be a detailed
specification of actual interfaces.
 In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an
international standard
7 Layers of the OSI Model
OSI model is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined
according to a specific function to perform. All these seven layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer to another.
 The Upper Layers: It deals with application issues and mostly
implemented only in software. The highest is closest to the end system
user. In this layer, communication from one end-user to another begins by
using the interaction between the application layer. It will process all the
way to end-user.
 The Lower Layers: These layers handle activities related to data transport.
The physical layer and datalink layers also implemented in software and
hardware.
Upper and Lower layers further divide network architecture into seven different
layers as below
 Application
 Presentation
 Session
 Transport
 Network, Data-link
Physical layers

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Network Layers Diagram
Let‘s Study each layer in detail:
Physical Layer
The physical layer helps you to define the electrical and physical specifications
of the data connection. This level establishes the relationship between a device
and a physical transmission medium. The physical layer is not concerned with
protocols or other such higher-layer items.
Examples of hardware in the physical layer are network adapters, ethernet,
repeaters, networking hubs, etc.
Data Link Layer:
Data link layer corrects errors which can occur at the physical layer. The
layer allows you to define the protocol to establish and terminates a connection
between two connected network devices. It is IP address understandable layer,
which helps you to define logical addressing so that any endpoint should be
identified.
The layer also helps you implement routing of packets through a network. It
helps you to define the best path, which allows you to take data from the source
to the destination.
The data link layer is subdivided into two types of sublayers:
1. Media Access Control (MAC) layer- It is responsible for controlling how
device in a network gain access to medium and permits to transmit data.
2. Logical link control layer- This layer is responsible for identity and
encapsulating network-layer protocols and allows you to find the error.
Important Functions of Datalink Layer:
 Framing which divides the data from Network layer into frames.
 Allows you to add header to the frame to define the physical address of
the source and the destination machine
 Adds Logical addresses of the sender and receivers
 It is also responsible for the sourcing process to the
destination process delivery of the entire message.
 It also offers a system for error control in which it detects retransmits
damage or lost frames.
 Datalink layer also provides a mechanism to transmit data over
independent networks which are linked together.
Transport Layer:
The transport layer builds on the network layer to provide data transport from a
process on a source machine to a process on a destination machine. It is hosted
using single or multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service
functions.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer
builds on the message which are received from the application layer. It helps
ensure that data units are delivered error-free and in sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control,
error control, and segmentation or desegmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data
transmission and sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-
known example of the transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers:
 It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and
numbers them to make a sequence.

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  Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process on the destination machine.
 It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it
should be retransmitted.
Network Layer:
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another connected in ―different
networks‖.
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:
1. routing protocols
2. multicast group managementnetwork-layer address assignment.

Session Layer
Session Layer controls the dialogues between computers. It helps you to establish
starting and terminating the connections between the local and remote
application.
This layer request for a logical connection which should be established on end
user‘s requirement. This layer handles all the important log-on or password
validation.
Session layer offers services like dialog discipline, which can be duplex or half-
duplex. It is mostly implemented in application environments that use remote
procedure calls.
Important function of Session Layer:
 It establishes, maintains, and ends a session.
 Session layer enables two systems to enter into a dialog
 It also allows a process to add a checkpoint to steam of data.
Presentation Layer
Presentation layer allows you to define the form in which the data is to exchange
between the two communicating entities. It also helps you to handles data
compression and data encryption.
This layer transforms data into the form which is accepted by the application. It
also formats and encrypts data which should be sent across all the networks. This
layer is also known as a syntax layer.
The function of Presentation Layers:
 Character code translation from ASCII to EBCDIC.
 Data compression: Allows to reduce the number of bits that needs to be
transmitted on the network.
 Data encryption: Helps you to encrypt data for security purposes — for
example, password encryption.
 It provides a user interface and support for services like email and file
transfer.
Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest
level of OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the
end-user. It means OSI application layer allows users to interact with other
software application.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a
communicating component. The interpretation of data by the application program
is always outside the scope of the OSI model.
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Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email,
remote login, etc.The function of the Application Layers are:
 Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
 It allows users to log on to a remote host
 This layer provides various e-mail services
 This application offers distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
Interaction Between OSI Model Layers
Information sent from a one computer application to another needs to pass
through each of the OSI layers.
This is explained in the below-given example:
 Every layer within an OSI model communicates with the other two layers
which are below it and its peer layer in some another networked
computing system.
 In the below-given diagram, you can see that the data link layer of the first
system communicates with two layers, the network layer and the physical
layer of the system. It also helps you to communicate with the data link
layer of, the second system.

Protocols supported at various levels

Layer Name Protocols
Layer 7 Application SMTP, HTTP, FTP, POP3, SNMP
Layer 6 Presentation MPEG, ASCH, SSL, TLS
Layer 5 Session NetBIOS, SAP
Layer 4 Transport TCP, UDP
Layer 3 Network IPV5, IPV6, ICMP, IPSEC, ARP, MPLS.
Layer 2 Data Link RAPA, PPP, Frame Relay, ATM, Fiber
Cable, etc.
Layer 1 Physical RS232, 100BaseTX, ISDN, 11.

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Differences between OSI & TCP/IP
Here, are some important differences between the OSI & TCP/IP model:

OSI Model TCP/IP model

OSI model provides a clear distinction TCP/IP doesn‘t offer any clear
between interfaces, services, and distinguishing points between services,
protocols. interfaces, and
protocols.
OSI uses the network layer to define TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
routing standards and
protocols.
OSI model use two separate layers TCP/IP uses only one layer
physical and data link to define the (link).
functionality of the
bottom layers
OSI model, the transport layer is A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
only connection-oriented. connection-oriented and
connectionless.
In OSI model, data link layer and In TCP data link layer and physical
physical are separate layers. layer are combined as a single host-to-
network layer.
The minimum size of the OSI header is Minimum header size is 20
5 bytes. bytes.

Advantages of the OSI Model

Here, are major benefits/pros of using the OSI model :
 It helps you to standardize router, switch, motherboard, andother hardware
 Reduces complexity and standardizes interfaces
 Facilitates modular engineering
 Helps you to ensure interoperable technology
 Helps you to accelerate the evolution
 Protocols can be replaced by new protocols when technology changes.
 Provide support for connection-oriented services as well as connectionless
service.
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  It is a standard model in computer networking.
 Supports connectionless and connection-oriented services.
 Offers flexibility to adapt to various types of protocols
Disadvantages of the OSI Model
Here are some cons/ drawbacks of using OSI Model:
 Fitting of protocols is a tedious task.
 You can only use it as a reference model.
 Doesn‘t define any specific protocol.
 In the OSI network layer model, some services are duplicated in many
layers such as the transport and data link layers
 Layers can‘t work in parallel as each layer need to wait to obtain data from
the previous layer.
Summary
 The OSI Model is a logical and conceptual model that defines network
communication which is used by systems open to interconnection and
communication with other systems
 In OSI model, layer should only be created where the definite levels of
abstraction are needed.
 OSI layer helps you to understand communication over a network
 In 1984, the OSI architecture was formally adopted by ISO as an
international standard
Layer Name Function Protocols
Layer 7 Application To allow access to network SMTP, HTTP,
resources. FTP,
POP3,
SNMP

Layer 6 Presentation To translate, encrypt and MPEG,

compress data. ASCH, SSL,
TLS
Layer 5 Session To establish, manage, and NetBIOS,
terminate the session SAP
Layer 4 Transport The transport layer builds on the TCP, UDP
network layer to provide data transport
from a process on a source machine to
a process on a destination
machine.

Layer 3 Network To provide internetworking. To move IPV5, IPV6,

packets from source to destination ICMP,
IPSEC, ARP,
MPLS.

Layer 2 Data Link To organize bits into frames. To provide RAPA, PPP,
hop-to-hop delivery Frame Relay,
ATM,
Fiber Cable,
etc.
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Layer 1 Physical To transmit bits over a medium. RS232,
To provide 100BaseTX,
mechanical and electrical ISDN, 11.
specifications

The TCP/IP Reference Model

TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol. It is the
network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set
of rules which govern every possible communication over a network. These
protocols describe the movement of data between the source and destination or
the internet. They also offer simple naming and addressing schemes.

Overview of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was
developed by Department of Defence's Project Research Agency (ARPA, later
DARPA) as a part of a research project of network interconnection to connect
remote machines. The features that stood out during the research, which led to
making the TCP/IP reference model were:
 Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a network
was easy.
 The network was robust, and connections remained intact untill the
source and destination machines were functioning.
The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send
data packets) another application running on different computer.

Different Layers of TCP/IP Reference Model

Below we have discussed the 4 layers that form the TCP/IP reference model:
Layer 1: Host-to-network Layer
1. Lowest layer of the all.
2. Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent
over it.
3. Varies from host to host and network to network.

Layer 2: Internet layer

1. Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a
connectionless internetwork layer is called a internet layer.
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 2. It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
3. It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
4. Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are
sent.
5. IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
6. The various functions performed by the Internet Layer are:
o Delivering IP packets
o Performing routing
o Avoiding congestion

Layer 3: Transport Layer

1. It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single
path.Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data
is done by transport layer.
2. The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
3. Transport layer adds header information to the data.
4. Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they
are handled more efficiently by the network layer.
5. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in sequence.

Layer 4: Application Layer

The TCP/IP specifications described a lot of applications that were at the top of
the protocol stack. Some of them were TELNET, FTP, SMTP, DNS etc.
1. TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows connecting
to a remote machine and run applications on it.
2. FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer
amongst computer users connected over a network. It is reliable, simple
and efficient.
3. SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to
transport electronic mail between a source and destination, directed via
a route.
4. DNS(Domain Name Server) resolves an IP address into a textual
address for Hosts connected over a network.
5. It allows peer entities to carry conversation.
6. It defines two end-to-end protocols: TCP and UDP
o TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is a reliable connection-
oriented protocol which handles byte- stream from source to
destination without error and flow control.
o UDP(User-Datagram Protocol): It is an unreliable connection-
less protocol that do not want TCPs, sequencing and flow
control. Eg: One-shot request- reply kind of service.

Merits of TCP/IP model

1. It operated independently.
2. It is scalable.

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 3. Client/server architecture.
4. Supports a number of routing protocols.
5. Can be used to establish a connection between two computers.
Demerits of TCP/IP
1. In this, the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
2. The model cannot be used in any other application.
3. Replacing protocol is not easy.
4. It has not clearly separated its services, interfaces and protocols.

Multiplexing in Computer Network

Multiplexing is a method of combining and transmitting several data streams
across a single media. It is the process of merging data streams, and the gear
used for multiplexing is known as a multiplexer.
Multiplexing is accomplished by utilising a device known as a Multiplexer
(MUX), which combines n input lines to produce a single output line.
Demultiplexing is accomplished at the receiving end by employing a device
known as a Demultiplexer (DEMUX). DEMUX divides a signal into its
constituent components (one input and n outputs). As a result, demultiplexing
follows the one-to-many technique.
History of Multiplexing:
 Multiplexing is a method commonly used in telecommunications that
allows several phone calls to be transmitted over a single cable.
 Multiplexing was invented in the early 1870s in telegraphy and is now
widely used in communication.
 In 1910, George Owen Squier invented telephone network carrier
multiplexing.
Need for Multiplexing:
 The signal is sent from sender to receiver via the transmission medium.
There can only be one signal on the medium at any given moment.
 If several signals must share a single media, the medium must be split
so that each signal receives a fraction of the available bandwidth.
 When numerous signals use the same medium, there is a chance that
they will collide. To avoid such collisions, the concept of multiplexing
is utilised.
 Transmission services are exorbitantly priced.Concept of Multiplexing:
 The ‗n‘ input lines are routed via a multiplexer, which combines
the signals to create a composite signal.
 The composite signal is routed to a Demultiplexer, which divides a
signal into component signals and routes them to their appropriate
destinations.

Classification of Multiplexing Techniques:

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 1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM):

 It is an analog method.
 Frequency Division Multiplexing is a method that divides the
available bandwidth of a single transmission medium into several
channels.
 Modulation methods are used to convert the input signals into
frequency bands, which are then merged by a multiplexer to produce a
composite signal.
 The primary goal of FDM is to divide available bandwidth into
multiple frequency channels and assign them to various devices.
 The modulation process divides the input signals into frequency
bands, which are subsequently merged to produce a composite
signal.
 Sub-carriers are the carriers that are utilised to modulate the signals.
They are denoted as f1,f2,…fn.
 Guard bands divide the channels. A guard band is a frequency
that neither channel uses.
Applications of FDM
 FDM is widely used in television networks.
 It‘s utilised in FM and AM radio broadcasts. Each FM radio station
broadcasts at a distinct frequency, which is multiplexed to produce a
composite signal. The multiplexed signal is broadcast over the air.
Advantages of FDM:
 For analogue signals, FDM is utilised.
 The FDM modulation technique is relatively basic and
straightforward.
 An FDM may send a large number of signals at the same time.
 It does not need any sort of synchronisation between the transmitter
and the recipient.
Disadvantages of FDM:
 When low-speed channels are required, the FDM method is employed.
 It has an issue of crosstalk.
 This is necessary to use a large number of modulators.
 It needs a channel with a high bandwidth.

2. Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM):

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  Wavelength Division Multiplexing is similar to Frequency Division
Multiplexing except for the fact that optical signals are delivered over
fibre optic cable.
 WDM is a technique used in fibre optics to enhance the capacity of
a single fibre.
 It is utilised to take advantage of the high data rate capabilities
of fibre optic cable.
 It is a technique for analogue multiplexing.
 With the aid of a multiplexer, optical signals from several sources are
merged to produce a broader spectrum of light.
 The signals are separated at the receiving end by a
demultiplexer before being sent to their respective destinations.
 A prism can be used to do multiplexing and demultiplexing.
 Prism can function as a multiplexer by mixing several optical signals to
produce a composite signal, which is then sent through a fibre optical
connection.
 Prism also does a reverse process, which is signal
demultiplexing.
 Dense wavelength division multiplexing merges a large number of
channels (30, 40, 50, or more) onto a single fibre. DWDM channels have
a very high capacity that is constantly improving.
 Only a few wavelengths are combined using coarse wavelength
division multiplexing. This has more widely spread channels and is a
less expensive variant of DWDM.

Advantages of WDM:Full-duplex transmission is achievable with the aid of WDM.

 WDM is simple to reconfigure.
 With the aid of WDM, several signals may be sent at the same time.
 This method is less costly, and system expansion is simple.
 This method is highly secure.
 Because optical fibre is used in WDM, optical components are more
dependable and provide more bandwidth.
Disadvantages of WDM:
 Because optical equipment is used, the cost rises.
 Because of poor bandwidth use, wavelength adjustment might be
challenging.
 This technique‘s major issue is scalability.
3. Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):

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  It is a digital method.
 In the case of Frequency Division Multiplexing, all signals operate at the
same time but at various frequencies, whereas in the case of Time
Division Multiplexing, all signals operate at the same frequency but at
different times.
 The total time available in the channel is divided among multiple users
using the Time Division Multiplexing method. As a result, each user is
assigned a unique time interval known as a Time slot during which data is
to be delivered by the sender.
 For a set period of time, a user assumes control of the channel.
 Data is not sent concurrently in the Time Division
Multiplexing method, but rather one at a time.
 The signal is sent in the form of frames in TDM. Frames include a cycle of
time slots, with one or more slots allotted to each user in each frame.
 It can multiplex both digital and analogue signals, although it is most
commonly used to multiplex digital signals.

Types of Time Division Multiplexing (TDM):Synchronous TDM:

 Synchronous TDM is a method in which each device is allocated a
time slot.
 In Synchronous TDM, each device is assigned a time slot regardless
of whether the device carries data or not.
 If the device has no data, the slot will stay vacant.
 Signals are transmitted in the form of frames in Synchronous TDM.
Frames are used to organise time periods. If a device does not have
data for a specific time slot, the empty slot is sent.
 T-1 multiplexing, ISDN multiplexing, and SONET multiplexing are
the most common types of Synchronous TDM.
 There are n slots if there are n devices.
Advantages of synchronous TDM:
 This approach is simple to use.
 Using this approach ensures a high level of performance.
Disadvantages of Synchronous TDM:
 If a user has no data to send, time slots will be wasted.
 The capacity of the transmission connection must always be greater than
the total capacity of the input lines in this multiplexing.
 Asynchronous TDM:

Page 24
 Asynchrono
us TDM is sometimes referred to as Statistical TDM.
 This is a method in which time slots are not fixed, as in Synchronous
TDM. Only those devices with data to send are assigned time slots. As a
result, we may claim that an Asynchronous Time Division multiplexer
only sends data from active workstations.
 The time slots are dynamically assigned to the devices using an
asynchronous TDM method.
 The overall speed of the input lines in asynchronous TDM might be
more than the channel capacity.
 Asynchronous Time Division multiplexor takes incoming data
streams and generates a frame with no empty slots.
 Each slot in Asynchronous TDM has an address part that identifies
the data source.
 The distinction between Asynchronous TDM and Synchronous TDM is
that many slots in Synchronous TDM go unused, whereas slots in
Asynchronous TDM are completely used. This results in shorter
transmission times and more efficient channel usage.
 If there are n transmitting devices in Synchronous TDM, there are n
time slots. If there are n transmitting devices in Asynchronous TDM,
there are m time slots where m is less than n (mn).
 The number of slots in a frame is determined by a statistical examination
of the number of input lines.
Advantages of Asynchronous TDM:
 There is the effective utilization of transmission capacity in this
multiplexing.
Disadvantages:
 Frames of varying sizes are used in this Multiplexing.
 Because there are no distinct slots allotted to each user, the buffer address
information is also required.
 This method does not guarantee a certain waiting time.
4. Code Division Multiplexing (CDM):
 Code Division Multiplexing allows several data signals to be delivered
over a single frequency.
 FDM divides the frequency into smaller channels, but CDM allows
users to use the entire bandwidth and broadcast signals at all times using
a unique code. To disseminate signals, CDM employs orthogonal
coding.
 Each station is given a unique code, known as a chip.Signals move
independently with these codes over the whole bandwidth. The chip-code
signal that the receiver must receive is known in advance.
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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM, StatMUX) What Does
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM, StatMUX) Mean?
Statistical time-division multiplexing (STDM) is a form of
communication link sharing, which is almost identical to dynamic
bandwidth allocation (DBA).
In STDM, a communication channel is split into a random range of variable bit-
rate data streams or digital channels. The link sharing is tailored for the
instantaneous traffic requirements of the data streams which are transmitted over
every channel.

STDM is same as TDM, with the exception that every signal is assigned a slot
based on priority and demand. This indicates that STDM is an "on-demand"
service as opposed to a fixed one.
Standard TDM and various other circuit switchings are executed at the physical
layer in the OSI and TCP/IP model, while STDM is executed at the data link
layer and above.Scenarios of statistical time-division multiplexing are:
The MPEG transport stream used for digital TV transmission. STDM is used
to permit multiple data, audio and video streams of different data rates to be
broadcasted across a bandwidth- limited channel.
 The TCP and UDP protocols, in which data streams from various
application processes are multiplexed together.
 The Frame relay packet-switching and X.25 protocols, in which the
packets have different lengths.
 The Asynchronous Transfer Mode packet-switched protocol, in which the
packets maintain a fixed length.
Difference between Synchronous TDM and Statistical TDM
1. Synchronous TDM :
Synchronous time division multiplexing (STDM), every device which is present
in this has given the same time slot to transmit data. This does not consider
whether the device contains data or not. The devices place their data on the link
when their time slots arrive, when any device does not contain data its time-slot
remains empty. There are various kinds of time slots that are organized into
frames and each frame consist of one or more time slots dedicated to each
sending device.
2. Statistical TDM :
Statistical time division multiplexing (STDM) is technique for transmitting
several types of data at the same time across a single transmission cable or
line. It is often used for managing data being transmitted via a local area
network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN). In this situations, the data is
often transmitted at the same time from any number of input devices attached
to the network, including computers, printers, or fax machines. It can also be
used in telephone switchboard settings to manage the simultaneous calls going
to or coming from multiple, internal telephone lines.

Page 26
Difference between Synchronous TDM and Statistical TDM :
S.No. Synchronous TDM Statistical TDM
1. The data flow of each input The slots are allotted dynamically.
connection is divided into Input line is
units and each input control one given slots in output frame only
output time slot. if it has data to send.
2. In this, number of slots in each In this, number of slots in each
frame are equal to frame are less than
number of input lines. the number of input lines.
3. The maximum bandwidth The volume of link is normally is
utilization is done when all less than the sum of the volume
inputs have data to send. of each
channel.

4. In this de-multiplexer at receiving In this de-multiplexer at

end decomposes each frame, receiving end decomposes each
discards framing bits and draw out frame, by checking local
data unit in turn. This draw out address of each data unit. This
data unit from frame is then draw out data unit from frame
passed to destination is then passed to destination
device. device.

5. It uses synchronization bits at the It does not used

beginning of each synchronization bits.
frame.
6. Slots in this carry data only and Slots in this contain both data
there is no need of and address of the
addressing. destination.
7. In this, buffering is not done, In this, buffering is done and only
frame is sent after a specific those inputs are given slots in
interval of time whether it has output frame whose buffer
data to send contains data
or not. to send.

Page 27
Switching techniques
In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The
switching technique will decide the best route for data transmission.
Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one
communication.
Classification Of Switching Techniques

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated
path between sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established
then the dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is
terminated.
o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the
telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the
communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wantsto send the
data, voice, video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver
sends back the acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated
path. After receiving the acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the
data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for
voice transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.
Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:
o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

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Circuit Switching can use either of the two technologies: Space Division
Switches:
o Space Division Switching is a circuit switching technology in which a
single transmission path is accomplished in a switch by using a
physically separate set of crosspoints.
o Space Division Switching can be achieved by using crossbar switch. A
crossbar switch is a metallic crosspoint or semiconductor gate that can be
enabled or disabled by a control unit.
o The Crossbar switch is made by using the semiconductor. For
example, Xilinx crossbar switch using FPGAs.
o Space Division Switching has high speed, high capacity, and
nonblocking switches.
Space Division Switches can be categorized in two ways:
o Crossbar Switch
o Multistage Switch
Crossbar Switch
The Crossbar switch is a switch that has n input lines and n output lines. The
crossbar switch has n2 intersection points known as crosspoints.
Disadvantage of Crossbar switch:
The number of crosspoints increases as the number of stations is increased.
Therefore, it becomes very expensive for a large switch.The solution to this is to
use a multistage switch.
Multistage Switch
o Multistage Switch is made by splitting the crossbar switch into the
smaller units and then interconnecting them.
o It reduces the number of crosspoints.
o If one path fails, then there will be an availability of another path.
Advantages Of Circuit Switching:
o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the
communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:
o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in
the speed of data transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds
during which no data can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated
path is required for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is
transferred, then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be
transferred even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
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 o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is
transferred as a complete unit and routed through intermediate
nodes at which it is stored and forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a
dedicated path between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching
provides a dynamic routing as the message is routed through the
intermediate nodes based on the information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can
provide the most efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the
next node. This type of network is known as store and forward
network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that
improve the efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily
stored in the nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied.
Therefore, it supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to
enable them to store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility
provided by the message switching technique.
Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is
sent in one go, but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent
individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets
are given a unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source
address, destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as
possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct
order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to
resend the message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the

Page 30
acknowledgment message will be sent.

Page 31
Approaches Of Packet Switching:
There are two approaches to Packet Switching: Datagram
Packet switching:
o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a
datagram, is considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains
the information about the destination and switch uses this information to
forward the packet to the correct destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.
Virtual Circuit Switching
o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection- oriented
switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is
established before the messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the
connection between sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.
Let's understand the concept of virtual circuit switching through a diagram:

o In the above diagram, A and B are the sender and receiver respectively.
1 and 2 are the nodes.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish a connection
between the sender and receiver.
o When a route is established, data will be transferred.
o After transmission of data, an acknowledgment signal is sent by the
receiver that the message has been received.
o If the user wants to terminate the connection, a clear signal is sent for the
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 termination.
Differences b/w Datagram approach and Virtual Circuit approach
Datagram approach Virtual Circuit approach
Node takes routing decisions Node does not take any routing
to forward the decision.
packets.
Congestion cannot occur as all Congestion can occur when the node is
the packets travel in busy, and it does not allow
different directions. other packets to pass through.
It is more flexible as all the It is not very flexible.
packets are treated as an
independent entity.
Advantages Of Packet Switching:
o Cost-effective: In packet switching technique, switching devices do not
require massive secondary storage to store the packets, so cost is
minimized to some extent. Therefore, we can say that the packet
switching technique is a cost- effective technique.
o Reliable: If any node is busy, then the packets can be rerouted. This
ensures that the Packet Switching technique provides reliable
communication.
o Efficient: Packet Switching is an efficient technique. It does not require
any established path prior to the transmission,and many users can use the
same communication channel simultaneously, hence makes use of
available bandwidth very efficiently.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:
o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications
that require low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and
requires high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor
recovered.
o Difference between Datagram and Virtual Circuit Packet Switching:
Datagram Packet Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
Switching
To forward packets, the node There is no routing decision made by the
makes routing decisions. nodes.

Congestion cannot develop since Congestion occurs when a node is

all packets go in opposite overburdened and does not allow other packets
directions. to flow through.
It is more adaptable since each It is not particularly adaptable.
packet is considered
as an individual entity.

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Advantages of Packet Switching:
 Because packet switching devices do not require huge secondary
storage to hold packets, costs are reduced to some extent. As a
result, we can claim that the packet switching approach is cost-
effective.
 If any of the nodes are busy, packets can be redirected. This guarantees
that the Packet Switching method delivers consistent communication.
 Packet switching is a time-saving method. It does not require any
established path prior to transmission, and several users can utilise the
same communication channel at the same time, making effective use of
available bandwidth.
Disadvantages of Packet Switching:
 Packet Switching cannot be used in applications that need low latency
and high-quality services.
 The protocols used in packet-switching are quite complicated and
have a significant implementation cost.
 If the network is overcrowded or damaged, lost packets must be
retransmitted. It can also result in the loss of crucial data if
mistakes are not recovered.
Summary
This article covers the concepts of the switching techniques that are used in
computer networking. We looked at the different kinds of message switching
techniques that are in use today, and also at the advantages and disadvantages of
each. We also looked at the two subtypes of Packet Switching, namely
Datagram and Virtual Circuit and also the differences between them.
What is Circuit Switching? Circuit switching is defined asThe switching
technique is a connection-oriented network that is divided into pieces and has
a dedicated path established between the sender and receiver providing a
guaranteed data rate.
Circuit Switching Diagram

Circuit Switching Examples

Examples of circuit switching are:
 Analog telephone network
 Optical mesh network
 Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
Phases of Circuit Switching
Circuit Establishment
A dedicated circuit between the source and the destination is established
with the help of numerous intermediate switching centres. The requesting
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and receiving of the communication signals are possible when the sender
and receiver transmit signals across the circuit.
Data Transfer
The transfer of data and voice signals are possible between the source and the
destination after the establishment of the circuit. The connection between both
the end parties continues as long as they communicate.
Circuit Disconnection
The disconnection in the circuit happens when one of the users initiates to
disconnect. When the disconnection takes place, all the intermediate links
between the sender and receiver are removed.
Characteristics of Circuit Switched Network
 It is also known as the public network.
 Handling digital data and traffic is easy as the signals are voice
signals.
 The transfer of electric current along with the voice signal is possible.The
process is known as connection-oriented.
 In a circuit switching network, the establishment of the path takes place
first and then the data transmission takes place.
 The amount of data transferred in the circuit switching is fixed.
 The termination of the path is possible only when there is a termination
of the connection.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Circuit Switching
Advantages
 This type of switching technique is suitable for the continuous
transmission of data as the data remains in conservation.
 The rate of communication is steady as a dedicated path for transmission.
 With the establishment of the circuit, there are no intermediate delays
that make it suitable for voice and data transmission.
Disadvantages
 As there is an establishment of a dedicated connection between both
ends, the transmission of any other data is challenging.
 Data with low volume demand high bandwidth.
 The usage of system resources becomes underutilized as the repetition of
resources for other connections is not possible.
 The establishment time is high. Types
of Switches in Circuit Switching
There are two types of switches that are used in circuit switching, and they are:
 Space Division Switches
In space division switching, the paths in the circuit are separated from each
other. The main purpose of the space division was for the analog network.
However, it is used for both analog and digital switching. A switch known as a
crosspoint is used in space division switches. It finds applications in digital
communication and uses semiconductor gates.
The advantage of a space-division switch is that it is instantaneous and the
disadvantage is the number of crosspoints is dependent on the blocking.
 Time-Division Switches
In the time-division switching method, the number of connections travels along
the same trunk line. The breaking of the streams into segments takes place
with the help of time-

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Datagram Networks
In data communications, we need to send messages from one end system to
another. If the message is going to pass through a packet-switched network, it
needs to be divided into packets of fixed or variable size. The size of the packet
is determined by the network and the governing protocol.
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others.
Even if a packet is part of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it as
though it existed alone. Packets in this approach are referred to as datagrams.
Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.
The following figure shows how the datagram approach is used to deliver four
packets from station A to station X. The switches in a datagram network are
traditionally referred to as routers.

In this example, all four packets (or datagrams) belong to the same message, but
may travel different paths to reach their destination. This is so because the links
may be involved in carrying packets from other sources and do not have the
necessary bandwidth available to carry all the packets from A to
X.
Routing Table:
In this type of network, each switch (or packet switch) has a routing table which is
based on the destination address. The routing tables are dynamic and are updated
periodically. The destination addresses and the corresponding forwarding output
ports are recorded in the tables.
Destination Address:
Every packet in a datagram network carries a header that contains, among other
information, the destination address of the packet. When the switch receives the
packet, this destination address is examined; the routing table is consulted to find
the corresponding port through which the packet should be forwarded.
Efficiency:
The efficiency of a datagram network is better than that of a circuit-switched
network. Resources are allocated only when there are packets to be transferred.
If a source sends a packet and there is a delay of a few minutes before another
packet can be sent, the resources can be reallocated during these minutes for
other packets from other sources.
Delay:
There may be greater delay in a datagram network than in a virtual-circuit
network. Although there are no setup and teardown phases, each packet may
experience a wait at a switch before it is forwarded. In addition, since not all
packets in a message necessarily travel through the same switches, the delay is
not uniform for the packets of a message. The following figure gives an example
of delay in a datagram network for one single packet.

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