Design, Performance and

L. A. Schienbein Economics of 50-kW and 500-kW

D. J . Malcolm
Vertical Axis Wind Turbines
DAF Indal Ltd., (A review of the development and performance of the DAF Indal 50-k W vertical axis
Mississauga, Ontario, Darrieus wind turbine shows that a high level of technical development and
Canada, L5C 2V8 reliability has been achieved. Features of the drive train, braking and control
systems are discussed and performance details are presented?)Details are also
presented of a 500-kW VA WT that is currently in production. A discussion of the
economics of both the 50-kW and 500-kW VA WTs is included, showing the effects
of charge rate, installed cost, operating cost, performance, and efficiency.

Production
DAF Indal Ltd. has been actively engaged in the design, 50-kW units and their measured performance, the con-
development, manufacturing, and testing of Darrieus type figuration and expected performance of the 500 kW VAWT,
vertical axis wind turbines since 1974. The company has and the economics of both machines based on installed costs
designed and manufactured twelve 50-kW units (16.8 m X in both remote and wind farm applications.
11.2 m, 55.0 X 36.7 ft.) now installed in Canada, the United The ability to accurately predict the natural frequencies and
States, Australia, and Ireland, and the large 36.6 m by 24.4 m modes of vibration of the rotor is a key element in the suc-
(120 ft. x 80 ft.) 230-kW research machine installed on the cessful design and safe operation of the VAWTs. The paper
lies de la Madeleine in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. includes comparisons between predicted and measured
Most of the 50-kW wind turbines are being used by elec- responses for the two machines.
trical utilities for "hands on" demonstration of VAWT
technology, operating in parallel with either large networks 50-kW VAWT. A photograph of DAF Indal's advanced
or relatively small diesel generator plants. One of the original 50-kW VAWT at the San Luis Reservoir, California, is shown
units has been in service since 1978 with the U.S. Department in Fig. 1. The main characteristics of this machine are given in
of Agriculture at Bushland, Texas. It has been mechanically Table 1.
coupled to both an electric pump motor and a diesel engine Power Module. The first 50-kW units were delivered in
for deep well irrigation pumping experiments. An advanced 1978. Since that time, design changes have concentrated on
50-kW unit began operation in February 1982, in the the lower bearing, the brake, the gearbox, the rotor support
mechanical assist configuration, as part of a prototype 100-
kW, wind-turbine-assisted diesel generator plant near Sud-
bury, Canada. Table 1 Description of the DAF Indal 50-kW VAWT
DAF Indal has concluded that for large-scale (wind farm) operating at the San Luis Reservoir, California
applications, the lowest cost of wind-generated electricity will
Generic description Physical characteristics
be delivered by wind turbines having rated outputs of at least
several hundred kilowatts. Therefore, the design of a Series Vertical axis wind turbine Number of blades Two
6400 VAWT with a 500 kW rating, was started in 1981. It is generator, Darrieus type Rotor height 16.8 m (55 ft)
with Troposkien blade Rotor diameter 11.2 m2 (36.7 ft)
expected that this series of VAWTs will meet the short to shape Capture area 121m
medium term demand for both wind farm and wind diesel (1,330 ft 2 )
applications. Rotor weight 3,100 kg
(6,8201b)
Small machines, such as the 50-kW VAWT, may continue System weight 3,650 kg
to fill the need for technology demonstration units because (8,0301b)
they are relatively inexpensive and easy to install. However,
the most promising future for these machines may be in small Overall Configuration
wind turbine diesel hybrids serving isolated communities, Rotor supported by power Blade material Extruded
farms, and industrial installations. module and three guy wires aluminum alloy
terminating at the upper
This paper reviews the design features of the 50-kW and bearing housing. Rotor
500-kW VAWTs, the operating experience with two advanced drives a 56-kW (75-hp), Blade profile NACA0015 36cm
three-phase induction (14 in) chord
Contributed by the Solar Energy Division for publication in the JOURNAL OF generator through a 15:1
SOLAR ENERGY ENGINEERING. Manuscript received by the Solar Energy Division ratio single mesh spur Rotor column steel pipe 60-cm
Novembers, 1982.
gear and pinion gearbox. (2-ft) dia.

418/ Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

Copyright © 1983 by ASME
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 , /I
\ II

GEAR COUPLING

HYDRAULIC AOTOR
SUPPORT CHAMBER

SPRAY
~_ _ ~ LUBRICATION

"D~'lI-- BEARINGS

~~@]i!mIJI!I!iD-*---PINION

PRESSURE BULL aEAR

REGULATOR VALVE RUNNING
POSITION

BRAKED
POSITION

HYORAULIC
OUMP VALVE ---1-+-1---+1'0
GEAR
t:::::l-1-- COUPLINGS

poweR MOCULE

I
HYDRAULIC PUMPS
AND RESERVOIR

Fig. 1 OAF Indal50·kW VAWT San Luis Reservoir, California ELECTRICAl.

CONTROL CABINETS MOTOR/GENERATOR

Fig.2 Schematic of the 50·kW VAWT power module

structure and the packaging of these elements, along with the
generator, switchgear, and the cont~ol unit to form a power
module. This module is factory assembled and tested, thereby service on most of the 50-kW VAWTs and is believed to offer
contributing to improved reliability and reduced installation overspeed protection equivalent to that provided by the
costs. spoiler system. The "dump" valve is a purely mechanical
Figure 2 shows a schematic of an advanced 50-kW unit, and device which is triggered by centrifugal force. When triggered,
emphasizes the simplicity and compactness of the patented the valve opens, thereby diverting the hydraulic fluid from the
transmission/lower rotor bearing design. The "bull" gear and lower bearing. This results in the bull gear dropping down on
the rotor are hydraulically supported. This permits the gear to to the brake pads and bringing the rotor to rest.
serve as the brake disk, thereby reducing the complexity of the It is significant to note that both the spoilers and the
gearbox/brake system. Furthermore, because the rotor is "dump" valve are tripped independently of the control
supported at constant fluid pressure, the guy tensions remain system protection logic. Both devices operate only if over-
constant regardless of temperature, an important feature for speed is not detected by the tachometer mounted on the
guy-supported rotating structures. Because loss of electrical generator shaft.
power automatically results in the loss of hydraulic pressure,
rotor overspeed during any interruption of power cannot Control Logic. The 50-kW VAWTs employ the
occur. "Canadian Coast" control logic developed by DAF Indal.
This logic permits the rotor to "idle," or to turn at sub-
Overspeed Protection. Rotor overspeed usually results in synchronous speeds while the generator is off-line. The
damage to or destruction of any wind turbine rotor. generator is brought on-line when the rotor speed increases to
Therefore, some of the 50-kW VAWTs in service are fitted synchronous speed. The effect of this control strategy is to
with aerodynamic spoilers (or overspeed "air brakes") at the greatly reduce unnecessary starts, stops, and motoring during
equator of each blade. The design of the spoilers has evolved those periods when the windspeed is moving repeatedly above
and they are now believed to be highly reliable. The spoiler and below the cut-in speed.
plates are hinged at the blade trailing edge and are latched Start-up from rest Occurs when a wind run of 1,000 m is
using electromagnets mounted in the blades. A mercury recorded by the anemometer within a preset time period.
switch, located on the rotor column, opens the electromagnet Operating experience has shown that idling time and the
circuits when the rotor speed reaches the preset overspeed number of starts are reduced by decreasing the wind run
limit. The spoilers are thereby released and deploy as the period to the point where the effective start-up windspeed is
result of a combined aerodynamic and centrifugal moment. above the cut-in speed.
Because spoilers are relatively expensive to fabricate and
install and because they cause a loss of power output, even Performance. Figure 3 shows the measured output power
when latched, DAF Indal has developed a less complex and versus winds peed curve for the 50-kW VAWT at the San Luis
somewhat less costly centrifugally actuated hydraulic Reservoir [1] and for a 50 kW VAWT tested at the company's
"dump" valve for use in overspeed protection. This valve is in plant in 1980 [2]. The difference between the two curves

Journal of Solar Energy Engineering NOVEMBER 1983,Vol. 1051419

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 DAF INDAL
(BASED ON FREE STREAM TEST RESULTS)
375 KW VAWT ESTIMATED PERFORMANCE CURVE
Energy Conversion Efficiency
400
0-35-

300 o
uj 0-30-
o

200 <r 0-25

LlJ
3 o
CO
o
rr
-100 § 0-20-
o
o
>-
CD
<z 0-I5H
6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 UJ
•z.
WIND SPEED (m/s) AT ROTOR EQUATOR UJ

Fig. 3 50-kW VAWT measured performance curves 5J 0 1 0

rr
UJ
>
200 o
Cutoff Wind Speed = 22-4 m/s
-005-
(50mph)
%
180

160
WIND SPEED AT THE ROTOR EQUATOR (m/s)
Fig. 5 Comparison of wind energy distribution at Sable Island,
140 Canada and 50-kW VAWT efficiency

120
a significant effect on energy production for average annual
Cutoff Wind Speed 17 9 m / s windspeeds in excess of about 7 m/s with the Rayleigh
(40mph.)
° 100 distribution.
>- The operating speed of 80 rpm is close to the optimum
CD
rr speed for maximizing the energy output for Rayleigh wind-
y 80 speed distributions with average speeds of about 7 m/s. This
is illustrated in Fig. 5 where the measured efficiency at 80 rpm
and the measured wind energy probability distribution at
< 60- Sable Island (average windspeed 7.2 m/s) are shown plotted
against windspeed. Although the annual energy output for a
< given windspeed distribution can be maximized by selecting
40 Rotor Speed = 8 0 Rpm.
the best rotor speed, VAWTs can only be operated at a few
Rotor Equator Height = 114 m
rotor speeds where the natural modes of vibration of the rotor
Rayleigh Distribution will not be excited.
20
Wind Shear Exponent = 016 The Rayleigh distribution (a special case of the Weibull
distribution) has been found to be an accurate model for
many sites. However, data from many other locations, such
5 6 7 8 9 10 II as sites in Hawaii, have been found to fit other Weibull shape
AVERAGE ANNUAL WIND SPEED m / s
parameters. Figure 6 shows the effect of the shape parameters
MEASURED AT 10 m on the annual energy output for the 50-kW VAWT operating
Fig. 4 Energy output versus average annual wind speed for the 50-kW at 80 rpm. Figure 6 is useful for determining the effect of the
VAWT Weibull shape parameter on the cost of energy calculated for
a Rayleigh distribution. It may be noted that for an average
(approximately 3 kW) is attributed to the drag associated with annual windspeed of about 7 m/s, the annual energy output
the aerodynamic spoilers in the latched position. (The San reaches the maximum for the Rayleigh distribution (K = 2).
Luis machine is not equipped with spoilers.)
Most of the 50-kW machines now in service operate at 80 Frequency Prediction. The problem of exciting resonance
rpm. Although insufficient data have been gathered to ac- in this and other Darrieus rotors has been of much concern to
curately define the power output performance beyond about designers. Although the rotor structure, even with in-
15 m/s, spot power output readings taken on three machines termediate struts, is simple, the structural response is made
indicate that the peak electrical output is in excess of 50 kW, more complex by the influence of centrifugal stiffening of the
with or without spoilers. blades and by other effects of the rotating frame. The blades
Figure 4 shows the calculated annual energy outputs for the are forced to deflect in the plane of the rotor which is itself
50-kW VAWT based on the San Luis performance curve rotating, and due to the Coriolis forces, motion is therefore
shown in Figure 3 with extrapolation at higher windspeeds. excited normal to the rotor plane and vice versa. There is,
(These results are used in the cost of energy calculations.) The therefore, coupling between pairs of natural modes, each
results in Fig. 4 show that the choice of cut-off windspeed has having a 90 deg phase difference from the other.

420/Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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 Some success has been obtained by researchers at Sandia The results of the first six frequency predictions, which vary
National Laboratories in predicting these frequencies with the with rotor rpm, are shown on Fig. 7. Also shown are lines
use of the NASTRAN program in which inclusion has been corresponding to one, three, and five per revolution
made for the Coriolis effects, whirling softening and stress frequencies, since it is these odd harmonics of the loading that
stiffening [3]. DAF Indal has applied this method to the 50- tend to excite the sensitive "butterfly" out-of-plane modes of
kW VAWT located at Swift Current, Saskatchewan, since this resonance.
machine has been instrumented by the National Research Spectral analysis of strain gauge data taken at 80 rpm
Council of Canada. showed several resonant peaks as well as responses to the
cyclic loading. These natural frequencies are imposed on Fig.
7 and the agreement with the NASTRAN predictions is ex-
Wind Shear Exponent = 0 16 cellent. The spectra also showed a peak at 2.66 Hz which
Rotor Equator Height = l l - 4 m agrees well with the predicted fundamental frequency.
Cutoff Wind Speed = l7-4m/s However, this value coincides with possible two per
Rotor Speed = 80 rpm- revolution excitation which renders the agreement in-
conclusive.
The frequency fan plot predicts resonance with three per
~ 150 revolution loading at just over 90 rpm and indeed this has
Speed = v = 8 9 4 m/s
x (20 mph.) been confirmed in practice.
Reliability and Operating Experience. The advanced
(third generation) 50-kW VAWT at the San Luis Reservoir
I-
has supplied 64,547 kWh to the Pacific Gas and Electric
Q.
network between March 13, 1981 (startup) and December 31,
o 100 7 83 m/s (175 mph.) 1982. The unit was on-line (i.e., producing power) for 5,032
hours; the availability during that period was in excess of 90
> percent.
(r The VAWT down time was the result of the following
UJ
= 7-15 m/s (16 mph.) problems:
1 A loose nut temporarily shorted two control system
< v = 6-71 m/s (15mph.) printed circuit boards.
g 50 Weibull Probability 2 Failure of the hydraulic fluid drain line connection on the
Density Function hydraulic overspeed dump valve. This resulted in the
z V= Wind Speed K= Shape Parameter hydraulic fluid reservoir (for the lower bearing) being pumped
< C = Scale Parameter dry.
., , K ,v > l f , v JO 3 Loss of hydraulic fluid due to excessive travel of the bull
f(v)= c (c) e x p p c ) ] gear. This resulted in a loss of the fluid as an aerosol through
v = c rc^-t-1) the baffles.
-1 1
4 The generator thermal overload breaker tripped during
0 I 3
light winds as a result of startup/shutdown cycling. This
WEIBULL SHAPE PARAMETER K problem was corrected by increasing the startup threshold
Fig. 6 Annual energy output versus Weibull shape parameter based wind speed.
on 50-kW VAWT performance data The down time periods were lengthened by the time

N
f-
or
UJ B = BUTTERFLY
X
T=TOWER
>-"
o F= FLATWISE
2 S= SYMMETRIC
UJ
a A= ASYMMETRIC
UJ
rr P-PROPELLER
Q=EXPERIMENTAL
DATA

ROTOR SPEED, rpm

Fig. 7 Natural frequencies of the DAF Indal 50-kW VAWT (Swift
Current, Canada)

Journal of Solar Energy Engineering NOVEMBER 1983, Vol. 105/421

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 700
ROTOR SHAFT-
POWER OUTPUT HIGH WIND SHUTDOWN
650
600-
550 522 Kw RATED
- 500 ELLl. I OUTPUT ELECT POWER OUTPUT
J 45 BOTH GEN ON LINE
* °
t, 4 00-
a
H 350-
" 300-
<r
g 250-
oa
- 200-
150-
100-
50-

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32
WIND SPEED ( m / s ) AT CENTRE OF ROTOR
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 4 0 45 50 55 6 0 65 70
WIND SPEED (MPH) AT CENTRE OF ROTOR
Fig. 8 DAF Indal 500-kW VAWT predicted performance curves

Table 2 Description of the DAF Indal Series 6400 model Table 3 Predicted electrical energy output versus average
500-kW vertical axis wind turbine annual windspeed for the 500 kW VAWT

Rotor height 36.6 m (120 ft) Average annual wind- Annual energy output
Rotor equator diameter 24.4 m (80 ft) speed measured at 10 m (MWh) for Rayleigh
Blade chord 73.7 cm (29 in) (m/s) distributions
Blade profile NACA0015 5 261
Blade root elevation 3.8 m 2(12.3 ft) 2
Capture area 595 m (6400 ft ) 6 502
Rotor column diameter 91.5 cm to 152.4 cm 7 792
(3 to 5 ft) tapered 8 1094
Rotor weight 15,340 kg (33,740lb) 9 1374
Rated electrical power output 522 kW 10 1604
Rated windspeed at rotor equator 19 m/s (42.5 mph) 11 1774
Rotor speed 45 rpm Cutoff windspeed is 24 m/s measured at the rotor equator
Braking torque capacity 272,000 Nm Wind shear power law coefficient of 0.16 is assumed
(200,000 ft. lbf) Standard sea level air density
Electrical generators 2 at 261 kW (350 HP) each 100 percent availability
three phase, 60 Hz,
NemaB

required to dispatch field service personnel from Ontario to 500-kW VAWT. An immediate market for wind turbines
California to service the machine under warranty. The design in the first generation of wind farms has developed in North
of future machines will benefit from this operating ex- America, especially in the State of California. In order to
perience, and higher reliability can be expected. meet this need, DAF Indal has started a manufacturing
The advanced 50-kW VAWT installed at the Southern program for a 500-kW VAWT.
California Edison test site (Devers Substation) near Palm Some basic details of this machine, which is geometrically
Springs has supplied 75,242 kWh to the SCE network between similar to the 50-kW machine, are listed in Table 2. The
March 10, 1982 (startup) and March 31, 1983. The unit was dimensions of the rotor are identical to the 230-kW ex-
on-line for 3,950 hours; the availability during that period perimental machine located on the lies de la Madeleine, but
was 92.1 percent. the blade chord is increased from 0.61 (24 in.) to 0.74 m (29
The VAWT down time was the result of the following in.), and the operating speed is increased from 36.5 to 45 rpm.
problems: Predicted Performance. The predicted performance curve
1 The upper bearings failed as a result of lack of grease for the 500-kW rating is shown in Fig. 8. This curve is based
lubrication. This was traced to a factory error. The bearings on the use of the latest double multiple stream tube
were replaced without lowering the rotor. aerodynamic performance model [6].
2 The strut to blade connection pins exhibited excessive Other power output ratings, obtained by changing the
wear due to an assembly error. The pins were replaced. operating speed, may provide lower costs of energy in low
3 Hydraulic pressure exhibited instability. The pressure windspeeds and very high windspeed regimes. Predicted
regulating valve was found to be defective. It was replaced. energy outputs for the 500 kW are given in Table 3.
4 Below normal network voltage resulted in the wind
turbine failing to reach the required rotor speed in the preset Design Criteria. The following criteria for the design of
time during start-up. This problem was corrected by in- the 500-kW VAWT were established:
creasing the preset starting time to allow for occasional below 1 All components sensitive to cyclic loads must sustain 10
normal network voltage. cycles (about 20 years) at rated power.

422/ Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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 36-6m

T_B
STRUTS
LOCKED
N FA-B

B = BUTTERFLY
T=TOWER
>-
o F= FLATWISE
z S= SYMMETRIC
UJ
o A= ASYMMETRIC
UJ P«PROPELLER
rr
u. ©-EXPERIMENTAL
DATA

ROTOR SPEED, rpm

Fig. 9 Natural frequencies of the 250-kW VAWT (lies de la Madeleine,
Canada)

Table 4 Cost of energy for the 50-kW VAWT Table 5 Cost of energy for the 500-kW VAWT
Average annual Cost of energy (cents/kWh) Average annual Cost of energy (cents/kWh)
windspeed (m/s) Fixed charge rate windspeed (m/s) Fixed charge rate
0.20 0.25 0.20 0.25
5 133.1 (146.5) 162.8 (179.0) 5 67.0 (71.8) 81.9 (87.8)
6 74.1 (81.5) 90.5 (99.6) 6 34.9 (37.4) 42.6 (45.7)
7 49.7 (54.7) 60.7 (66.7) 7 22.1 (23.7) 27.0 (28.9)
8 37.6 (41.3) 45.9 (50.5) 8 16.0 (17.1) 19.6 (20.9)
9 30.9 (34.0) 37.8 (41.5) 9 12.7 (13.6) 15.6 (16.7)
10 27.1 (29.8) 33.1 (36.4) 10 10.9 (11.7) 13.3 (14.3)
11 24.8 (27.3) 30.3 (33.4) 11 9.9 (10.6) 12.1 (12.9)

Cost of energy for remote applications shown in parenthesis Cost of energy for remote applications shown in parenthesis
Erected cost: remote applications 220,000 dollars Erected cost: remote applications 750,000 dollars
wind farms 200,000 dollars wind farms 700,000 dollars
Energy outputs from Fig. 4 (22.4 m/s cutoff) Energy outputs from Table 4

2 The "survival wind" on the stationary rotor is 67 m/s parameters such as central column stiffness, guy cable stiff-
(150 mph) at the rotor equator. ness, flexibility and mass of the blades, and position of the
3 The operating speed is to be 45 rpm, and the maximum horizontal struts. It is therefore possible to tune the rotor
power is generated at about 19 m/s (42.5 mph) measured at structure to make the required "window" clear of natural
the rotor equator. frequencies.
4 Design is to consider a 10 percent overspeed (to 49.5 rpm)
with a corresponding equator windspeed of 20.9 m/s (46.7
mph) and a 21 percent increase in drive train torque. Economics of the 50-kW and 500-kW VAWTS
5 The maximum gust speed in operating or overspeed
conditions is to be 35.8 m/s (80 mph). Cost of Energy. Costs of energy produced by the DAF
6 The maximum braking torque is to be two times the Indal 50-kW and 500-kW VAWTs were calculated for average
torque at rated power. annual windspeeds of between 5.0 and 11.0 m/s, assuming the
Rayleigh windspeed frequency distribution and using the
7 No natural frequencies should coincide with the one or
annual energy outputs shown in Fig. 4 and Table 3. The
three per revolution frequencies between the operating and
results are shown in Tables 4 and 5.
overspeed conditions.
The aforementioned criteria are based on experience and The costs of energy were calculated using the fixed charge
experimental data. rate method where the cost of energy is given as
(FCR + O&M) X COST
Natural Frequency Prediction. The same methods that COE =
were used on the 50-kW VAWT, based on NASTRAN with EOVTxA
the addition of rotating frame effects, have been applied to where FCR is the fixed charge rate, O&M is the levelized
the experimental turbine on the lies de la Madeleine, with the operation and maintenance cost expressed as a percent of the
results shown in Fig. 9. This prediction agrees well with the installed cost, COST is the installed cost of the VAWT,
existing experimental data (also shown on Fig. 9). EOUT is the ideal annual VAWT energy output, and A is a
It has been found that the basic in-plane and out-of-plane factor (less than one) which accounts for availability and
natural frequencies depend in a predictable manner upon control system efficiency.

Journal of Solar Energy Engineering NOVEMBER 1983, Vol. 105/423

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 The cost of energy in this form is the levelized minimum Conclusions
price (over the life of the VAWT) at which the energy must be
sold to make back the original investment. Investment The development of the DAF Indal 50-kW VAWT has
decisions are, therefore, based on the expected selling price featured:
schedule and/or the expected purchase price schedule for the 1 Reliable operation of units at San Luis Reservoir,
electricity over the life of the VAWT, depending on whether California and Palm Springs, California
the VAWT-generated electricity will be sold, consumed by the 2 Development of a patented combined transmission,
owner, or a combination of both. hydraulic bearing and brake assembly
The fixed charge rate for each business or individual in- 3 Development of a highly efficient control system
vestor is different because it is based on the tax rate, the 4 Computer confirmation of measured resonance speeds of
required return on investment, the debt fraction, lending the rotor
interest rates, the expected life of the VAWT, property taxes, The design of the 500-kW VAWT is based on:
insurance, and the method of depreciation. Tables 4 and 5 1 Increasing the rating of the lies de la Madeleine size of
show the cost of energy for the 50-kW and 500-kW VAWTs wind turbine from 230 kW to at least 500 kW
for fixed charge rates of 20 and 25 percent, for both remote 2 Applying the knowledge gained through the design,
and wind farm per unit installed costs. development, and operation of the 50-kW units
In each case the levelized O&M cost is assumed to be 2.5 3 The need for a VAWT suitable for both wind farms and
percent and the availability and control system efficiency single unit remote wind diesel applications
factor is assumed to be 90 percent. If the purchase of the The economic study concludes that:
VAWTs is mainly financed by borrowing, the tax rate is low, 1 An immediate market exists for the 500-kW VAWT in
and the useful life of the VAWTs is 20 years or more, then the remote communities, where the electrical power is provided
fixed charge rate will very nearly equal the borrowing interest by diesel generator plants, and in wind farms.
rate. 2 Remote sites demand wind turbines with high reliability;
The cost of energy comparisons included in this paper are however, the technical development and field support
useful for demonstrating the effect of fixed charge rate and required to satisfy this limited market cannot be achieved
installed cost on the cost of energy, based on the assumed cost unless large volume production is established.
of energy relation. However, many wind turbine investment
decisions are based on far more complex models unique to Acknowledgments
each business or individual investor. The cooperation of the National Research Council of
The 500-kW and 50-kW VAWTs are cost effective now at Canada is gratefully acknowledged in supplying experimental
remote sites. For example, the electrical energy prices charged data from the 50-kW VAWT at Swift Current, Saskatchewan
to the government of the Northwest Territories, Canada, and from the wind turbine at the lies de la Madeleine, Quebec.
averaged 24.9 cents/kWh (Canadian) in October 1979, for all Some of the results presented in this paper were achieved
55 remote communities served directly by that government through the funding of contract 17SR-3115-0-4605 by the
[4]; for 12 of these communities the costs were 36 cents/kWh Department of Supply and Services, Canada.
or greater. Many of the communities lie in areas where the
average annual windspeed exceeds 6.0 m/s. As a further
example, the cost of providing electricity on Lord Howe References
Island, Australia, was estimated to be 38.6 cents/kWh
(Australian) in July 1980 [5]. 1 DAF Indal Ltd., unpublished test reports
2 Schienbein, L. A., "Performance Testing of a 50-kW VAWT in a Built-Up
Although the isolated applications market is the most Environment," Proceedings of Workshop on Wind Turbine Dynamics, NASA
favourable immediate market for the 500-kW VAWT in terms publication 2185, DOE publication CONF-810226, Cleveland, Ohio, Feb.
of cost of energy difference, adequate technological 24-26, 1981, pp.129-138.
3 Lobitz, D. W., "Dynamic Analysis of Darrieus Vertical Axis Wind
development and field support to meet the unique demands of Turbine Rotors," Proceedings of Workshop on Wind Turbine Dynamics,
this limited market cannot be achieved unles the wind farm NASA publication 2185, DOE publication CONF-810226, Cleveland, Ohio,
market is penetrated and large volume production and sales Feb. 24-26, 1981, pp. 189-196.
are established. 4 "Role of Renewable Sources of Energy in Remote Locations: Energy
Demand Characteristics and Renewable Resource Base," October, 1980,
Table 6 shows that given a 20 pecent charge rate, the Department of Energy, Mines and Resources, Canada.
levelized cost of energy delivered by a DAF Indal 500 kW 5 Bowden, G. J., and Henry, B. I., "Lord Howe Island Energy Survey and
VAWT in a wind farm is less than 16 cents/kWh (Canadian) Wind Energy Proposal," EANSW ESP-15, Mar. 1981, Energy Authority of
where the average annual windspeed exceeds 8 m/s (17.9 mph) New South Wales, Australia.
with a Rayleigh distribution. Levelized costs of energy of less 6 Paraschivoiu, L, "Double Multiple Stream Tube for Darrieus Wind
Turbines," Proceedings of Workshop on Wind Turbine Dynamics, NASA
than 19 cents/kWh (Canadian) are attractive for wind farm publication 2185, DOE publication CONF-810226, Cleveland, Ohio, Feb.
applications in California. 24-26, 1981, pp.19-25.

424/Vol. 105, NOVEMBER 1983 Transactions of the ASME

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