BHARATHIDASAN UNIVERSITY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI – 620 024

CENTRE FOR DISTANCE EDUCATION

TEACHING OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

B.Ed. I YEAR

(Copyright reserved) For Private Circulation only

Chairman

Dr.V.M.Muthukumar

Vice-Chancellor

Bharathidasan University

Tiruchirapplli-620 024

Vice-Chairman

Dr.C.Thiruchelvam

Registrar

Bharathidasan University

Tiruchirapplli-620 024

Course Director

Dr. R. Babu Rajendran

Director i/c

Centre for Distance Education

Bharathidasan University

Tiruchirapplli-620 024

Course Material Co-ordinator

Dr.K.Anandan

Professor & Head, Dept .of Education

Centre for Distance Education

Bharathidasan University

Tiruchirapplli-620 024

Author

Dr.P.Annaraja
Principal
SCAD college of Education
Cheranmahadevi, Ttirunelveli District
TAMILNADU -627414

The Syllabus adopted from 2015-16 onwards

 INDEX

UNITS AND TOPICS Page

UNIT I Aims and Objectives of Teaching Computer Science

1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Objectives 2
1.3 Aims and objectives of teaching computer science 3
1.4 Bloom's taxonomy of Educational Objectives 7
1.5 Computer Science teaching at Different levels in schools. 12
1.6 The place of Computer Science in school Curriculum. 14
1.7 Let us Sum Up 20
1.8 Unit- End Activities 20
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress 20
1.10 Suggested Readings 21

Unit II Hardware and Software of Computers

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Objectives 24
2.3 Definition Computers 24
2.4 History of Computers 29
2.5 Types of Computers 37
2.6 Computer Network 44
2.7 Computer Virus 50
2.8 Software 52
2.9 The various Uses of Computers 68
2.10 Let us Sum Up 71
2.11 Unit- End Activities 71
2.12 Answers to Check Your Progress 72
2.13 Suggested Readings 72
Unit III Micro Teaching

3.1 Introduction 76
3.2 Objectives 76
3.3 Micro-Teaching 76
3.4. Micro-Teaching cycle 83
3.5 Teaching Skill and Activities 86
3.6 Let us Sum Up 101
3.7 Unit- End Activities 101
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress 102
3.9 Suggested Readings 102

Unit IV Instructional Methods

4.1 Introduction 105

4.2 Objectives 105
4.3. Year Plan 106
4.4 Unit Plan 110
4.5 Preparation of a Lesson Plan 114
4.6 Methods of Teaching 128
4.7 Individualised Instruction 140
4.8 Let us Sum Up 152
4.9 Unit- End Activities 153
4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress 153
4.11 Suggested Readings 154

Unit V Instructional Aids

5.1 Introduction 157

5.2 Objectives 157
5.3 Istructional Aids in the teaching of Computer Science 157
5.4 Visual Media 162
5.5. Interactive Whiteboards 171
5.6 Power Point Presentation 174
5.7 Let us Sum Up 181
5.8 Unit- End Activities 181
5.9 Answers to Check Your Progress 182
5.10 Suggested Readings 182

Unit VI Latest Trends in Information Technology

6.1 Introduction 185

6.2 Objectives 185
6.3 Multi Media 186
6.4 Desktop Publishing 189
6.5 Internet 192
6.6 E-LEARNING 199
6.7 Virtual Learning 206
6.8. Web-Based Learning 211
6.9 Teleconferencing 214
6.10 Let us Sum Up 216
6.11 Unit- End Activities 217
6.12 Answers to Check Your Progress 217
6.13 Suggested Readings 218

Unit VII Evaluation In Computer Science

7.1 Introduction 221

7.2 Objectives 221
7.3 Evaluation: Concept And Importance 221
7.4 Types Of Evaluation 223
7.5. Techniques And Tools Of Evaluation 229
7.6 Achievement Test 235
7.7. Computer-Aided Assessment 245
7.8. Diagnostic Test 252
7.9. E-Assessment 255
7.10 Let us Sum Up 259
7.11 Unit- End Activities 260
7.12 Answers to Check Your Progress 260
7.13 Suggested Readings 261
 SYLLABUS
TEACHING OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
Total Marks: 100 Duration of Examination: 3 Hrs
Internal Assessment: 25
External Assessment: 75
OBJECTIVES
After the completion of this course the student teacher will be able
1. Acquaint with the aims and objectives of teaching computer science.
2. Acquire knowledge of computer and its hardware, software components.
3. Acquire skills of micro-teaching.
4. Familiarize with the various methods that can be employed for the teaching of
computer science.
5. Acquaint in preparation of instructional materials.
6. Acquire knowledge of latest trends in Information Technology and assessment
techniques.
7. Acquire knowledge of evaluation in computer science.

COURSE CONTENT
Unit I: Aims and objectives of teaching computer Science
Aims and objectives of teaching Computer Science-Blooms taxonomy of Educational
objectives-computer science teaching at different levels: primary, secondary and
higher secondary levels-Attainment of the objectives of computer science teaching.
Unit II: Hardware and Software of Computers
Hardware components of computer-Input and Output devices-types of computers -
History of Computers-Network Communication-Computer viruses-Protective
measures. Software: definition-system software-Application software-High level and
Programming languages-use of computers in schools.
Unit III: Micro Teaching
Micro Teaching-meaning, definition-Characteristics of micro teaching-features of
Indian model of micro teaching-Micro teaching cycle-Steps in micro teaching cycle-
Practice of relevant skills-Reinforcement-Stimulus Variation-Explaining-Probing
Questions-Demonstration-Skill of Using Black Board-need for link lesson in micro
teaching.
Unit IV: Instructional Methods
Year Plan, Unit plan: Preparation and use of unit plan, Lesson Plan: Importance of
lesson plan, writing instructional objectives and planning for specific behavioural
changes. Lecture-demonstration-Problem Solving-Project method-Scientific method-
analytic and synthetic methods. Inductive-deductive approaches of teaching computer
science. Individualized instruction-programmed instruction-Computer Assisted
Instruction (CAI), Steps for developing CAI, modes of CAI, benefits of CAI,
limitations of CAI, role of teacher in CAI-Computer Managed Instruction.
Unit V: Instructional Aids
Instructional material or teaching aids: Black board-Charts-Maps-Graphs-Diagrams-
Visual Media-Interactive White Board-Power Point Presentation (Multimedia
presentation-Preparation and use of the instructional media).
Unit VI: Latest Trends in Information Technology
Multi media-desk top Publishing-Internet and its uses-E-learning: definition, meaning,
Modes of e-learning, characteristics of e-learning, e-learning tools, benefits of e-
learning-Virtual Learning-Web enabled/based learning-Tele conferencing-Video
conferencing.
Unit VII: Evaluation in Computer Science
The concept of evaluation-objectives based evaluation-tools and techniques in
evaluation. Evaluation for achievement, diagnosis and prediction-Formative and
summative assessment-Grading pattern-Computer Aided Evaluation-On line
examination. E-assessment: definition, types of e-assessment-risk involved in using e-
assessment-limitations of e-assessment.
PRACTICUM
 Practice of a minimum of five skills on Micro teaching.
 Preparation of Unit plan
 Preparation of Lesson plan
 Linear Programming (Minimum of 20 frames)
 Multimedia Presentation (Minimum of 20 slides)
 Identification and cataloguing of three websites relating to the prescribed school
curriculum
Comparative evaluation of any two web pages bearing on the same unit in the school
curriculum
UNIT I AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Aims and Objectives of Teaching Computer Science
1.3.1 Aims of Teaching Computer Science
1.3.2 Need for Teaching Compsuter Science
1.3.3 Objectives of teaching computer science
1.3.4 Check Your Progress
1.4 Bloom's taxonomy of Educational Objectives
1.4.1 Objectives of Cognitive Domain
1.4.2 Objectives of Affective Domain
1.4.3 Objectives of Psycho-motor Domain
1.4.4 Check Your Progress
1.5 Computer Science teaching at Different levels of schools.
1.5.1Primary
1.5.2 Secondary
1.5.3 Higher Secondary
1.5.4Check Your Progress
1.6 The place of Computer Science in Higher Secondary Curriculum.
1.6.1 Importance of Teaching Computer science in the Higher Secondary
1.6.2 Teaching Computer Science in relation to other school subjects Level
1.6.3 Check Your Progress
1.6.4 Answers to Check your Progress
1.7 Let us Sum Up
1.8 Unit- End Activities
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
1.10 Suggested Readings

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

Computer science is an integral part of our lives, shaping virtually

everything from the objects around us to the ways in which we communicate, travel,
work, and play. And the computer revolution has just begun – Computer science is
now a key enabler for discovery and innovation in most other fields of endeavor,
making it an incredibly relevant course of study. Computer scientists invent the
future by developing architectures and techniques for more advanced computing, and
by developing the applications that operate within those frameworks. Its fields can be
divided into a variety of theoretical and practical disciplines. Some fields, such as
computational complexity theory (which explores the fundamental properties of
computational and intractable problems), are highly abstract, while fields such as
computer graphics emphasize real-world visual applications. Still other fields focus
on challenges in implementing computation. For example, programming language
theory considers various approaches to the description of computation, while the
study of computer programming itself investigates various aspects of the use of
programming language and complex systems. Human–computer interaction considers
the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally
accessible to human beings. In this unit an elaborate study is provided on the aims,
needs , importance and objectives of teaching computer science, Bloom's taxonomy.
Further, it deals with Computer Science teaching at different levels, Place of
computer Science in the School Curriculum and Teaching of Computer Science in
relation other School subjects.

1.2 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to:

 Understand the aims and objectives of teaching computer science
 Describe the need of teaching computer science in schools
 Understand the Bloom's taxonomy of Educational Objectives
 synthesis the Computer Science teaching at Different Levels: Primary,
Secondary and Higher Secondary levels
 Understand the place of Computer Science in the Higher Secondary
Curriculum
 Analyses the Importance of Computer Science in the Higher Secondary level

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  Understand the procedure of Computer Science Teaching in relation to other
School Subjects.
1.3 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE

The purpose of computer science teaching in school is to enable student to

grasp the basic knowledge needed from further study of computer science and the
related technology and to understand its application. Also it should help the learners
acquire the skill of practical utility, develop the capacity to think further and apply
those skills is the real life situations. As the technology makes the world shrunk day
by day, it is essential that the students are made to be aware of the modernization,
along social lives, of industry, agriculture, national defence, national and international
affairs. No field in the world at present can claim to be free of technological touch;
and with technology, can achieve to any height.
Computer science in school subjects should be considered as
1. A body of knowledge
2. An attitude towards life, thinking and growing
3. A tool for the work man
To help the students attain the above qualities, the quantity of the content, the
course subject matter must have certain qualities.
Thurber and Collette have proposed the following criteria for selection of
aims.
1. Usefulness : The knowledge gained should be useful to the pupils
in their lives.
2. Timeliness : The knowledge given should be concerned with
material objects with which students are familiar.
3. Fitness : The knowledge must fit into a sequence that leads the
students to broad objectives.
4. Appropriateness : The learning should be appropriate to maturity and
background of the students.
5. Practicability : It means that experiences required for the
development of Aims and Objectives learning should
be possible.

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 The teaching learning activities provided along these lines enable the students
to acquire the right knowledge and practice it. Acquisition of knowledge and
application of skills make one to be an able person.
Knowledge + Skills (appropriate) = Ability
Here knowledge also involves more complex process of relating and judging
and skills refer to the operational techniques for dealing with problems.
1.3.1 AIMS OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE
The teaching of computer science should aim to
 Provide the fundamental knowledge to the students.
 Make the students understand the relevant knowledge and skills in computer
science.
 Develop in them the skill of thinking and analyzing
 Inculcate proficiency in reasoning and synthesizing
 Create interest and scientific attitudes.
 Induce in them the thirst for acquiring knowledge.
 Develop communicative skills and soft skills.
 Identify their emotional intelligence
 Equip them with the skill of using computers.
 Help the students apply the knowledge in learning activities.
 Help the students attain thinking process.
 Make the students associate the knowledge in real time application.
 Imbibe in the students the skill of acquiring knowledge, create knowledge and
share their expertise.
 Dig out the latent talents in the students.
 Make the student attain the skills of initiatives.
 Develop in the students be collaborative, inquiry and coordination capabilities.
 Build team spirit
 Train the students understand and identify the problems and issues direct or
indirect and analyze them, code and decode for the computer processing.
 Help the students attain the skill of problem solving.
 Help them posses the ability for local and global accessing of information.
 Provide them vocational skills
 Provide self concept, sense of acceptance and sharing qualities

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  Inculcate citizenship and love for the society and Nation
 Promote local and global understanding.
1.3.2 NEED FOR TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE
“Education is essential for both employment and entrepreneurship” says
Dr. Kalam to a school student's question. – (Readers Digest, November, 2004)
In the global automotive Industry almost all major systems like engines
transmission, power trains, breaking systems are controlled through computers –
(Data Quest, March 2005)
Indian biotech firms should look at UK as business destination – (The Hindu,
April 23, 5005)
Based on the above few of the millions of statements, the Classroom
Instruction in Schools should be given serious attention for its worthiness and provide
the futuristic, technology oriented education. The technological advancement and the
Industrial competitions year every one to be active on the wheels of revolutions. As a
result, according to the theory of “the survival of the fittest”, the fittest person who is
accommodative and adaptive in nature merges as a successful person in the midst of
accelerating changes, rapidly advancing technology and sudden thrust to a global
scene. The global changes have its own effect on the Educational Institutions at a
great extent. The challenges faced by the education industry in the knowledge era
primarily revolve around
- providing wider accessibility
- ensuring continuing relevance of course and
- quality assurance
The above challenges are met with confidence only by the use of computers.
The use of computers is inevitable and it has become a necessary electronic gadget in
every individual's life. At the same time its progress is in geometric proportion.
Hence it is essential for the school children to learn about the nature, scope, and use
of computers in the school itself. “The approach in the Natural curriculum Framework
developed by NCERT in 2005 emphasises that children should be helped to construct
their knowledge, with the teacher only being a facilitator, there is a need to develop a
number of exhibits with the help of which, the teacher could promote the spirit of
exploration, investigation, and enquiry…” said Mrs. Pratibha Patil, president of India.
Undoubtedly, these qualities can be achieved within the children through
computer literacy in this electronic era.
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 Shashi Tharnoor, a former UN diplomat with a keen insight informs “India is
entering the global employment market place with a self imposed handicapped of
which we are first beginning to become conscious-an acute shortage of quality
institutions of higher education. For far too long, we have been co-placement about
the fact that we have produced, since the 1960s, the world's second largest pool of
trained scientist and engineers”.
By introducing computer science is the school curriculum, which is also a
foundation for higher education, we can confidently challenge that the educational
industries be fixed on to the global standards.
“Nanotechnology is knocking at our doors. We should be aware of the trends
of technology and nurture our young minds : said Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam.
1.3.3 OBJECTIVES OF TEACHING COMPUTER SCIENCE
The objectives of teaching computers are basically of two folds. Those
students who terminate their studies with schools need to be equipped with vocational
skills in order to help them get a job is one factor. The other factor is, the learning
community which goes for higher education should be provided with good and strong
foundation of computer science in the school itself. Any amount of computer science
courses without the foresight of the future will be of no use. Hence the aims of
teaching computer science in schools should have those learning activities which the
society immediately needs and also the knowledge that would be needed for the future
development need to be imparted to learners. The teacher being a facilitator need to
inculcate is the learning society, the scientific temper that which equip them to meet
the challenges in their future.

1.3.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit .
1.The Approach In The Natural Curriculum Framework Developed By NCERT In
2005 Emphasises that children should be helped to-----------------------their
Knowledge.

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1.4 BLOOM’S TAXONOMY OF EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

The objectives of teaching computer science in schools are as follows:

Objectives are the specific and precise behavioral outcome of teaching a topic.
The main objectives of teaching computer science must ensure better match between
the industry's requirement and outputs of the education sector emphasizing the quality
needs. The teaching of computers should make phenomenal effects on the learners. It
is complex in nature. Hence teacher, the facilitator must imbibe in the students the
initiatives, inquiry, analytic and comprehensive abilities.
Knowledge acquisition, adaptation, and utility are the prime slogans of the
present learning society. Hence learning computers from the school is the need of the
hour.
Whole human processes can be divided in three levels as follows:
Activities related to head – Cognitive Domain
Activities related to heart – Affective Domain
Activities related to hand – Psycho-Motor Domain
On the basis of these three Domains, B.S. Bloom and his associates divided
educational objectives and there were six objectives for each domain.

Cognitive Domain Affective Domain Psycho-motor Domain

1. Knowledge 1. Receiving 1. Impulsion
2. Understanding 2. Responding 2. Manipulation
3. Application 3. Valuing 3. Control
4. Analysis 4. Conceptualization 4. Co-ordination
5. Synthesis 5. Organisation 5. Naturalisation
6. Evaluation 6. Characterisation 6. Habit Formation

1.4.1 OBJECTIVES OF COGNITIVE DOMAIN

1. Knowledge : Really knowledge works on memory level teaching. It is related with
pre learned of thing. In this recognition of broad area pre-learned subject from any to
fact to whole theory comes. In recognition there are two mental processes occur.
In this way in this objective students gather knowledge about facts, principles,
relationship, ideas, processes, axioms, postulates, definitions, hypothesis and
historical order of subject-matter.

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 2. Comprehension: The capacity of understanding is called comprehension. In this,
acceptation of any communication accurately, changing it to another form and
recollection without centralization comes. It can be cleared by divided it in following
three states.
(Knowledge of Universals (Generalisation Educational Knowledge)
& Abstractions

(Knowledge of Concentions

(Knowledge of Ways + Means (Knowledge of trends & Sequences)

of Dealing with Specifies
(Knowledge of Criterias)

(Knowledge) (Knowledge of Classification & Categories)

(Knowledge of Terminology) Language

Knowledge

(Knowledge of Specifics)
Place, Persons, Dates
(Knowledge of Specific Facts) Accidents Knowledge
3. Extrapolation In this all levels from occurance to
solution of problem come.
2. Interpretation For testing of compulsion

From one form to another form

From one level to another level of abstract

1. Translation From one form to another form of oral form

3. Application: This objective is gained after achieving knowledge and

comprehensive objective. The development of capacity of using their knowledge in
new circumstances of life comes in this objective. It can also be learned by dividing, it
in following three levels.

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 Use in New Situation

Application Diagnosis

Generalisation

4. Analysis: This objective can be exactly achieved after above three objectives. In
this whole contents are divided in internal parts and components and a relationship is
established between them. It can also be cleared by dividing it, in following three
levels.
Analysis

Analysis of Analysis of Analysis of

Elements Relationship Organisational Principles

5. Synthesis: It indicates to the capacity of accumulation of different facts and of

recollect them in a new form. In this production of peerless co-ordination also comes.
It can also be cleared by dividing it, in following three levels.

Synthesis

Production Production Derivation

of Unique of Proposed of a set of Abstract
Communication Set of Operation Relations

6. Evaluation: In this decision on acceptance and usefulness of any thing, event, facts
etc., are taken by use critics view. In this any standard is used to evaluate accuracy,
effect and feasibleness of anything. This decision can be qualitative or quantitative.
1.4.2 OBJECTIVES OF AN AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
In 1964, Bloom, Crethwall and Masiha did much hard work for categorization
of objectives in this favour. For this they used the concept of Internalisation as base.
In this objective of interest, inclination, values and co-ordination development
comes.

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1. Receiving: Sensitiveness for desire or stimulus to accept any thing is receiving. Its
three level are
Receiving

Awareness of Willingness to receive Controlled or

The Phenomenon the Phenomenon Selected Scheme

2. Responding: active reaction for stimulus is responding. It is much like as ‘Interest'

its three levels are

Responding

Acquienscences in Willingness in Satisfaction in

Responding Responding Responding

3. Valuing: The behaviour of child, by which he represents his feelings about

superiority, value and characteristics of any thing, fact, event and behaviour. Since it
is related to faith for values, therefore, for specific value acceptance, priority and
conviction adds three levels .They are
Valuing

Acceptance of Preference for Commitment or

a Value a Value Conviction
4. Conceptualsation: The base of construction of thinking or concepts is similarity
and dissimilarity. Even whenever student builds concepts by establishing similarity,
difference and relationship in existing values, then their behaviour comes in this
objective. As result of variation of values, concept making for solving problems
comes in this.
5. Organisation: Serialized combination of chosen value for concept making comes
in this category. Construction of value compendium on the basis of above chosen

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values or by organized form of serialized concepts is called organization.

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6. Characterisation: Specification of human behaviour in this reference of controlled
values, thinking and conditions comes in this. In this that behaviour of students occurs
in which he constructs his life-style according to value compendium.
1.4.3 OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHO-MOTOR DOMAIN
In this difference skills come. Starting from tangibility in mental form comes
in skill of complex overt behaviour. Since none skill is possible in absence of co-
ordination of mind and body, so it is called psycho-motor (mind and muscle) domain.
In computer science teaching generally following skills are included.
i. Drawing skill
ii. Computation skill
iii. Construction skill
iv. Observation skill
v. Problem solving skill
vi. Dissection skill
(i) Impulsion – It is first step which is needed centralized. Its two levels are

Responding

Imitation Overt Repetition

(ii) Manipulation – To organise different elements kept in any skill comes in this,
following levels are in this
Manipulation

Following Direction Selection Fixation

(iii) Control – To provide corresponding weightage to united elements comes in
this. There are two levels of this
Control

Precision Reproduction

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(iv) Co-ordination – Mutual relationship is co-ordination, which has following type.
Co-ordination

Sequence Harmony
B.J. Simpson gave the following levels of Psycho-motor Domain
1. Perception
2. Set
3. Guided response
4. Mechanism
5. Complex overt response.

1.4.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit
2. Name the domain where the activities of the individuals are based on
heart.
3. What are the objectives under cognitive domain based on
Bloom's taxonomy

1.5 COMPUTER SCIENCE TEACHING AT DIFFERENT LEVELS IN

SCHOOLS

Science is one of those human activities that man has created to gratify certain
human needs and desires. The ‘Search of truth' became the dominant motive in the
prosecution of science. The scientific policy resolution of the Government of India,
“The domination feature of the contemporary world is the intense cultivation of
science on large scale, and its application to meet the country's requirements”. The
primary goal of education should be the intellectual development of the individual.
With its accelerating importance in our society computer science has become an
increasingly important part of general knowledge. Scientific education is best fostered
as a part of a general emphasis on intellectual activity. From the primary level, the

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computer science teaching is given importance in the schools. Increasingly the
computer science is being incorporated in the schools.
1.5.1 PRIMARY LEVEL
At primary levels, the computer is being used to display the lessons in the
form of Rhymes, Games, and Browsing and Interactive mode. As per the Cognitive
Development theories by Piaget and Bruner, the child learns through Senses, Icons
and Enactive mode of representations. So a number of hands on experience are given
to the children at this level. More over simple software applications are taught.
Ex. LOGO, MS PAINT
1.5.2 SECONDARY LEVEL
At Secondary level, the computer skills are developed. The application soft
wares like Ms Word, Excel and PowerPoint are taught. It helps to develop their
fundamental computer skills which lead to higher level learning. More over computer
simple programming languages are introduced at this level. Ex. BASIC, FORTRAN.
1.5.3 HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL
At higher Secondary level, the computer science teaching is at high level.
The programming skill based curriculum is introduced at this level. The languages
like C, C++ and Visual Basic and the web language like HTML are in the higher
secondary curriculum. It helps to develop their arithmetic and logical thinking which
is reflected through their programming skills.

1.5.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit .
4. In which level of School Education LOGO is taught?

5. In which level of School Education Visual Basic is taught?

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1.6 THE PLACE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE IN SCHOOL CURRICULUM

As the children complete their school education, students will choose different
areas of specialization. The students need to learn computer science in school for
deriving the fundamental skills for their future life. As computers are used from petty
shops to corporate and government offices, students ought to learn computer science.
Students must be provided with skills which are central instruments for improving
performance of organization across the world, be it manufacturing, service public or
private. While knowledge of difference in performance is an incentive for
improvements planning and improvement will require a lot of efforts and skills. The
output of the school education must help our industries learn, adapt, improve and
innovate. Hence computer science needs to be provided as a part of learning
experience.
The 5 reasons for computer science courses to be taught at present are
1. To use electronic gadgets in all fields
2. To be on part with ever increasing societal needs and expectations.
3. To become equipped for new business and industries' dimensions
4. To be competent for local and global competitions
5. Working with finance.
The above reasons are obvious and crystal clear for any layman's
understanding. But, learning computer science has its own value for one's life besides
its external practicalities.
1.6.1 IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER SCIENCE IN HIGHER SECONDARY
LEVEL
The purpose of education in higher secondary schools is to provide that kind
of atmosphere through which the pupils can acquire the knowledge of computer
science, skills of application and the right attitude which help the pupils to be useful
citizens in the society.
Also teaching of computer science in higher secondary schools should help the
pupils to understand the global functioning of computer science and act locally to
meet their needs. The teaching of computer science should first help the students for
the following factors.

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 Learning of computer science provides the students to think in diversified
ways and solving any computer related problems. These attitudes of solving problems
should help them develop critical thinking. They should have the ability to analyze
and reason out critical issues to help themselves and the society.
Pupils should develop the attitude to identify and acquire the right kind of
knowledge and the skill that the society demand in the present era of technology.
Pupils must be trained to develop scientific to appreciate the technological
advances and adapt it in their life.
They also must be trained to help the society by meaningful contributions
which will make the society and the nation be proud of.
Using computers and the related electronic gadgets is not a single man's
effort. Therefore, students need to be trained to work effectively and collaboratively
as a team. Team building and team leading spirit alone can help a society to have
harmony in its functions. Computer science education provided from the higher
secondary schools itself will undoubtedly inculcate the caring and sharing habits
among the pupils.
Solving problems, writing algorithm, codings and decordings are the basic
concepts in learning computers. Hence it makes the pupils involve keen analytic skills
and decision making. These kinds of decision making skills make the pupils grow into
complete personalities who are mature in their words and deeds. The present intrinsic
society needs only such kinds of intellectual personalities who are matured enough to
understand the society.
Teachers being facilitators can understand strengths and weakness of the
students. Hence when the students are helped to work with computer related
problems, debug and detect the faults, the teachers can lead them and help the
students identify their talents and weaknesses to fix them into the right work place.
Moreover when the teachers provide their words of the variety of avenues for
computer science and ICT tools, the students get the opportunity to have awareness,
understand the novelty, associate their knowledge and innovate useful products. The
pupils get more insights to bring out their latent talents and specific skills.
More than an intellectual person, a soft spoken and a person who has the
ability to listen others are always appreciated by both the intellectuals and the
illiterate people. Pupils must develop the attitude of listening to others' opinion, in
spite of their confident authority and of personal strength. The must have open

16
mindedness to receive knowledge from the sources, calm enough to the conflicts
analyses the situations in the light of the evidences and them arrive at a conclusion in
a convincing way gaining the confidence of the opponent. The school environment
must be able to provide such kinds of atmosphere which help the students develop the
above mentioned characters, and the teacher must help the students think in the right
way.
Higher secondary schools are the bridge between the school and the society. it
helps for those who stop their formal education to earn a job and also serves as a
ladder to these who go for higher education. Hence the teachers must provide that
kind of teaching learning experiences which help the students to explore the world.
The present global village warrants those skills to make the pupils to fit in the society
and also for a smooth and successful life in which even career the students select. The
LAN, WAN, MAN, Internet, email and forums help the students gain needed
information, and have global understanding.
Students need to be proficient and professional in learning computers. They
must be trained to acquire the principles of electronic devices and get the dexterity in
operations.
Learning by doing method of computer science helps the students understand
better and apply them in situations of need. The computer science teaching in higher
secondary provides laboratory facility to promote vocational skills in the students.
Students get the freedom of learning by hands on training, identify the appropriate
electronic devices for their usage and become skilled users of the systems. This type
of training helps them gain self confidence and help them handle the apparatus when
demanded.
In such a prosperous situation, to meet the competition, inculcating vocational
need in the higher secondary level itself is the demand of the era. It is the foremost
responsibilities of the higher secondary school teaches and authorities to provide the
needed vocational skills to their student customers.
1.6.2 COMPUTER SCIENCE TEACHING IN RELATION TO OTHER SCHOOL
SUBJECTS
Computer has great influence in other school subjects. The following table
explains the correlation with other school subjects.

17
Computer Science and Tamil
Computer Science is the key to the door of opportunity as students decide
about careers, learn to make informed decisions, and function as self-motivated,
lifelong learners. “Working smarter” is replacing “working harder” technically. In
working smarter, individuals must be mentally fit. We are living in a time when
technology is changing almost faster than we can adapt to. There is no magic formula
for teaching mathematics. Using computers to practice basic skills, have benefits.
Computer based exercises can raise student motivation levels. The computer's most
powerful uses are for making things visual. It can make visual abstract processes that
are otherwise ineffable. If we truly want to promote excellence in mathematics
education, we must consider adapting to change and using the best tools available to
us. Technology plays a critical role in doing this. Using Computer Guided Learning
(CGL) allows teachers to move in this direction, while being confident they have a
resource correlated to the curriculum outcomes they are mandated to teach. Computer
Guided Learning refers to high quality world class CD-ROM materials supported by
print resources for teaching and learning.
Computer Science and Chemistry
In synthetic chemistry it is very important to know what compounds you have
created. Chemists rely on spectroscopic techniques to analyse compounds they have
made. Nuclear magnetic resonance, mass, infra red and ultra violet spectrometry all
depend on computers to control the sensitive equipment and obtain and record
detailed measurements. These analytical techniques have allowed chemists to identify
the exact structure of compounds, which was previously guesswork based on
observations from chemical properties. Molecular masses are known to the
microgram, which would be impossible without the aid of the computer.
It is obvious that computers are important in taking measurements but they can
also be used to predict measurements. There is some very powerful software available
for predicting physical properties of compounds. Bond lengths, melting points,
vibrational frequencies and properties such as solubility can be predicted using
dedicated software based on theories known. Software like this can help you to
'design' a molecule to the specific needs of the chemist. Without the software, it
would take hours of calculations to predict the properties.

18
 Another important area of chemistry is analysing data obtained from
experiments, to look for patterns to prove theories. This can be done by hand, but
involves a lot of calculations, which is time consuming and liable to mistakes.
Analysing data is often best done using a spreadsheet. Spreadsheets can quickly work
out calculations and plot graphs showing a pictorial representation of the data more
easily than any human could. Spreadsheets are usually very good at calculating the
equation of a best-fit line of a graph, which is often important in chemistry.
Having used computers to obtain accurate data, it seems sensible to store it
where it can easily be retrieved for reference. It could be stored on paper, filed away
in alphabetical order. This is fine until the chemist wants to find data on a group of
compounds such as the alcohols, or those with a melting point of over 100oC. This is
where storage of the data electronically, using a database, becomes very useful. This
makes the searching of data very easy for different criteria such as temperatures,
solubility or mass. For example if a mass spectrum produced a parent ion mass of
175, then the database could be searched for all those with the corresponding mass to
attempt to find a match. If you couldn't find the correct data in your database, could
you look at someone else's? This leads me on to communications and the sharing of
data.
Networks are very useful in large companies. They allow communication
between different computers, and more importantly, the exchange of data. This means
a company could have a central database with all the records.
Computer Science and Physics
Computers have great influence in the field of physics. Starting from Atom
energy to Astronomy, the computer has deep influence. Finding weather reports,
Moments of particles and their functions can be monitors through computers.
Research in the field of Physics is enhanced and sophisticated by computer and its
applications. Computers are used in Mechanical Engineering through CAD, CAM,
ANSYS and CATIA as designing and analyzing soft wares
Computer Science and Biology. The computer science is used in Biological Science
as follows
Medical Field
The use of computer technology has greatly enhanced the medical field. This
is particularly so in hospital environments where reliability and quality are critical
factors. Many computer applications, such as patient information systems, monitoring
19
and control systems and diagnostic systems, have been used to enhance healthcare.
In the hospital, patient information systems allow doctors at different locations
to access permanent patient records from a centralized database. This type of
computer application enables doctors and or nurses to easily find and send notices to
patients who need follow up treatment/ medication. This system also allows for
doctors to compare methods of treating illnesses. According to, Information
Technology for CXC CSEC, this type of system also “allows fast processing of large
quantities of patient data that could be used to produce useful information for
management purposes”.
Moreover, the computer has great influence in the field of Microbiology,
Genetic Engineering and Tissue culture monitoring.
Computer Science and Social Science
Computer is used to review the past with documentary evidences. The books
and all other old documents are being digitalized using computers. More over, it helps
to develop new dimensions of maps and it is useful in finding natural resources using
Satellites, Receivers and Sensors. Computer has great influence in developing Global
Positioning System (GPS)
Computer Science and Languages
Computer science is used to develop software in languages. Computers spread
the languages throughout the world.

1.6.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: a) Write your answers in the space given below
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit
6. What is the place Computer Science in the School Curriculum?

7. What branch of Engineering is related with CAD?

8. What IS CGL?

20
1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have learnt the aims and objectives of teaching Computer
Science. The aim of Teaching computer Science in school is to provide that kind of
atmosphere through which the pupils can acquire the knowledge of computer science,
skills of application and the right attitude which help the pupils to be useful citizens in
the society. The main objectives of teaching computer science must ensure better
match between the industry's requirement and outputs of the education sector
emphasizing the quality needs. The teaching of computers should make phenomenal
effects on the learners. It is complex in nature. The whole human processes can be
divided in three levels .They are as as follows:
Activities related to head – Cognitive Domain
Activities related to heart – Affective Domain
Activities related to hand – Psycho-Motor Domain
on the basis of these three domains, b.s. bloom and his associates divided
educational objectives . hence teacher, the facilitator must imbibe in the students the
initiatives, inquiry, analytic and comprehensive abilities.

1.8 UNIT-END EXERCISE

1. What are the objectives of teaching computer Science?
2. What is the importance of teaching Computer Science?
3. Describe Bloom's taxonomy of cognitive objectives?
4. How will you teach Computer Science in the higher Secondary level?
5. How will you attain the objectives of Computer Science in the higher
secondary level?

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Construct
2. Affective Domain
3. Knowledge, Understanding, Application, Analysis, Synthesis and
Evaluation
4. Primary

21
 5. Higher Secondary
6. Optional subject in Higher Secondary
7. Mechanical Engineering
8. Computer Guided Learning

1.10 SUGGESTED READINGS

Chauhan, S. S. (1985). Innovations in teaching learning process. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing
house Ltd.
Goel, H. K. ( 2005). Teaching of Computer Science. New Delhi: R.Lall Book Depot.
Sharma, R. C. (1998). Modern science teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Raj and Sons.
Sidhu, K. S. (2006). Teaching of mathematics. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private
Ltd.
Singh,Y. K. (2009). Teaching Practice. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation

22
 UNIT II HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE OF COMPUTERS

Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Definition Computers
2.3.1 Hardware Components of Computers
2.3.2 Check your Progress
2.4 History of Computers
2.4.1 Check Your Progress
2.5 Types of Computers
2.5.1Characteristics of a Digital Computer
2.5.2 Check Your Progress
2.6 Computer Network
2.6.1 Characteristics of a Computer Network
2.6.2 Concept of Networking
2.6.3 Properties of Network
2.6.4 Benefits of Network
2.6.5 Types of Network
2.6.6 Check Your Progress
2.7 Computer Virus
2.7.1 Kinds of Computer Viruses]
2.7.2 Anti-virus Software
2.7.3 Check Your Progress
2.8 software
2.8.1 System software
2.8.2 Operating system types with examples
2.8.3 MS-DOS
2.8.4 windows
2.8.5 Application software
2.8.6 Computer Science Languages and Package
2.8.7 Computer science Package
2.8.8Check Your Progress

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2.9 The various Uses of Computers
2.9.1 Uses of Computers in Schools
2.9.2 Check Your Progress
2.10 Let us Sum Up
2.11 Unit- End Activities
2.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
2.13 Suggested Readings

24
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Computer hardware is any physical device used in or with your machine,

whereas software is a collection of code installed onto your computer's hard drive. For
example, the computer monitor you are using to read this text and the mouse you are
using to navigate this web page is computer hardware. The Internet browser that
allowed you to visit this page and the operating system that the browser is running on
is considered software. In this unit, we are going to discuss the meaning and
definitions of computers, hardware, software, network communication and use of
computers in schools .
2.2. OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

 Define computers
 Understand the hardware components of Computers
 Explain the network communication
 Trace the history of computers
 Identify the Computer Viruses and uses the protective measures
 Classify the different types of software
 Understand the high level programming languages
 Explain the uses of computers in schools
2.3 DEFINITION OF COMPUTERS

Computers is a device, which can compute. It is an electronic device, which

works under a set of instructions automatically accepts the supplied data, process and
analyzes the data and produces the information. The first fully electronic computers,
introduced in the 1940s, were huge machines that required teams of people to operate.
But now a days we have most advanced machines which perform number of
calculations within the fraction of time.
Computers work through an interaction of hardware and software. Hardware
refers to the parts of a computer that you can see and touch, including the case and
everything inside it. The most important piece of hardware is a tiny rectangular chip
inside your computer called the central processing unit (CPU), or microprocessor. It's

25
the "brain" of your computer—the part that translates instructions and performs
calculations. Hardware items such as your monitor, keyboard, mouse, printer, and
other components are often called hardware devices, or devices.
Software refers to the instructions, or programs, that tell the hardware what to
do. A word processing program that you can use to write letters on your computer is a
type of software. The operating system (OS) is software that manages your computer
and the devices connected to it. Two well-known operating systems are Windows and
Macintosh operating system. Your computer uses the Windows operating system.
2.3.1 HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF COMPUTERS
The main parts of the computer are as follows

A) Central Processing Unit (CPU)

It is considered to be the heart of the computer system, which consists of a)

Arithmetic and Logic Unit, b) Control Unit and c) Memory Unit. The CPU executes
the instructions, as soon as the computer gets instructions from an input device.

Computers are made up of many parts. These different parts perform one or more
functions including input, output, processing, or storage.

Input --------------- memory -------------- output

Control unit ------------------------------ Arithmetic logic unit

Central processing unit

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a)Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
This unit performs a number of arithmetic operations such as, addition,
subtraction etc. and also performs the logical operations.
b) Control Unit
The control unit controls the entire operations of all the units of a computer. It
brings one instruction at a time from the memory, interprets it and obeys it by
coordinating the working of all the other units. In other words, this unit is considered to
be the nervous system of a computer. All the commands are regulated and controlled
by this unit.
c) Memory Unit
This unit consists of locations or cells on which the data can be stored. If you
want to retrieve the data, the data can be retrieved from the same unit. This unit
consists of two types of memories viz. permanent memory and secondary or auxiliary
memory. A permanent memory is nothing but the semiconductor memory device
available within the computer. Hard disk is an example for permanent memory
device. The secondary memory is the memory which is movable and can be taken
away from the computer and can be kept safely. Floppy disks, compact discs and
memory sticks are the examples of secondary memory devices.
B) Output Devices
Output devices send information from your computer to you. This information
is usually in the form of sound and sight, but some devices can send information as
touch and even as smell! Some common output devices are monitors, printers, and
speakers.

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C) Input Devices
Input devices are the parts that let you enter and manipulate information on a
computer. These devices range from the standard keyboard and mouse, to scanners,
microphones, joysticks, and light pens.

Note:
There are some devices that can input and output. Some examples would
touch screen monitors (input by touch, output by sight) and force feedback joysticks.
D) Inside a System
The inside of your computer has many parts that all work together. These parts
are generally found within your computer case - this is usually the big "box" that
probably sits under your desk or below your monitor. If you're using an iMac, many
of the computer parts are built into the monitor case.
The motherboard or main board is the backbone of the computer. All the
individual pieces connect to the motherboard in some way. The motherboard is home
the processor chip, PCI slots, and memory.

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Processor - This is the chip that does the "thinking" of the computer. These are the
"Pentium" and "AMD" chips you hear about. Processor speed is measured in
Megahertz (MHz) and Gigahertz (GHz). 1 GHz = 1000 MHz

Memory - This is where information is temporarily stored for the processor to use
and manipulate before storing on the HARD DRIVE. Also known as RAM (Random
access memory). Information is stored in memory only when the computer is turned
on. RAM is measured in Megabytes (Mb), which is storage capacity, not to be
confused with Megahertz, which is speed.
PCI Slot - These are outlets in the motherboard that allow
you to install extra components like sound cards,
modems, video cards, and other devices. The images
below show different PCI card components.

Hard Drive - This is the part of your computer where information is stored for later
retrieval. All the information you access on your computer, all your documents,
pictures, email messages, and programs are here. Unlike memory, the hard drive
stores information even after the power is turned off. The image to the right shows the
inside of a hard drive.

29
Floppy Drive - This is the slot in the front of your computer where you insert a disk
to store data and move it to another computer. If your computer is an iMac, you will
not have a Floppy Drive. Floppy disks are 3¼ inches in size, and hold 1.44Mb of data.
The images below show a floppy drive, and some floppy disks.

CD ROM or DVD ROM Drives - This plays your music and data CDs, or if you
have a DVD drive, it will also play DVD movies. Data CD's hold up to 700Mb of
information. If you have a CD-R or CD-RW drive, you can store your own
information on CDs.
2.3.2 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with the given
answers at the end of the unit .
1. The set of instructions for the computers to run is
2. The part of your computer where information is stored for later retrieval is

3. The chip that does the "thinking" of the computer is

4. RAM is measured in
5. The parts that let you enter and manipulate information on a computer is

2.4 HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

The history of computer development is often in reference to the different

generations of computing devices. Each of the five generations of computers is
characterized by a major technological development that fundamentally changed the
way computers operate. Most developments resulted in increasingly smaller, cheaper

30
and more powerful and efficient computing devices. The history and development of
the computers are given below.
First Generation Computers
The first electronic computer came into use at the end of II World War.
Development of this machine was started in 1943 and was completed in 1946. This
electronic computer was known as ENIVAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and
Calculator) and was designed by Dr. Presper Eckert and Dr. John Mauchley. It
contained approximately 18500 vacuum tubes, 70000 resistors and 10000 capacitors
and weighed about 30 tonnes. It also consumed a large amount of electrical power,
considerable space and a large amount of money.

Second Generation Computers

In this generation, the large bulky vacuum tubes were replaced with the much
smaller transistors. This major technological advancement was developed by scientists of
Bell Laboratories in 1948. The transistors were not only smaller in size but also more
reliable and consumed less energy, besides reducing the size of the computers
considerably. Also second generation computers used high level programming
languages. Another additional feature of second generation computers was the
development of random access storage devices, through which the information could
be recorded or retrieved from a storage medium irrespective of the sequential order of
the stored information.

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Third Generation Computers
The third generation of computer began in 1960, after the Invention of
integrated circuit or chip. This chip was a one-quarter inch-square piece of material on
which thousands of electronic circuits (replacements for vacuum tubes, transistors,
resistors and capacitors) could be implanted. This is considered to be the backbone of
today's modern electronic computers.

Fourth Generation Computers

This generation of computers was characterized by the development of
microprocessor or a microchip in 1970. Approximately 70,000 or more vacuum tube
equivalents or transistors could be embedded in a single chip of this kind. They were
very powerful in terms of the speed of processing and memory. They were otherwise
known as "computers on a chip".

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Fifth Generation Computers
The fifth generation computer of 1990s was much faster and more powerful
and perhaps intelligent enough to process information and draw conclusions like
human beings. Therefore this generation of computer is characterized by "Artificial
Intelligence".
Because of the rapid growth of technological advancements in computer,
no one can predict what the future will bring. It is certain that computers will continue
to evolve and will bring about significant changes in our lives in future.

The development of computers is given as follows.

The computer was born not for entertainment or email but out of a need to
solve a serious number-crunching crisis. By 1880, the U.S. population had grown so
large that it took more than seven years to tabulate the U.S. Census results. The
government sought a faster way to get the job done, giving rise to punch-card based
computers that took up entire rooms.
Today, we carry more computing power on our smartphones than was
available in these early models. The following brief history of computing is a timeline
of how computers evolved from their humble beginnings to the machines of today
that surf the Internet, play games and stream multimedia in addition to crunching
numbers.

33
1801: In France, Joseph Marie Jacquard invents a loom that uses punched wooden
cards to automatically weave fabric designs. Early computers would use similar punch
cards.
1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven
calculating machine that would be able to compute tables of numbers. The project,
funded by the English government, is a failure. More than a century later, however,
the world's first computer was actually built.
1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880 census,
accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5 million. He
establishes a company that would ultimately become IBM.
1936: Alan Turing presents the notion of a universal machine, later called the Turing
machine, capable of computing anything that is computable. The central concept of
the modern computer was based on his ideas.
1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State
University, attempts to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or shafts.
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that can
solve 29 equations simultaneously. This marks the first time a computer is able to
store information on its main memory.
1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors, John Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert, build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC).
Considered the grandfather of digital computers, it fills a 20-foot by 40-foot room and
has 18,000 vacuum tubes.
1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive funding
from the Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial computer for
business and government applications.
1947: William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brattain of Bell Laboratories
invent the transistor. They discovered how to make an electric switch with solid
materials and no need for a vacuum.
1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually becomes
known as COBOL. Thomas Johnson Watson Jr., son of IBM CEO Thomas Johnson
Watson Sr., conceives the IBM 701 EDPM to help the United Nations keep tabs on
Korea during the war.
1954: The FORTRAN programming language is born.

34
1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the
computer chip. Kilby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 2000 for his work.
1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with a mouse
and a graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the computer from a
specialized machine for scientists and mathematicians to technology that is more
accessible to the general public.
1969: A group of developers at Bell Labs produce UNIX, an operating system that
addressed compatibility issues. Written in the C programming language, UNIX was
portable across multiple platforms and became the operating system of choice among
mainframes at large companies and government entities. Due to the slow nature of the
system, it never quite gained traction among home PC users.
1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access
Memory (DRAM) chip.
1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the “floppy disk,”
allowing data to be shared among computers.
1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox, develops Ethernet
for connecting multiple computers and other hardware.
1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi &
Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, RadioShack's TRS-80 —affectionately known as the
“Trash 80” — and the Commodore PET.
1975: The January issue of Popular Electronics magazine features the Altair 8080,
described as the "world's first minicomputer kit to rival commercial models." Two
"computer geeks," Paul Allen and Bill Gates, offer to write software for the Altair,
using the new BASIC language. On April 4, after the success of this first endeavor,
the two childhood friends form their own software company, Microsoft.
1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool's Day and
roll out the Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board.
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of the TRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like
crazy. For the first time, non-geeks could write programs and make a computer do
what they wished.
1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first West
Coast Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio cassette
drive for storage.

35
1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized
spreadsheet program.
1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases
WordStar.
1981: The first IBM personal computer, code-named “Acorn,” is introduced. It uses
Microsoft's MS-DOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks and an
optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck and Computerland sell the machines,
marking the first time a computer is available through outside distributors. It also
popularizes the term PC.
1983: Apple's Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-
down menu and icons. It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The Gavilan
SC is the first portable computer with the familiar flip form factor and the first to be
marketed as a “laptop.”
1985: Microsoft announces Windows, its response to Apple's GUI. Commodore
unveils the Amiga 1000, which features advanced audio and video capabilities.
1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the
World Wide Web would mark the formal beginning of Internet history. The
Symbolics Computer Company, a small Massachusetts computer manufacturer,
registers Symbolics.com. More than two years later, only 100 dot-coms had been
registered.
1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. Its 32-bit architecture provides as
speed comparable to mainframes.
1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory in
Geneva, develops HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the World
Wide Web.
1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on PCs.
1994: PCs become gaming machines as "Command & Conquer," "Alone in the Dark
2," "Theme Park," "Magic Carpet," "Descent" and "Little Big Adventure" are among
the games to hit the market.
1996: Sergey Brin and Larry Page develop the Google search engine at Stanford
University.
1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time,
ending Apple's court case against Microsoft in which it alleged that Microsoft copied
the “look and feel” of its operating system.

36
1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin
connecting to the Internet without wires.
2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected
memory architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not to be
outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP, which has a significantly redesigned GUI.
2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD's Athlon 64, becomes available to the
consumer market.
2004: Mozilla's Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft's Internet Explorer, the dominant
Web browsers. Facebook, a social networking site, launches.
2005: YouTube, a video sharing service, is founded. Google acquires Android, a
Linux-based mobile phone operating system.
2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile
computer, as well as an Intel-based iMac. Nintendo's Wii game console hits the
market.
2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.
2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to
the taskbar and advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other features.
2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and
jumpstarting the dormant tablet computer segment.
2011: Google releases the Chromebook, a laptop that runs the Google Chrome OS.
2012: Facebook gains 1 billion users on October 4.
2015: Apple releases the Apple Watch. Microsoft releases Windows 10.

2 4.1 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with the
given answers at the end of the unit .
6. The world's first computer was discovered by
7. The Punch card system for calculation was introduced by
8. YouTube, a video sharing service, was founded in the year
9. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) was developed by
10. Microsoft Windows 7 was introduced in the year
11. The FORTRAN programming language was born in the year .
12. The fifth generation of computer is characterized by

37
2.5 TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computers differ based on their data processing abilities. They are classified
according to purpose, data handling and functionality. According to purpose,
computers are either general purpose or specific purpose. General purpose
computers are designed to perform a range of tasks. They have the ability to store
numerous programs, but lack in speed and efficiency. Specific purpose computers are
designed to handle a specific problem or to perform a specific task. A set of
instructions is built into the machine. According to data handling, computers are
analog, digital or hybrid. Analog computers work on the principle of measuring, in
which the measurements obtained are translated into data. Computers differ based on
their data processing abilities. They are classified according to purpose, data handling
and functionality. According to purpose, computers are either general purpose or
specific purpose. General purpose computers are designed to perform a range of
tasks. They have the ability to store numerous programs, but lack in speed and
efficiency. Specific purpose computers are designed to handle a specific problem or to
perform a specific task. A set of instructions is built into the machine.
According to data handling, computers are analog, digital or hybrid. Analog
computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements obtained
are translated into data. Modern analog computers usually employ electrical
parameters, such as voltages, resistances or currents, to represent the quantities being
manipulated. Such computers do not deal directly with the numbers
The computers may be classified into three types viz,
a) Analog b) Digital and c) Hybrid Computers
Depending upon the use of the computer again we have two more important
types of computers, viz. i) Real Time Computer and ii) Process Control Computer.
Analog Computers
Computers, which operate by measuring continuously varying quantities like
voltage and current for their operations are called Analog Computers. These
computers use only electronic pulses. The number and arithmetic operations are
carried out electrically using signal amplifiers. They operate on the principle of
creating a physical analogy of the mathematical problem.

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Digital Computers
Computers, which deal with only numbers and digits are called Digital
Computers. These computers perform only addition and the remaining operations like
multiplication, division, subtraction etc are performed by means of repeated
additions. They have very high accuracy and the results are available only after the
entire computation process is over. All the mathematical calculations are carried out
by means of binary digits, i.e., Os and Is.
Hybrid Computers
Hybrid Computers are nothing but the computers that emerged out the
combination of digital and analog computers. Example for Hybrid computers is a
computer which monitors weather conditions and output

Analog versus Digital Computers

Analog Computers Digital Computers

Physical analogy of the problems is required Physical analogy of the problems is

not required
They operate by the measurement of They operate by counting.
continuously varying quantities
Here problems are converted into equations Here problems are converted into BITS
and then into electrical signals (0s and 1s)
They give results in the graphical form. They give results in the discrete
Accuracy is less. Accuracy is more
They have limited applications. They have a lot of
applications

2.5.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A DIGITAL COMPUTER

A digital computer has the following characteristics.
1. Speed
Computers are really very fast in their working. In a fraction of a second, they
can do millions of arithmetical operations (speed may vary from computer to
computer). Because of this property, bus, railway and airline reservations are being done
very quickly with the help of computers.
2. Accuracy
In addition to speed, computers are also accurate in their output. If the data are
fed correctly to the computer, the output result will be accurate and free from errors.

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3. Storage Capacity
Computer has the facility to store large volume of data and other instructions and
the data can also be retrieved whenever we need them. This storage capacity or
"Computer Memory" is expressed as a unit called "kilobyte" ("K")l K = 1024 bytes.
4. Repetitiveness
A computer has the ability to perform a task given to it as many times as one
desires. For example, if we wish to do arithmetic computation ten million times, the
computer will do that task without any hesitation. Moreover, even the last computation will
be done with the same accuracy and speed as the first one.
5.Versatility
Computers have the capability to perform almost any task using a proper set
of instructions, otherwise called programs. Even for a computer with lesser memory,
the instructions need not be many in number.
6.Automatism
A computer will perform the required tasks until it meets the "stop" instruction
in the program. This means that once the computer has started the process of
executing a program, it will continue to work, until the program is terminated.
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though
there is considerable overlap:
 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.
 Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a
personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general,
a higher-quality monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of
users simultaneously.
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many
hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of
millions of instructions per second.
Supercomputer and Mainframe
Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently
available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized
applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number
crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of
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supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological
data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer
manufacturer is Cray Research.
Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central
processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the
emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big
iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as
mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable
of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief
difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer
channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a
mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways,
mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more
simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than
a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague,
depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.
Minicomputer
It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large
minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction
between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a
multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.
Workstation
It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM),
desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require
a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics
capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics
screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but
a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk
drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows
NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However,
workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they
can also be used as stand-alone systems.

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N.B.: In networking, workstation refers to any computer connected to a local-area
network. It could be a workstation or a personal computer.
Personal computer
It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an
individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred
pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology
that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running
spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use
for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.
Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most
popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer.
During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems
seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal
computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer
of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C.
is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's
onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal
computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building
IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that
cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were
capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its
influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC
by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal
computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as
Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin
down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel
microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other
component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall
under the rubric of PC.
Today, the world of personal computers is basically divided between Apple
Macintoshes and PCs. The principal characteristics of personal computers are that
they are single-user systems and are based on microprocessors. However, although
personal computers are designed as single-user systems, it is common to link them
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together to form a network. In terms of power, there is great variety. At the high end,
the distinction between personal computers and workstations has faded. High-end
models of the Macintosh and PC offer the same computing power and graphics
capability as low-end workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, and DEC.
Personal Computer Types
Actual personal computers can be generally classified by size and chassis /
case. The chassis or case is the metal frame that serves as the structural support for
electronic components. Every computer system requires at least one chassis to house
the circuit boards and wiring. The chassis also contains slots for expansion boards. If
you want to insert more boards than there are slots, you will need an expansion
chassis, which provides additional slots. There are two basic flavors of chassis
designs–desktop models and tower models–but there are many variations on these two
basic types. Then come the portable computers that are computers small enough to
carry. Portable computers include notebook and subnotebook computers, hand-held
computers, palmtops, and PDAs.
Tower model
The term refers to a computer in which the power supply, motherboard, and
mass storage devices are stacked on top of each other in a cabinet. This is in contrast
to desktop models, in which these components are housed in a more compact box.
The main advantage of tower models is that there are fewer space constraints, which
makes installation of additional storage devices easier.
Desktop model
A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the
monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low,
whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop
model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop
models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.
Notebook computer
An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically
weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from
size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer
is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-
panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The
quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power,
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modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have
the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small
package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent
regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable
you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be
recharged every few hours.
Laptop computer
A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap.
Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.
Subnotebook computer
A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized
notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and
screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.
Hand-held computer
A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one's hand. Although
extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook
computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held
computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal
information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some
manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the
keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on
handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held
computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.
Palmtop
A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size
computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions
such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for
input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most
palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots
in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops
are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

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PDA
Short for personal digital assistant, a handheld device that combines
computing, telephone/fax, and networking features. A typical PDA can function as a
cellular phone, fax sender, and personal organizer. Unlike portable computers, most
PDAs are pen-based, using a stylus rather than a keyboard for input. This means that
they also incorporate handwriting recognition features. Some PDAs can also react to
voice input by using voice recognition technologies. The field of PDA was pioneered
by Apple Computer, which introduced the Newton Message Pad in 1993. Shortly
thereafter, several other manufacturers offered similar products. To date, PDAs have
had only modest success in the marketplace, due to their high price tags and limited
applications. However, many experts believe that PDAs will eventually become
common gadgets. PDAs are also called palmtops, hand-held computers and pocket
computers.

2 5.2 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with the
given answers at the end of the unit.
13. The computers work on the principle of measuring, in which the measurements
obtained are translated into data is called
14. An extremely lightweight personal computer is
15. Desktop models designed to be very small are referred to as _
16 A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor

2.6 COMPUTER NETWORK

A computer network is interconnection of various computer systems located

at different places. In computer network two or more computers are linked together
with a medium and data communication devices for the purpose of communicating
data and sharing resources. The computer that provides resources to other computers
on a network is known as server. In the network the individual computers, which
access shared network resources, are known as nodes.

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2.6.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER NETWORK
The primary purpose of a computer network is to share resources:
1. You can play a CD music from one computer while sitting on another computer.
2. You may have a computer that doesn't have a DVD player. In this case, you can
place a movie disc (DVD) on the computer that has the player, and then view
the movie on a computer that lacks the player .
3. You may have a computer with a CD/DVD/ writer or a backup system but the
other computer doesn't have it. In this case, you can burn discs or make backups
on a computer that has one of these but using data from a computer that doesn't
have a disc writer or a backup system
4. You can connect a printer (or a scanner, or a fax machine) to one computer and
let other computers of the network print (or scan, or fax) to that printer (or
scanner, or fax machine).
5. You can place a disc with pictures on one computer and let other computers
access those pictures 5. You can create files and store them in one computer,
then access those files from the other computer(s) connected to it.
2.6.2 CONCEPT OF NETWORKING
A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of
hardware components and computers interconnected by communication channels that
allow sharing of resources and information. Networks may be classified according to
a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data,
communications protocol used, scale, topology, and organizational scope. The rules
and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network are defined by
communications protocols.
2.6.3 PROPERTIES OF NETWORK
1. Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email,
instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone,video telephone calls, and video
conferencing.
2. Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information
stored on other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data
and information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.

46
3. Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use
resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a
shared network
printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to
accomplish tasks.
2.6.4 BENEFITS OF NETWORK
1. File sharing: Network file sharing between computers gives you more flexibity
than using floppy drives or Zip drives. Not only can you share photos, music files, and
documents, you can also use a home network to save copies of all of your important
data on a different computer. Backups are one of the most critical yet overlooked
tasks in home networking.
2. Printer / peripheral sharing: Once a home network is in place, it's then easy to
set up all of the computers to share a single printer. No longer will you need to bounce
from one system or another just to print out an email message. Other computer
peripherals can be shared similarly such as network scanners, Web cams, and
CD burners.
3. Internet connection sharing: Using a home network, multiple family members
can access the Internet simultaneously without having to pay an ISP for multiple
accounts. You will notice the Internet connection slows down when several people
share it, but broadband Internet can handle the extra load with little trouble.
4. Multi-player games: Many popular home computer games support LAN mode
where friends and family can play together, if they have their computers networked.
5. Internet telephone service: Voice over IP (VoIP) services allows you to make and
receive phone calls through your home network across the Internet.
6. Home entertainment: Newer home entertainment products such as digital video
recorders (DVRs) and video game consoles now support either wired or wireless
home networking. Having these products
integrated into your network enables online Internet gaming, video sharing and other
advanced features.
2.6.5 TYPES OF NETWORKS
There are many different types of networks. However, from an end user's
point of view there are three basic types:
1. Local Area Network

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2. Wide Area Network
3. Metropolitan Area Network
1. Local Area Network (LAN):
A local area network (LAN) supplies networking capability to a group of
computers in close proximity to each other such as in an office building, a school, or a
home. A LAN is useful for sharing resources like files, printers, games or other
applications. A LAN in turn often connects to other LANs, and to the Internet or other
WAN.Most local area networks are built with relatively inexpensive hardware such as
Ethernet cables, network adapters, and hubs.
Wireless LAN and other more advanced LAN hardware options also exist.
LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are
confined to a single building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be
connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. Most
LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node (individual computer)
in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes programs, but it is also able to
access data and devices anywhere on the LAN. This means that many users can share
expensive devices, such as laser printers, as well as data. Users can also use the LAN
to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in chat sessions.
There are many different types of LANs-tokenring networks, Ethernets, and ARCnets
being the most common for PCs.
2. Wide Area Networks (WANs)
The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which
covers a large geographical area, and use communications circuits to connect the
intermediate nodes. A major factor impacting WAN design and performance is a
requirement that they lease communications circuits from telephone companies or
other communications carriers.
Transmission rates are typically 2 Mbps, 34 Mbps, 45 Mbps, 155 Mbps, 625
Mbps (or sometimes considerably more).
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is one of a number of types of networks
(see also LAN and WAN). A MAN is a relatively new class of network, it serves a
role similar to an ISP, but for corporate users with large LANs.

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Important terms used in Networking
Voice Messaging
It is a new communication approach which is similar to electronic mail except
that it is audio message rather than text messages that are processed. A sender speaks
into a telephone rather than typing, giving the name of the recipient and the message.
That sender's voice signal is then digitized and stored. The system can then either
deliver the message at a specified time in future or it can be retrieved from a database
by the recipient. The message is reconverted back into its analog format when it is
delivered or retrieved so that the recipient hears it as the original sender's voice on a
telephone. Voice messaging requires a computer with an ability to store the audio
messages in digital form and then convert them back in an audio form upon
verification. Each user has a voice mailbox in secondary storage and special
equipment converts the audio message to and from the digital form. The main
advantage of voice mail over electronic mail is that the sender does not have to type.
Voice mail also makes it easy to include people in the firm's environment in a
communication network.
Hub
A hub is typically the least expensive, least intelligent, and least complicated.
Its job is very simple: anything that comes in one port is sent out to the others. Every
computer connected to the hub “sees” everything that every other computer on the
hub sees. The hub itself is blissfully ignorant of the data being transmitted. For years,
simple hubs have been quick and easy ways to connect computers in small networks.
Switch
A switch does essentially what a hub does but more efficiently. By paying
attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can “learn” where particular addresses
are. For example, if it sees traffic from machine A coming in on port 2, it now knows
that machine A is connected to that port and that traffic to machine A needs to only be
sent to that port and not any of the others. The net result of using a switch over a hub
is that most of the network traffic only goes where it needs to rather than to every
port. On busy networks this can make the network significantly faster.
Router
A router is the smartest and most complicated of the bunch. Routers come in
all shapes and sizes from the small four-port broadband routers that are very popular
right now to the large industrial strength devices that drive the internet itself. A simple
49
way to think of a router is as a computer that can be programmed to understand,
possibly manipulate, and route the data its being asked to handle. For example,
broadband routers include the ability to “hide” computers behind a type of firewall
which involves slightly modifying the packets of network traffic as they traverse the
device. All routers include some kind of user interface for configuring how the router
will treat traffic. The really large routers include the equivalent of a full-blown
programming language to describe how they should operate as well as the ability to
communicate with other routers to describe or determine the best way to get network
traffic from point A to point B.
Network Repeater
A repeater connects two segments of your network cable. It retimes and
regenerates the signals to proper amplitudes and sends them to the other segments.
When talking about, Ethernet are probably talking about using a hub as a repeater.
Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a
propagation delay which can affect network communication when there are several
repeaters in a row. Many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can
be used in a row. Repeaters work only at the physical layer of the OSI network model.
Bridge
A bridge reads the outermost section of data on the data packet,to tell where
the message is going. It reduces the traffic on other network segments, since it does
not send all packets. Bridges can be programmed to reject packets from particular
networks. Bridging occurs at the data link layer of the OSImodel, which means the
bridge cannot read IP addresses, but only the outermost hardware address of the
packet. In our case the bridge can read the ethernet data which gives the hardware
address of the destination address, not the IP address. Bridges forward all broadcast
messages. Only a special bridge called a translation bridge will allow two networks of
different architectures to be connected. Bridges do not normally allow connection of
networks with different architectures. The hardware address is also called the MAC
(media access control) address. To determine the network segment a MAC address
belongs to, bridges use one of the following:
1. Transparent Bridging: They build a table of addresses (bridging table) as they
receive packets. If the address is not in the bridging table, the packet is forwarded to
all segments other than the one it came from. This type of bridge is used on ethernet
networks.
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2. Source route bridging: The source computer provides path information inside the
packet. This is used on Token Ring networks.
Gateway
A gateway can translate information between different network data formats
or network architectures. It can translate TCP/IP to AppleTalk so computers
supporting TCP/IP can communicate with Apple brand computers. Most gateways
operate at the application layer, but can operate at the network or session layer of the
OSI model. Gateways will start at the lower level and strip information until it gets to
the required level and repackage the information and work its way back toward the
hardware layer of the OSI model.
2 6.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with the
given answers at the end of the unit .
17. The computer that provides resources to other computers on a network is known

18. The rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network
are defined by .
19. The term Wide Area Network (WAN) usually refers to a network which covers a
large area.
20. LAN is a computer network that spans a relatively area

2.7 COMPUTER VIRUS

A computer virus is a program that is able to copy itself when it is run. Very
often, computer viruses are run as a part of other programs. Biological viruses also
work that way, as they copy themselves as part of other organisms. This is how the
computer virus got its name.
In addition to copying itself, a computer virus can also execute instructions
that cause harm. For this reason, computer viruses affect security. They are part of
malware.
Very often, the term is also used for other kinds of malware, such as trojan
horses and worms. Even though this is wrong, it may be difficult to tell the difference
between different kinds of malware; they often occur together, and only an expert
may be able to tell them apart. Such programs also fit more than one category.

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 Computer viruses are created for a cause, sometimes they are created to spread
political messages and they are also created to hack some system files.
Computer viruses are spread through many ways. Some of the types of
spreading are: email, removable hardware, downloading and so on.
2.7.1 KINDS OF COMPUTER VIRUSES
There are different kinds of computer viruses:
 Probably the most common form is the Macro-virus or script virus. Such
viruses are programmed with the script function which is present in many text
processing systems and spreadsheets; or with general "script" functionality of
a program
 Boot sector viruses infect the boot sector of floppy disks, hard drives and other
media.
 Executable files and scripts of the operating system; including those that are
run automatically when a medium is inserted into a drive
 Cross-site scripting: Scripts in web pages that replicate to other webpages.
 Any computer file; generally buffer overflows, format strings, and race
conditions are exploitable.
Limited user rights can limit the spread of a virus
In the beginning, the operating systems used on Personal Computers did not
have the concept of access control. There were no "users", everyone could do
everything. More modern operating systems have the concept of access control. There
can be more than one user, and there are "privileges". Certain users are only able to
read certain files, and they may have no access to certain files. Other users are able to
modify or delete certain files. These privileges can be specified for each file.
The damage a virus can cause is influenced by the rights it has; if the user has
no rights to write to certain places in the system, the virus will not be able to spread.
Another problem is that sometimes the system for rights management may be
available, but that it is not used by default. This is the case with systems such as
Windows NT or Windows XP, where by default all users have all rights.
2.7.2 ANTI-VIRUS SOFTWARE
Antivirus software can protect against known viruses. Some antivirus software
scan files and compare a hash code for each file with its database of hash codes. If the
code matches, it has likely found a virus. This way of doing things has some
problems. It will only protect against viruses whose hash code (or "signature") is

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known. The companies who wrote the antivirus need to keep the virus signatures up
to date and need to give this information to the PC that is to be protected.
There are two possible modes of scanning: Either the file is scanned "on
demand" (or "manually"), or it is scanned when the system registers an access to the
file (commonly called "on access").
Antivirus software cannot offer full protection, even in the case the virus is
known. Some viruses use something called polymorphic code to change their
signature every time they move. No matter how many signatures the company has,
they will not be able to stop these types of viruses.
Another way that antivirus software can protect against viruses is to use
heuristics. Instead of knowing each virus by its signature, heuristic antivirus software
looks at the behavior of software. If the software does something that seems bad, the
antivirus software stops it. Since every step needs to be watched, this is a very slow
way to do things.
"Live systems"
The best protection against viruses can be obtained by using a system that
boots off a read-only medium, such as a CD, or DVD, and that does not allow write
access to hard disk drives (or other removable media).

2.7.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with the
given answers at the end of the unit .
21. What is a computer Virus?
22. What is an anti-Virus software?
23. What do you mean by “trojan horses” ?

2.8 SOFTWARE

Software represents the set of programs that govern the operation of a

computer system and make the hardware run. The software is of two types. They are
application software and system software.

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2.8.1 SYSTEM SOFTWARE
Programme that manages supports the resources and operations of a computer
system as it performs various information processing tasks. These programmes serve
as a vital interface between system hardware and user's application programme.
Operating system
An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is
responsible for the management of various activities of the computer and the sharing
of computer resources. It hosts the several applications that run on a computer and
handles the operations of computer hardware. Users and application programs access
the services offered by the operating systems, by means of system calls and
application programming interfaces. Users interact with operating systems through
Command Line Interfaces (CLIs) or Graphical User Interfaces known as GUIs. In
short, operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as
an interface between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Here
is an overview of the different types of operating systems.
We know that there are two types of software: system software, application
software. Operating system is system software. Let us first see why operating system
is needed and then how it was developed in the last decades.
Consider a new born baby. The baby has a physical structure and life but no
intelligence. As the body grows it learns the basic concept needed for life. The growth
of the baby is in two dimensions.
1. Physical
2. Intellectual
Intellectual growth causes the baby to know how to live. A computer is similar
to a baby. The physical structure of a computer is called Hardware. The software is
the set of instructions given to the computers. But in order to understand the
instruction the computer must have some basic knowledge. The basic knowledge is
another software called the operating system. A computer program can be given to a
computer only if it has the hardware and the operating system.
Whenever a computer is switched on, the operating system is first loaded.
Only then we can operate the computer.
The need for an operating system
To solve a problem using a computer, we write program in a High level
language. The computer executes the program in the following ways.

54
1. The computer is loaded into the main memory (compiler is a program which
translates the high level language into the machine language).
2. The source program is loaded into the main memory (source program is the
program written in high level language).
3. The compilation is carried out (the process of translating the source program
into the machine language is called compilation. The program in machine
language is called object program).
4. The errors in the program are pointed out.
5. Subroutines are linked to object program.
6. As the compiler's job is over, it may be taken out of the memory in order to give
space for other operations.
7. The object program is now executed. If errors are detected during execution,
they will be pointed out to the programmer for the sake of correction.
If the user gives commands for each of these operations one by one, then a lot
of computer time will be wasted. So subroutines are written for each of these
operations (A subroutines is a simple program). These subroutines form the operating
system. The operating systems are intended to save computer time and facilitate the
user. The following diagram shows the relationship between hardware and software.

High level language

Operating system

Compiler

Machine language

Physical
Computer

55
2.8.2 OPERATING SYSTEM TYPES WITH EXAMPLES
As computers have progressed and developed so have the types of operating
systems. Below is a basic list of the different types of operating systems and a few
examples of operating systems that fall into each of the categories. Many computer
operating systems will fall into more than one of the below categories.
GUI - Short for Graphical User Interface, a GUI Operating System contains graphics
and icons and is commonly navigated by using a computer mouse. See the GUI
definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of GUI Operating
Systems.
System 7.x
Windows 98
Windows CE
Multi-user - A multi-user operating system allows for multiple users to use the same
computer at the same time and/or different times. See the multi-user definition for a
complete definition for a complete definition. Below are some examples of multi-user
operating systems.
Linux
Unix
Windows 2000
Multiprocessing - An operating system capable of supporting and utilizing more than
one computer processor. Below are some examples of multiprocessing operating
systems.
Linux
Unix
Windows 2000
Multitasking - An operating system that is capable of allowing multiple software
processes to run at the same time. Below are some examples of multitasking operating
systems.
Unix
Windows 2000

56
Multithreading - Operating systems that allow different parts of a software program
to run concurrently. Operating systems that would fall into this category are:
Linux
Unix
Windows 2000
2.8.3. MS-DOS
MS-DOS (pronounced short for MicroSoft Disk Operating System) is an
operating system for x86-based personal computers. It was the most commonly used
member of the DOS family of operating systems, and was the main operating system
for IBM PC compatible personal computers during the 1980s to the mid 1990s, until it
was gradually superseded by operating systems offering a graphical user interface
(GUI), in particular by various generations of the Microsoft Windows operating
system.
2.8.4 WINDOWS
Windows is the operating system sold by the Seattle-based company
Microsoft. Microsoft, originally christened "Traf-O-Data" in 1972, was renamed
"Micro-soft" in November 1975, then "Microsoft" on November 26, 1976.
Microsoft entered the marketplace in August 1981 by releasing version 1.0 of
the operating system Microsoft DOS (MS-DOS), a 16-bit command-line operating
system.
The first version of Microsoft Windows (Microsoft Windows 1.0) came out
in November 1985. It had a graphical user interface, inspired by the user interface of
the Apple computers of the time. Windows 1.0 was not successful with the public,
and Microsoft Windows 2.0, launched December 9, 1987, did not do much better.
The client version of Windows is a version that can be purchased and installed
on personal computers (desktop computers, laptops and workstations) or purchased
with these computers.

Name Release Release

Editions Build
date version
 Windows 10 Home
29 July NT  Windows 10 Pro NT
Windows 10
2015 10.0[1]  Windows 10 Enterprise 10.0.10586.104
 Windows 10 Education

57
  Windows 10 Mobile
 Windows 10 Mobile
Enterprise
 Windows 10 IoT Core
See Windows 10 editions
 Windows 8.1
17 October
Windows 8.1 NT 6.3  Windows 8.1 Pro NT 6.3.9600
2013
 Windows 8.1 Enterprise
 Windows 8
26 October  Windows 8 Pro
Windows 8 NT 6.2 NT 6.2.9200
2012  Windows 8 Enterprise
See Windows 8 editions
 Windows 7 Home Basic
 Windows 7 Home
Premium
22 October  Windows 7 Professional
Windows 7 NT 6.1 NT 6.1.7600
2009  Windows 7 Enterprise
 Windows 7 Ultimate
 Windows Thin PC
See Windows 7 editions
 Windows Vista Home
Basic
 Windows Vista Home
Premium
 Windows Vista
Windows 30 January
NT 6.0 Business NT 6.0.6001
Vista 2007
 Windows Vista
Enterprise
 Windows Vista
Ultimate
See Windows Vista editions
Windows XP 25 April NT 5.2 N/A NT 5.2.3790

58
Professional 2005
x64

 Windows XP Starter
 Windows XP Home
 Windows XP
Professional

Windows XP 25 October  Windows XP 64-bit

NT 5.1 NT 5.1.2600
2001 Edition
 Windows Fundamentals
for Legacy PCs (8 July
2006)
See Windows XP editions
14
Windows ME
September 4.90 N/A 4.90.3000
2000
17
Windows 2000 February
NT 5.0 Professional NT 5.0.2195
2000

25 June  Windows 98
Windows 98 4.10  Windows 98 Second 4.1.2222 A
1998
Edition (23 April 1999)
Windows NT 24 August
NT 4.0 Windows NT 4.0 Workstation NT 4.0.1381
4.0 1996
 Windows 95
 Windows 95 SP1 (31
December 1995)
 Windows 95 OSR1 (14
24 August
Windows 95 4.00 February 1996) 4.00.950
1995
 Windows 95 OSR2 (24
August 1996)
 Windows 95 USB
Supplement to OSR2

59
 (27 August 1997)
 Windows 95 OSR2.1
(27 August 1997)
 Windows 95 OSR2.5
(26 November 1997)

Windows NT 30 May
NT 3.51 Windows NT 3.51 Workstation NT 3.51.1057
3.51 1995
21
Windows NT
September NT 3.50 Windows NT 3.5 Workstation NT 3.5.807
3.5
1994
22
Windows 3.2 November 3.2 Simplified Chinese only
1993
Windows for
November
Workgroups 3.11 N/A
1993
3.11
Windows NT 27 July
NT 3.10 Windows NT 3.1 NT 3.10.528
3.1 1993
 Windows 3.1
 Windows for
Windows 3.1 April 1992 3.10
Workgroups 3.1
(October 1992)

22 May
Windows 3.0 3.00 N/A
1990
13 March  Windows/286
Windows 2.11 2.11
1989  Windows/386

27 May  Windows/286
Windows 2.10 2.10
1988  Windows/386

9
Windows 2.03 December 2.03 N/A
1987

60
 Windows 1.04 April 1987 1.04 N/A
August
Windows 1.03 1.03 N/A
1986
Windows 1.02
N/AMay
N/A1986 1.02
20  MS-DOS
Windows 1.01 November 1.01
2.8.5 APPLICATION SOFTWARE
1985
An application software is the set of programmes necessary to carry out
operations for a specified application. Programmes directed towards the performance
of particular application (or) use. Application programmes that direct computer to
perform specific information processing activities for users. The programmes are
called application packages, because they direct the processing required for a
particular use or application.
2.8.6 COMPUTER SCIENCE LANGUAGES AND PACKAGES
1. HIGH LEVEL LANGUAGES
A task can be accomplished with the help of computer by representing the
instructions to the computer in the form of a sequence of commands. Each and every
commands are designating a specific function. There are different languages that
provide several commands for writing the sequence of steps called program.
According to the general usage of commands it can be split into languages and
packages. In languages the commands are necessarily to be specified in a fixed
structure with respect to the language. Each language is having unique defined
structures. The commands cannot be used separately. This means that each commands
can be executed separately.
BASIC
BASIC stands for Beginners All purpose Symbolic Instruction Code. It is
similar to high level language, whose name is derived from the word BASIC. Since it
is basic to the computer. It is a simple language and easy to learn. It allows easy
modification of programmes; since the programme text is kept in main store during
execution.

61
FORTRAN
FORTRAN means Formula Translation. It is a high level language.
FORTRAN is a compiled structured language. The name indicates its roots in science
and engineering. Still it is used heavily, although the language itself has been
expanded and vastly improved.
COBOL
COBOL is an acronym of Common Business Oriented Language. COBOL
programs are written mainly to process a volume ness amount of data involved in data
processing task. It supports sequential, indexed sequential, random, random access
file orgaisations. This language consists of identification, divisions and calculations. It
is mainly used in business.
PASCAL
It was introduced by Nicholas in 1971. It is a very good language for non-
numerical programming in which data not numbers but are strings of characters. It
facilitates features to manipulate not only numbers but also vectors, matrixes, sets,
lists, records, files etc.
C’ Language
It is a high level language developed by Bell labs, which is able to manipulate
the computer at a low level like assembly language. “C” can be compiled into
machine language for almost all the computers. It is highly portable, machine
independence-supports modular programming. It is a robust language. With the
pointers feature helps to write system programs. It has rich data type and operator sets
that help efficient programming.
C++ Language
It allows object oriented programming concepts. This means that the data and
methods to access the data are put together and cannot be accessed by any other data
or methods. The main concepts are Information hiding, Data abstraction and
encapsulation, Inheritance, Poly morphism, Inline Function Call, Dynamic binding.
Visual C++
Microsoft application development system for the programming language is
Visual C++. It is a GUI based OOPS tool. It helps writing program with efficient front
end but following object oriented programming concepts.

62
Visual Basic
Visual Basic is developed by Microsoft Corporation in 1990. It is most
popularly known Graphical User Interface tool for developing software. Visual Basic
is an event driven programming language. This means that code is executed as a
response to an event. Visual Basic provides a complete set of tools to simplify Rapid
Application Development both for experienced professionals and for new windows
programmers.
Power Builder
Power Builder is also the most popularly known Graphical User Interface tool
for developing software.
Java
Java is an Object Oriented Programming based internet programming
language. The main characteristics are called “architecture neutral”, which enables
Java program to on any system having minimum Java run environment. It has the
features like Robustness, Security, Simplicity and extend ability. It has Java Data
Base Connectivity.
C#
It is an advanced programming language of C++. It is a Dos based
programming language. It does not support windows and Internet environment. So
Microsoft, the producers of C# have decided to produce something, which can take
care of this problem. So they have come out a programming language that enables
programmers in quickly building solutions for the Microsoft.Net platform.
Visual J++
It is Microsoft's java visual programming environment. It can be used to
create applet and application in Java language.
VB.Net
It is an advanced programming language of VB 6.0 launched by Microsoft. It
is also called as Visual Basic 7.0. It is oriented with web browsers and their
application programmes.
ASP
ASP stands for Active Server Pages. It is Microsoft's solution for building
advanced web sites. Using ASP the user can, generate dynamic web pages which can
display different content to different users or display different content at different
times of the day.
63
VB Script
A subset of Visual Basic for applications of programming language, optimised
for web related programming as with Java Script. VB script is the script code for VB
scripting edition embedded with HTML documents or web pages.
Java Script
Java Script is a scripting language used to display alert messages, offer
dropdown menus, open new windows, change images in response to mouse and key
movements. Java Script allows us to create dynamic web pages.
Perl
Perl is an acronym of Practical Extraction and Report Language. It is a
scripting language similar to C and UNIX. It is used for creating CGI software.
CGI Script
CGI means Common Gateway Interface. CGI Script is another scripting
language. It is used for external application that has executed by a HTTP server
machine in response to the request by a client, such as web browser. CGI is invoked
when the user clicks the links in the web page.
HTML
HTML is the acronym of Hyper Text Markup Language. The markup
language is used for documents of the World Wide Web. HTML is based on Standard
Generalized Markup Languages (SGML). A tag language is used for representing
document with hypertext links.
DHTML
DHTML is an acronym of Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language. It is the
extended version of HTML. DHTML is designed to add additional animated features
and more user interactivity to the web pages. It involves scripts in Java Script and VB
Scripts.
XML
XML is an acronym of Extensible Markup Language. It is more flexible than
the HTML. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) is a great way to display data, but
it's pretty lousy, when it comes to describe the data. The W3C recognized the need of
new language to address this problem. The solution XML provides a standard for
defining our own markup tags and data structure so that data can be easily exchanged
online.

64
ASP.Net
It is the latest technology launched by Microsoft for authoring interactive and
virtual website creations.
VML
Acronym for Vector Markup Language is VML. Its specification is mainly for
editable 2D vector Graphics in an HTML or XML document.
VRML
VRML is the acronym of Virtual Reality Modeling Language for creating
interactive three dimensional image sequences and possible user interactions with
them. It is pronounced as “Vermal”, is a language that specifies the parameters to
create Virtual worlds networked together through the Internet and accessed through
the web's hyperlinks. It was conceived in the spring of 1994 at the first annual WWW
conference in Geneva, Switzerland. VRML file can be embedded in HTML
documents but VRML enabled browser is needed for viewing such web pages. It
works on the protocol blue tooth for wireless communications. It led us to future
advancement.
2.8.7 COMPUTER SCIENCE PACKAGE
A set of components that perform related application functions is shortly
called as package or packaged software. Packaged software is designed to meet the
needs of a wide variety of users, not a single user or company. Packaged Software is
also called as commercial off-the-shelf software because we can purchase these
programmes off-the –shelf from software venders who sell computer products.
FoxPro
FoxPro is a data base management system which means that most of the
functions are related to a database which holds the data to be processed. It is an earlier
Xbased development system for Macintosh by Microsoft. It is generally used for
developing application software and specifically business application softwares.
Visual FoxPro
It is packaged software prepared by Microsoft. It is also Xbase development
systems for windows from Microsoft, Originally known as FoxPro for windows or
FoxPro for Dos. Visual FoxPro added object orientation and client/server support.

65
Oracle
Oracle is the largest database and application development software in the
world. The Oracle database was the first DBMS to incorporate the SQL language and
to be ported a wide variety of platforms. The advancement of Oracle is Oracle 8i,
Oracle 9i etc. Oracle supports all major networking communication protocols to link
many data stores and network through the heterogeneous computing system prevalent
in most organizations. It supports all major operating systems for both clients and
servers.
Word Processing Package
The programmes that computerize the creation, editing and printing of
documents such as letters, memos, reports and text data. Thus word processing
package's application is office automation. The are MS-Word, WordStar and Page
Maker.
Spread Sheet Package
Application programmes used for analysing, planning and modeling. They
provide replacement for paper, worksheets, pencil and calculators. They are Lotus 1-
2-3 and MS-Excel.
Telecommunication Package
These application packages can connect the computer with Internet. These
packages help the user to explore in the World Wide Web. They are Internet Explorer
and Netscape Navigator.
Graphics Package
It converts numeric data into graphical displays such as line charts, bar charts,
pie charts and presentations. Presentation graphics can be produced by graphics
packages such as Harvard graphics and Tell-A-Graph.
Multimedia Package
It helps the user to create multimedia oriented graphics, Multimedia sounds
and their animations. They are Macromedia flash, Maya and Adobe premiere.
DTP Package
DTP stands for Desk Top Publishing. DTP package is a package of publishing
works; that is text-oriented applications (or) word processing. The examples for DTP
packages are WordStar, M.S. word etc.

66
3D Studio Max
It is a 3D modeling and animation programme. It was the first programme to
bring professional animations in 3D animations. It is the software launched by kinetix.
Key Framer
It is an advanced animation package of kinematics. It gives more and more
multimedia animations in 2D and 3D animations.
Premiere Pro
It is an animation package from Adobe. Through this animation package, we
can produce more and more multimedia animations.
Maya
This is a multimedia package used to create animations and their effects in 3D
and 2D. It is also good at producing animated graphics. It is software launched by
Alias wave front.
Sound Forge
Sound Forge is a product of sonic software. It is mainly related with an
audio/sound effect. It creates animated and digital sounds for multimedia. It is the
application software, which produces the compressed good quality of sound.
Director
It is an application software for multimedia launched by macromedia. It
provides more and more animations in 2D and 3D. Macromedia Director MX
includes three-dimensional images, text and animations with the suite of macromedia
design and development tools.
Flash
Flash is a graphics-editing tool. It has controls for adding and manipulating
sound files. It can create movies with graphical animations. Flash is an animating tool
used to create frames with animations.
Power Point
Power point is an effective software that offers tools and techniques for
running and authoring dynamic presentations. It can be used to design slides, insert
texts, add graphics and also animate the slides and objects there in. It can integrate
documents and information created by other office and windows programmes.

67
Ervsoft 1st page 2000
It is a popularizing web editor or html editor from Ervsoft. It is a package of
web authoring scripts in java and other scripts. 1 st page 2000 is an extensive web-
authoring suite that lets us to build and enchant web sites. 1 st page contains HTML
enchanting tools that bring our existing web documents to the next level. 1st page
includes full support for SSI, CGI, Cold fusion, Asp and many other server side
languages.
Microsoft Front page
It is a popular web-authoring programme from Microsoft for windows and
Mac. It is the graphical editor for authoring the web pages. Front page explorer is the
management tool that lets us to construct and maintain entire site.
We must have an ISP or web server to carry our web pages before other
people. Just creating a web page does not automatically get into the web. We must
engage and get instructions from an ISP regarding the procedure for transferring the
files or web pages from our computer to the hosting web server.
Macromedia Dream Weaver
It is a popularizing web authoring software package from macromedia for
windows and Mac. Flash designed for creating web page animations in web. It is fully
customizable. One can create one's own objects, commands, modify menus, keyboard
shortcuts, Java Script code to extend with new behaviours and property inspectors.
Visual InterDev
A window based development system from Microsoft for building dynamic
web application using Microsoft standards. It is used to write ASP coding that can
interact with database and active-x based components in the server. Microsoft Visual
InterDev the web development system that provides all the tools for creating system
that provides all the tools for creating dynamic internet and intranet web applications.

2.8.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with the
given answers at the end of the unit .
24. A Programme that manages the resources and operations of a computer is
25. A software designed for creating web page animations in the web is
26. Windows 10 was introduced in the year

68
2.9 THE VARIOUS USES OF COMPUTERS

A computer is used in all human life. It has revolutionized all spheres of

human activities. The most important areas have been given as follow.
1. Routine Job Handling : The routine classical and steno type jobs calculating
and formality, bills, salaries, updating, stocks, tax return, reservations records
and information are stored by the computer carefully.
2. Traffic Control : Controlling traffic, traffic lights. Television cameras are used
to maintain traffic light routine.
3. Electronic Money : Automatic teller machine (ATM) is very common in banks.
You can deposit and withdraw money with the help of ATM.
4. Industrial Application : It plays an important role in production controls. It
bring efficiency in trade and industry.
5. Trade : In every trade computer is used successfully. It is used in Banks, Stock
Exchanges, to control stocks and account.
6. Scientific Research : In every science research work become economical from
time energy and from the money point of view. A large data is analyzed ever
quickly and successfully.
7. Medicine : There is wide use in medical sciences e.g. ECG, CAT Scan, Ultra
Sound, etc. the proper and accounts diagnosis is done with the help of computer.
The medical apparatus are logically computerized.
8. Space science : The satellites are controlling the space with the help of
computer. The information are collected and after analyzing, used to control the
satellites. In this process the computer is playing a very important and vital role
for the success of space research.
9. Publication : The composing work is speedily and economically with the help
of computer. Computer also does the designing work. The quality is maintained
in publication by computer.
10. Communications : The computer is used for sending message e.g. Tele-printer,
fax, e-mail, internet etc. The import and export work is done on Internet.
11. Education : The computer is widely used in the field of education. An
independent study field of computer science has developed which is very
popular these days. At every stage computer education is compulsory. The
distance education is using computer for instructional purpose as multi-media

69
 approach. The computer makes a teacher-learning process effectively by
involving audio and visual sense of learners.
2.9.1 USES OF COMPUTERS IN SCHOOLS
Two tsypes of applications of computer are popular in India. These are as :
Administrative Applications of Computers.
I. Administrative uses
Many educational institutions computerize nearly all their operations from
mailing labels to staff payroll. Computerizations of administrative functions are:
1. Office Applications
In the offices, computers are used in filing, typing/word processing, preparing
mailing for dispatch and making labels of addresses.
2. Library Applications
In the library, computers are used for retrieval of bibliographic information,
cataloguing, circulation, purchasing of books, journals etc., searching books and
charging fines from students. Also databases can be prepared of the different users of
library.
3. Financial Applications
Computers are used for making budgets, auditing, accounts
receivable/payable, general ledger, purchase order generation, salary schedule
analysis and maintenance of student's fees records etc.
4. Student Applications
Computers are used to make time table for students, report cards, grade
information, maintenance of attendance, students' health and demographic records,
result processing, fees statements, railway concessions cards, bio-data of students etc.
5. Personnel Applications
Computers are used to prepare payrolls of workers, maintenance of personnel
records staff assignments, leave records of teachers, health records, tax information
and reporting, issuing circular to teaching and non teaching staff, maintaining bio data
of teachers and non teaching staff.
6. Research and Planning Applications
Computers are used in various research and planning applications such as test
item analysis, project planning and evaluation, budget forecasting, feasibility of
opening new courses etc. In well equipped modern educational institutions like
IGNOU most of these functions are performed through computers.

70
II. Instructional Situations of Computer Application
i. Pre-testing of student's knowledge on enrolment.
ii. Planning and printing individualized programmes
iii. Monitoring students progress and
iv. Compiling test and scores etc. A number of such data files can be stored in
the computer.
v. Robot –Based Learning
Robots have become a popular educational tool in some middle and high
schools, as well as in numerous youth summer camps, raising interest in
programming, artificial intelligence and robotics among students.
Elementary and High School Education
 Robotics - Robots can be used to bring students into the classroom that
otherwise might not be able to attend. In New York, a second grader with severe, life-
threatening allergies was unable to attend school due to his condition. A four-foot-tall
robot provided a 'real school' experience for the boy, 'attending' school and bringing
the boy with him via an internal video conferencing system. Robots such as the one
mentioned are able to 'bring school' to students who cannot be present physically.
Special Education
 Robotics - Students with special requirements are reaching new levels of
learning through the use of robotics in the classroom. With these technologies
children with autism are learning communication and social skills and students with
developmental issues and attention disorders are learning focus. Individuals with
severe physical disabilities are also offered a constant companion and health
monitoring system - all through the use of robotics. Robots can be programmed to suit
each individual child's need, offering special education in a much simpler, accessible
format.
Higher Education
 Robotics - Many careers require specialized knowledge in delicate practices,
specifically in the realm of healthcare. When receiving a medical education, many
students find benefits in the use of robotics. When learning to perform complicated
medical procedures, a human subject isn't feasible, so educators are employing the use
of robots as stand-ins. Robots can be created and programmed to give off all
indications of human life, including breath and heartbeat. Their use can also be seen
in such procedures as injections, surgeries and even delivering children.
71
2.9.2 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit .
27. The import and export work is done on
28. The computer makes a teacher-learning process effectively by using .

2.10. LET US SUM UP

Computer hardware is the physical parts or components of a computer, such as

the monitor, mouse, keyboard, computer data storage, hard disk drive (HDD),
graphic cards, sound cards, memory (RAM), motherboard, and so on, all of which are
physical objects that are tangible. Software, commonly known as programs, consists
of all the electronic instructions that tell the hardware how to perform a task. These
instructions come from a software developer in the form that will be accepted by the
platform (operating system + CPU) that they are based on. System software: Helps
run computer hardware and computer system itself. Application software: Allows
users to accomplish one or more tasks. Software is generally created (written) in a
high-level programming language, one that is (more or less) readable by people.
Computers in the classroom include any digital technology used to enhance,
supplement, or replace a traditional educational curriculum. As computers have
become more accessible, inexpensive, and powerful, the demand for this technology
has increased, leading to more frequent use of computer resources within classes, and
a decrease in the student-to-computer ratio within schools. Students with special
requirements are reaching new levels of learning through the use of robotics in the
classroom.

2.11 UNIT-END ACTIVITIES

Answer the following
1. What are the differences between computer hardware and software?
2. Describe any two input devices of the computers?
3. Describe any two out-put devices of the computers?

72
4. Describe the generations of computers?
5. Describe the types of computers?
6. What are the differences between analog and digital computers?
7. What are the uses of system software?
8. Mention any five application software?
9. Describe high level programming languages?
10. What are the uses of computers in schools?
11. Describe the role of robot in special education?
12. Describe operating systems with examples?

2.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. a programme 14) Note-book Computer 27) Internet
2. Hard Disk 15) Slimeline models 28) Multimedia
3. Atrificial Intelligenc 16) Personal Computer
4. Mega byte 17) Server
5. in put devices 18) Protocol
6. Charles Babbage 19) a large Geographical area
7. Herman hollerith 20) Small
8. 2005 21) a program
9. Tim berneu-Lee 22) Protects against the virus
10. 2009 23) Malware
11. 1954 24) System Software
12. Artificial Intelligence 25 ) Flash
13. Analog 26) 2015

2.13 SUGESSTED READINGS

Agarwal J. C. (2006). Essential of educational technology. Teaching and learning.
New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Mohanty, L. (2006). ICT strategies for schools. New Delhi: Sage Publication.
Sharma, R. A. (2008). Technological foundation of education. Meerut: R.Lall Books.
Depot
Srinivasan, T. M. (2002). Use of computers and multimedia in education. Jaipur:

73
Aavisakar Publication.
Alexis, M. L. (2001). Computer for every one. Leon: Vikas Publishing house Ltd:
New Delhi.
Norton, P. (1998). Introduction to computers. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co
Kumar, K. L. (1997). Educational technology. New Delhi: Angel International (P)
Ltd.
Stone, E. (1996). How to use microsoft access. California: Emergyville

74
 UNIT III MICRO TEACHING

Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Micro-Teaching
3.3.1 Origin and Development of Micro-Teaching
3.3.2 Meaning of Micro Teaching
3.3.3 Definitions of Micro-Teaching
3.3.4 Comparisons between Micro-Teaching and Traditional Teaching
3.3.5 Assumptions of Micro-Teaching
3.3.6 Principles Underlying Micro-teaching
3.3.7 Characteristics of Micro-Teaching
3.3.8 steps of Micro-Teaching
3.3.9 Check Your Progress
3.4 Micro-Teaching cycle
3.4.1 The Indian Model of Micro-Teaching
3.4.2 Phases of Micro-teaching
3.4.3 Merits of Microteaching
3.4.4 Limitations of Microteaching
3.4.5 Check Your Progress
3.5 Teaching Skill and Activities
3.5.1 Evaluation in micro teaching
3.5.2 Description of the skill of reinforcement
3.5.3 Description of the skill of explaining
3.5.4 Description of the Skill of Stimulus Variation
3.5.5 Description of the Skill of Questioning
3.5.6 Description of the of Probing Questioning
3.5.7 Skill of using Blackboard
3.5.8 Skill of Demonstration
3.5.9 Link Practice (integration of teaching skills)
3.5.10 Need for Link Practice in micro teaching
3.5.11 Check Your Progress

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3.6 Let us Sum Up
3.7 Unit- End Activities
3.8 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.9 Suggested Readings

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3.1 INTRODUCTION

Microteaching is an excellent way to build up skills and confidence, to

experience a range of lecturing/tutoring styles and to learn and practice giving
constructive feedback. Microteaching gives instructors an opportunity to safely put
themselves “under the microscope” of a small group audience, but also to observe and
comment on other people's performances. As a tool for teacher preparation,
microteaching trains teaching behaviors and skills in small group settings aided by
video-recordings. In a protected environment of friends and colleagues, teachers can
try out a short piece of what they usually do with their students, and receive a well-
intended collegial feedback. A microteaching session is a chance to adopt new
teaching and learning strategies and, through assuming the student role, to get an
insight into students' needs and expectations. It is a good time to learn from others
and enrich one's own repertoire of teaching methods. Microteaching is an organized
method of practice teaching which involves a small group of preceptors/instructors
who observe each other teach, provide feedback and discuss with one another the
strengths of their presentations and potential areas for improvement. In this unit we
are going to deal the meaning, definition of micro- teaching , micro- teaching cycle,
skills and the components of micro- teaching ,episodes and Link Practice .
3.2 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

1. Understand the concept of Micro teaching, Cycle and the Components
2. Explain the steps in Micro teaching
3. Explain the Skills-Reinforcement, Stimulus Variation, Expaining, Probing
questioning, Demonstration and Using of Black Board
4. Explain the need for Link Lesson

3.3 MICRO-TEACHING

Micro-teaching is one of the most important developments in the field of

teaching practice. It is originated in Stanford University in 1963. The workers in the
center for Research and Development in teaching evolved an approach to practical

77
teacher training. It is considered a mechanism of feedback device for the modification
of teacher trainees.
3.3.1 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF MICRO-TEACHING
The idea of micro-teaching originated for the first time at Stanford University
in USA, when an Experimental Project on the identification of teaching skills was in
progress under the guidance and supervision of the faculty members (Bush, Allen,
McDonald Acheson and many others). This project was aided by Ford Foundation
and Kettering Foundation. The team of experts was assigned the development of
testing and evaluation tools to measure the attainment of teaching skills. At this
juncture Keath Acheson, a research worker was investigating the utility of video tape
recorder in the development of technical teaching skills. This instrument could be
used for recording the class interaction and the behaviours of the trainee vividly and
accurately. This lead to the development of a systematic and accurate method of
giving feedback to the teacher trainee. All the steps of micro-teaching technique :
Teach → Feedback → Replan → Reteach → Refeedback were formulated. Thus the
name of micro-teaching was coined for this method of developing teaching skills in
1963. Since then this technique of teacher training has been widely used in almost all
Colleges and Universities of Europe and Asia. In India, it is being used with great
emphasis in all the teacher training programmes of developing teaching skills and
competencies among teacher trainees. Microteaching in India.
 The department of Teacher education in the NCERT designed a project to
study the effectiveness of Microteaching in 1975 in collaboration with the
Centre of Advanced Study in Education (CASE) Baroda.
 Research and training programmes for teacher educators were also initiated in
collaboration with the department of Education, University of Indore.
 Passi, Singh and Jangira developed instructional materials which were used to
train teacher educators..
3.3.2 MEANING OF MICRO TEACHING
Micro-teaching is like a simulated social skill training to provide the feedback
to teacher trainee for the modification of teacher-behaviour. It is a training device that
can be applied at various pre-service an in-service stage in the professional
development of teachers. Micro-teaching provides teachers with a practice setting or
instruction in which the normal complexities of classroom are reduced and in which
the teacher gets feedback on the performance.

78
 Basically, micro-teaching is a ‘Scaled down teaching encounter' in which a
teacher teaches a small unit to a group of 5 to 10 students for a small period of 5 to 10
minutes and one teaching skill is practiced during the teaching. Micro-teaching is a
new training design for pupil–teachers which provides an opportunity to practice one
teaching skill at a time and with information about their performance immediately
after completion of their lesson.
Micro-teaching is clinical teaching programme which is organized to explore
the trainee to an organized curriculum of miniature teaching encounters, moving from
the less complex to the more complex.
The basic principles of micro-teaching are simple. A public-teacher has a short
lesson of about five minutes duration to small group of publics. At the end of the
lesson the pupils leave and student-teacher discusses the lesson with his supervisor.
After a short interval feedback from the supervisor and attempts to improve his
previous lesson.
3.3.3 DEFINITIONS OF MICRO-TEACHING
Allen (1966) defines micro-teaching as a ‘scaled down teaching encounter in
class size and classtime'.
Chift and other (1976) have recently defined ‘micro-teaching as a teacher
training procedure which reduces the teaching situation to simpler and more
controlled encounter by limiting the practice teaching to a specific skill and reducing
teaching time and class size.'
Mc Aleese and Urwin (1970) suggest that the micro-teaching is most often
applied to the use of closed circuit television (CCTV) to give immediate feedback of a
trainee teachers performance in a simplified environment; but suggest that micro-
teaching is best viewed as a form of simulated teaching usually incorporating reduced
complexity and some feedback ‘along a simulation spectrum ranging from the purely
abstracts text-book of teaching practice through actual classroom teaching.'
Micro-teaching is defined as ‘a teacher education technique which allows
teachers to apply well defined teaching skills to a carefully prepared lesson in a
planned series of five to ten minutes encounters with a small group of real classroom
students, often with an opportunity to observe the performance on videotape' (Bush
1968).

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 Passi, B.K. (1976) says, “It is a training technique which requires pupil-
teachers to teach a single concept using specified teaching skills to a small number of
pupils in a short duration of time.”
According to the Encyclopedia of Education (Ed. DeigHton), “Micro-
Teaching is a real, constructed, scaled down teaching encounter which is used for
teacher training, curriculum development and research.”
Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It
employs real teaching situation for developing skills and helps to get deeper
knowledge regarding the art of teaching.
3.3.4 COMPARISONS BETWEEN MICROTEACHING AND TRADITIONAL
TEACHING
MICRO- TEACHING TRADITIONAL TEACHING
1. Objectives are specified in 1. Objectives are general and not
behavioural terms. specified in behavioural terms.
2. Class consists of small group 2. Class consists of 40-60 students.
of 5-10 students.
3. The teacher takes up one skill 3. The teacher practices several
at a time. skills at a time.
4. Duration time for teaching is 4. The duration is 40-50 minutes.
5-10 minutes.
5. There is immediate feed-back. 5.Immediate feed-back is not
available
6. Teaching is carried on under 6. There is no control over
controlled situation. situation.
7. Teaching is relatively simple. 7. Teaching become complex.
8. The role of supervisor is 8. The role of the supervisor is
specific and well defined to vague.
improve teaching.
9. Patterns of class room 9. Patterns of classroom
interaction can be studied interactions cannot be studied
objectively. objectively.

3.3.5 ASSUMPTIONS OF MICROTEACHING

Micro-teaching is an idea, at the core of which lie five essential propositions:
1) Micro –teaching is a real teaching, but its focus is to develop certain teaching skill
and not the development of pupils abilities.
2) Micro-teaching lessons reduce the complexities of normal classroom by scaled
down class size, content and time.

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3) Micro-teaching focuses on training for the development of specific teaching skills.
One skill is practiced during course of teaching and brings in up to the mastery
level.
4) Micro-teaching permits for the increased control of practice by providing the
feedback to the pupil-teachers. A high degree of control can be imposed on the
training programme.
5) Micro-teaching greatly expands the normal knowledge of results of feedback to
teaching. It is highly individualized training programme.
3.3.6 PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING MICRO-TEACHING
Micro-Teaching is based on a few sound principles which are briefly
explained below:
1. Principle of One Skill at a Time:
In Micro-Teaching, training of one skill is given till the person has acquired
mastery over it. Then the second skill is taken up and so on. Thus, we find that Micro-
Teaching is based on the principle of giving training of one skill at a time.
2. Principle of Limited Contents:
Micro-Teaching, limited contents are taken up and the teacher is required to
use those contents only. It helps the beginner teacher teach that limited material easily
and confidently.
3. Principle of Practice:
Micro-Teaching is based on the sound principle of practice. Here lot of
practice is given by taking up on is skill at a time. Practice makes a man perfect. It
helps the pupil- teacher in becoming better and better.
4. Principle of Experimentation:
A lot of Experimentation is involved in Micro-Teaching. The experiment
consists of objective observation of actions perfumed under controlled conditions.
The pupil-teacher and the supervisor conduct experiment on teaching skills
under controlled conditions. Variables like time duration of the lesson, contents of the
lesson to be taught, number of students sitting in the class etc., can be easily
controlled.
5. Principle of Immediate Feedback:
The micro lesson lasts for four or five minutes only. Thereafter, feedback is
provided to the pupil-teacher. It helps the pupil-teacher to know his drawbacks and
improve them effectively without any delay.

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6. Principle of Evaluation:
In Micro-Teaching, there is continuous assessment of the performance of the
pupil-teacher. Evaluation helps the learner know his drawback and then he is able to
improve it.
In Micro-Teaching, each micro lesson is supervised by the supervisor or the
peers. Drawbacks in teaching are pointed out and suggestion for improvement is
given. Self-evaluation is also possible. Thus, evaluation ensures good learning by the
pupil-teacher.
7. Principle of Continuity:
Learning of different skills of teaching is a continuous process in Micro-
Teaching programme. The pupil-teacher is learning one skill at a time and learning
continues till he has mastered the skill. For each skill, the principle of continuity is
implied. It makes the teacher good and effective.
8. Principle of Individualised Training:
In Micro-Teaching, each trainee is given training very thoroughly. There is
individual attention by the supervisor. The drawbacks in teaching are pointed out,
suggestions given one by one and thus improvement is brought about.
3.3.7.CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROTEACHING
 Microteaching is a highly individualized training device
 Microteaching is an experiment in the field of teacher education which has
been incorporated in the practice teaching schedule
 It is a student teaching skill training technique and not a teaching technique or
method
 Microteaching is micro in the sense that it scale down the complexities of real
teaching
 Practicing one skill at a time
 Reducing the class size to 5 – 10 pupil
 Reducing the duration of lesson to 5 – 10 minutes
 Limiting the content to a single concept
 immediate feedback helps in improving, fixing and motivating learning
 The student are providing immediate feedback in terms of peer group
feedback, tape recorded/CCTV
 Microteaching advocates the choice and practice of one skill at a time

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3.3.8 STEPS OF MICRO-TEACHING
The Micro-teaching programme involves the following steps:
Step I Particular skill to be practiced is explained to the teacher trainees in terms of
the purpose and components of the skill with suitable examples.
Step II The teacher trainer gives the demonstration of the skill in Micro-teaching in
simulated conditions to the teacher trainees.
Step III The teacher trainee plans a short lesson plan on the basis of the demonstrated
skill for his/her practice.
Step IV The teacher trainee teaches the lesson to a small group of pupils. His lesson is
supervised by the supervisor and peers.
Step V On the basis of the observation of a lesson, the supervisor gives feedback to
the teacher trainee. The supervisor reinforces the instances of effective use of the skill
and draws attention of the teacher trainee to the points where he could not do well.
Step VI In the light of the feed-back given by the supervisor, the teacher trainee
replans the lesson plan in order to use the skill in more effective manner in the second
trial.
Step VII The revised lesson is taught to another comparable group of pupils.
Step VIII The supervisor observes the re-teach lesson and gives re-feed back to the
teacher trainee with convincing arguments and reasons.
Step IX The ‘teach – re-teach' cycle may be repeated several times till adequate
mastery level is achieved.

3.3.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
1. Which one of the following statements about “Microteaching” is FALSE
a. It is an innovative method to teach students.
b. The emphasis is on “how” to teach not “what” to teach .
c. It requires peers and students to observe skills of the teacher.
d. Specific areas of teaching skills can be assessed using this micro-technique .
2. Duration time for teaching in Micro-Teaching is .
3. In Micro-Teaching ,Teaching is relatively
4. In Micro-Teaching ,The teacher concentrate skill at a time

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3.4.MICRO-TEACHING CYCLE

Teaching is considered to be made up of skills and each teaching skill is a set

of related teaching behaviour which tends to facilitate Pupils' learning. Such skills
can be defined, practiced, controlled, observed and evaluated. A particular lesson may
involve any number of skills.
A teacher should be trained in all these skills for developing the ability to
teaching. These skills are developed by Micro-Teaching.
The six steps generally involved in micro-teaching cycle are Plan, Teach,
Feedback Replan, Reteach, Refeedback. There can be variations as per requirement of
the objective of practice session. These steps are diagrammatically represented in the
following figure :Diagramatic representation of a Micro-teaching Cycle
The following figure explains the above mentioned procedure in clear format

Planning

Refeedback Teaching

Reteach Feedback

Replan

Plan : This involves the selection of the topic and related content of such a nature in
which the use of components of the skill under practice may be made easily and
conveniently. The topic is analyzed into different activities of the teacher and the
pupils. The activities are planned in such a logical sequence where maximum
application of the components of a skill is possible.
Teach : This involves the attempts of the teacher trainee to use the components of the
skill in suitable situations coming up in the process of teaching-learning as per his/her
planning of activities. If the situation is different and not as visualized(in the planning
of tTe activities, the teacher should modify his/her behaviour ás per the demand of the

84
situation in the Class. He should have the courage and confidence to handle the
situation arising in the class effectively.
Feedback : This term refers to giving information to the teacher trainee about his
performance. The information includes the points of strength as well as weakness
relating to his/her performance. This helps the teacher trainee to improve upon his/her
performance in the desired direction.
Re-plan : The teacher trainee re-plans his lesson incorporating the points of strength
and removing the points not skillfully handled during teaching in the previous attempt
either on the same topic or on another topic suiting to the teacher trainee for
improvement.
Re-teach : This involves teaching to the same group of pupils if the topic is changed
or to a different group of pupils if the topic is the same. This is done to remove
boredom or monotony of the pupil. The teacher trainee teaches the class with renewed
courage and confidence to perform better than the previous attempt.
Re-feedback : This is the most important component of Micro-teaching for behaviour
modification of teacher trainee in the desired direction in each and every skill
practice.
3.4.1 THE INDIAN MODEL OF MICRO-TEACHING
Micro-Teaching was introduced in India in 1967, with the humble attempt made by
D.D. Tiwari of Government Central Pedagogical Institute, Allahabad.
In 1970, G.B. Shaw experimented with Micro-Teaching at M.S. University, Baroda.
Then the Technical Teachers Training Institute, Madras introduced Micro-Teaching to
train the technical teachers.
In 1947, Dr. N.L. Dosajh used Micro-Teaching as a teaching device in Teachers
Training Institute, Chandigarh. He also wrote a book namely: Modification of
Teacher Behaviour through Micro- Teaching'. NCERT, SCERT, in the different
states have been propagation this concept.
The Indian model of micro-teaching developed by NCERT gives the following
setting. - no. of pupils - 5-10- type of pupils - real pupils or preferably peers- type of
supervisors - teacher educators or peers. - Time duration for micro-teaching lesson –6
minutes - Time duration for micro-teaching cycle – 36 minutes This duration is
divided as :
Teaching – 6 minutes
Feedback - 6 minutes

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Re-plan – 12 minutes
Re-teach – 6 minutes
Re-feedback –6 minutes
3.4.2 PHASES OF MICRO-TEACHING
There are three phases of the Micro-teaching procedure .
They are :
1. Knowledge Acquisition Phase.
2. Skill Acquisition Phase.
3. Transfer Phase of Micro-teaching.
1. Knowledge Acquisition Phase (Pre-Active Phase)
It includes the activities such as;
Ø Provide knowledge about teaching skills.
Ø Observe the demonstration of teaching skill.
Ø Analyze and discuss the demonstration of the teaching skill.
2. Skill Acquisition Phase (Inter-active Phase)
It includes the activities such as;
Ø Planning and preparation of micro lesson for a skill.
Ø Practicing the skill.
Ø Evaluation of the practiced skill (Feedback).
Ø Re-plan , Re-teach and re-feedback till the desired level of skill is achieved.
3. Transfer Phase (Post –Active Phase)
Ø Giving opportunity to use the mastered skill in normal class room teaching.
Ø Integrate the different skill practiced
3.4.3 MERITS OF MICROTEACHING
 It helps to develop and master important teaching skills.
 It helps to accomplish specific teacher competencies.
 It caters the need of individual differences in the teacher training.
 It is more effective in modifying teacher behaviour.
 It is an individualized training technique.
 It employs real teaching situation for developing skills.
 It reduces the complexity of teaching process as it is a scaled down teaching.
 It helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art of teaching.

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3.4.4 LIMITATIONS OF MICROTEACHING
It is skill oriented; Content not emphasized.
 A large number of trainees cannot be given the opportunity for re-teaching and
re-planning.
 It is very time consuming technique.
 It requires special classroom setting.
 It covers only a few specific skills.
 It deviates from normal classroom teaching.
 It may raise administrative problem while arranging micro lessons

3.4.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
5. How many steps are involved in micro-teaching cycle?
6. How many phases of the Micro-teaching procedure?
7. In Which year Micro-Teaching was introduced in India?
8. Which organization has developed the Indian model of Micro-Teaching?

3.5 TEACHING SKILL AND ACTIVITIES

Teaching is considered science as well as on art. An effective teacher employs

certain teaching skills to general calculative learning situations in his classroom.
Micro teaching is a feedback device which is used for developing teaching scales.
‘A teaching skill is defined as set of teacher behaviour and activities which are
especially effective in bringing about desirable behavioural changes or skills among
teachers and pupil teachers.
There are various teaching skills which have been identified by teacher-
educators and educationists and can be developed among teacher-trainees.
Allen and Ryans (1969), have prepared and suggested a list of the following
fourteen teaching skills.
1) Stimulus Variation 2) Set induction
3) Closure 4) Silence and non-verbal cues
5) Reinforcement of student 6) Asking question
participation
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7) Probing questions 8) Divergent question
9) Attending behaviour 10) Illustrating
11) Lecturing 12) Higher order questions
13) Planned repetition 14) Communication completeness.

B.K. Passi (1979) has described the following thirteen skills in his book ‘Becoming
Better Teacher'. A Micro-teaching approach.
1)Writing instructional objectives, (2) Introduction a lesson, (3) Fluency in
questioning, (4) Probing questioning (5) Explaining, (6) Illustrating with examples,
(7) Stimulus variation, (8) Silence and non-verbal cues, (9) Reinforcement student
participation, (10) In-creasing pupils participation, (11) Using Black Board, (12)
Achieving closure and (13) Recognising attending behaviour.
3.5.1 EVALUATION IN MICRO TEACHING
The teaching skills being developed through micro-teaching lessons are to be
evaluated or observed by the peers or supervisors. The rating schedule is used as
criterion measure. The most popular evaluative instrument for assessing the
effectiveness of microteaching is the Stanford teacher Competence Appraisal Guide
(S.T.A.G).
The problem of evaluation of micro-teaching effectiveness is much more
difficult. The more important question is whether micro-teaching experiences lead to
improve the teaching skills in a normal classroom teaching.
Allen and Ryan (1969) have given an evaluation sheet for assessing the skill
of reinforcement. It consist of four dimension of the reinforcement skill.
1. The correct responses of the student are praised or rewarded by saying ‘fine'
‘good' excellent etc.
2. The teacher uses non-verbal cues (smile) to encourage his students.
3. The teacher gives credit to students answering a question partly correct.
4. The teacher refers to positive aspects of a student are previous responses.
These four dimensions are record by observer in terms of frequency that the
teacher has used the category number of times. The categories are assessed on scale
hanging from three to seven points. The S.T.A.G. consists of a number of scales
rating the broad aspects of a teacher's performance.
The following are the few micro teaching skills with components and episodes

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3.5.2 DESCIPTION OF THE SKILL OF REINFORCEMENT
Reinforcement increases the probability of the purpose occurring again. In a
classroom situation teacher can use a variety of techniques to reinforce the students
behaviour while positive reinforcement given at forced varying scheduled strong than
the behaviour of the students. Negative reinforcement may skills the student's
imitation.
The components involved in reinforcement are as follows.
1. Positive verbal reinforcement (PVR)
The teacher gives positive reinforcement through various verbal expressions.
The teacher accepts the feelings of the pupil than he gets the students by saying “very
good”, “well done” “keep it up” etc.
2. Positive Non-Verbal Reinforcement (PNVR)
The teacher encourages the students by the means of his facial expressions
movements of his hand and body. The teacher gives certain non verbal expressions
like “holding his head”, Giving hand shake” etc.
3. Negative Verbal Reinforcement (NVR)
The teacher decreases the changes of response occurring again by pointing out
the mistakes of a person. Then the teacher should avoid discouraging expression
worlds like “I don't like your behaviour”, “No” “Wrong” etc.
4. Native Non-verbal reinforcement (NNVR)
This type of activity should be avoided namely in the class. This arise due to
misbehavior of the students inside the class. The teacher neglects the students
responses often “not encouraging by giving chance of answer” etc.
5. Writing pupils answer of the black board (W.P.A.B)
This is a very good method of active participation of the pupils in class.
Giving him a chance to write answers on the black board often to get a live class. This
should be encouraged.
Episode
Name of the trainee : xxxxxxxxxxxx
Skill : Skill of Reinforcement
Concept : Hardware
Tr : Good morning students
St : Good morning Sir
Tr : How many components are available in a computer?

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St : Two components
Tr : Good Tell me the names (PVR)
St : Hardware and Software
Tr : Very good (The teacher claps his hand) come on
the stage and write it on the board (PNVR)
(WPAB)
St : Student writes on the board
Tr : Good, can anyone of you say what is a hardware?
(P.V.R)
St : The physical components of the computer is
called as hardware
Tr : Excellent (The teacher shake his hand) can you
write an example for hardware (P.V.R) (P.N.V.R)
St : Mouse (W.P.A.B)
Tr : Good, you can go (The teachers pat the back of
student) (P.V.R) (P.N.V.R)
Tr : ( ask one boy) Do you give other example for
hardware device?
St : Keyboard
Tr : Good, how do you say it is hardware device?
(P.V.R)
St : Because, it is a physical compound
Tr : Very nice, are you clear? (P.V.R)
St : Yes, Sir,
Tr : Can any one say the use of the keyboard?
St : Keyboard is used to type the letters to the
computer
Tr : Excellent come on the stage and write it on board.
(P.V.R)
St : (The student writers on the board) (W.P.A.S)
Tr : Can you give exampled for keyboard
St : TVS keyboard
Tr : Excellent are you clear (P.V.R)
St : Yes Sir.

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Tr : What is a program?
St : Coding is the program
Tr : This is not correct (Teacher asks the same
question to another pupil) can you give me the
correct answer (NVR) (NNVR)
St : Set of instructions is called a program
CODING FORM
Reinforcement
Interval (30 second
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
each)
PVR (Positive verbal
reinforcers)
PNVR (Positive Non
Verbal reinforcers)
NVR (Negative Non
verbal reinforcers)
NNVR (Negative Non
verbal reinforcers)
Writing pupil's answer
on the black board

3.5.3. DESCRIPTION OF THE SKILL OF EXPLAINING

1. Cognitive Link (CL)
It is a precious process of making connection between present concept to
already known concepts. This can be done with the help of examples.
2. Illustrations (ILL)
The teacher may explain the concept by giving examples. He may use
diagram, models, simplified problems etc.
3. Comparing and Contrasting (CC)
It is a process of discrimination the two similar concept of particular attitude.

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4. Meaningful Repetition (MR)
The teacher will repeat the concept again and again. The repetition may be
done by asking questions or more telling the formula. The purpose of repetition is to
make the students to fix the idea in the mind.
Episode
Name of the trainee : xxxxxxxx
Skill : Skill of Explaining
Concept : Internet
Tr : Good morning students
St : Good morning Sir,
Tr : Yesterday, we had discussed about the network
and characteristics of the network. Today we are
going to study the topic internet (CL).
Tr : What do you see in this picture?
St : Connection of computers
Tr : Yes, the computers are connected to each other
which is used to share the hardware and software
resources from one place to another place. It is
type of network called local area network. and
network of networks is called internet. the internet
is connected all or the world (ILL).
The internet consists a LAN, WAN and MAM
types a networks. In this the LAN is the smallest
one and WAW is the biggest one. (ILL) (CC)
Tr : The requirements for connecting the internet are
computer, modem Telephone line and an internet
service provides. The internet service provides.
The internet service provides the internet service
for us like the couriers service (CL)
Tr : Any one can say what is the use of modem?
St : I don't know sir,
Tr : Modem is used to translate the analog signals to
digital signals and digital signals to analog signals.
Tr : What is thus use of local area network?
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St : It is used to share the hardware and software
requirements
Tr : Good
CODING FORM
Explaining V.Poor Poor Average Good V.Good
CL (Cognitive Link) 0 1 2 3 4
ILL (Use of illustrations) 0 1 2 3 4
CC (comparing and
0 1 2 3 4
contrasting)
MR (meaningful repetition) 0 1 2 3 4

3.5.4. DESCRIPTION OF THE SKILL OF STIMULUS VARIATION

The skill of stimulus variation includes the behaviour namely teacher
movement, teacher gesture, change in speech pattern, change in sensory focus, pupil
talk and pupil movement.
1. Teacher Movement (T.M)
In order to secure and contain attention in the mind of the pupils. The teacher
has to make very purposeful movement in the class.
2. Teacher Gesture (T.G)
The teacher has to use various gestures to draw the attention and to explain a
subject in the classroom. The gestures are hand and body movements. By using these
gestures the teacher can became more expressive and dynamic in his presentation in
the class.
3. Change is speech pattern (CSP)
To express emotion or feelings the teacher can modulate voice with a sudden
in tone and he can draw the attention of the students.
4. Change in sensory focus (CSF)
The teacher uses the models to create different situations and introduces the
new words when the student does not listen the class. The teacher uses some sensory
focuses and makes them listen.
5. Pupil Talk (PT)
The teacher makes the student to talk in the class with him by asking questions
and holding discussion.

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6. Pupil Movement (PM)
During the time of teaching the teacher can asks the students to write on the
black board or ask them to open the windows and describes the things he saw.
EPISODE
Name of Trainee : xxxxxxxx
Skill : Stimulus variation
Concept : Internal Modem advantage disadvantage
Tr : Good morning students
St : Good morning Sir
Tr : How are you?
St : Fine Sir
Tr : What is your name?
St : My name in Raja (PT)
TT : Today is very hot, isn't if? (CSP)
St : Yes Sir (PT)
TT : What do you mean by modem (CSF)
St : Modem stands for Modulation and demodulation
(PT)
Tr : Good (The teacher explains with gestures (T.G)
St : (The teacher on a student to draw the figure of
Modem) (Function) (TM)
(A student comes explains on concept on
blackboard (PM)
Tr : Very good (TG) (patting)
St : Is it possible to have a modem within the CPU?
(CSP)
Tr : Yes Sir (PT)
St : How is it possible? (He shows a picture of Internal
Modern) (CSF)
Tr : But it is not worthy sir (PT)
TT : Why? (CSP)
St : It will get heat soon and the life time of a modem
is very less if it is internal modem. (PT)

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TT : Very Good (Patting) (TG). So these are the
disadvantages of internal modem? Give some
advantages (TM)
St : It is compact and it will not occupy more space.
Moreover easy to handle (PT)
TT : Very good so today we have seen some of the
advantages and disadvantages of internal modem
(TG)
CODING FORM
Variation
Interval
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Variation
Teacher movement
Teacher Gesture
Change in speech pattern
Change in sensory focus
Pupil talk
Pupil movement

3.5.5 DESCRIPTION OF THE SKILL OF QUESTIONING

Questioning skill is an important skill to be developed by any teacher. It is all
the more important for a Computer Science teacher as questioning stimulates the
thinking of the students and gets the concepts clarified and hence has significant
contribution to teaching and learning Computer Science. Good questions can serve
many purposes as given blow.
 Questions stimulate thinking.
 Questions channelise the thinking process
 Questions challenge the students
 Questions help in recalling and relating relevant concepts, facts and principles
 Questions ensure active student involvement in leaning
 Questions get the students' attention focused on the topic
 Questions arouse the curiosity of the students.

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Components of the skill of Basic Questioning
- Structure
- Variety: - Low order, high order
- Pause
- Voice
- Reinforcement
- Fluency
- Distribution
Description of each component of the skill is presented in table
Skill Components Description of Behaviour
 Grammatically correct.
 Relevant – related to the topic being discussed.
Structure
 Specific – calls for single and specific response.
 Concise – does not contain redundant words.
 Recall or recognition type of
Variety: Low
Order questions Examples: What is the properties
RAM? List
………Define…….State the ……..
 Stimulate higher levels of thinking.
High Order  Require the use of higher intellectual skills
 Example: how or why type
 Speed of asking.
Pause
 Sufficient time for pupils to think and answer
 Audible to the entire class
Voice
 Clear and loud voice
 Encourage correct responses.
Reinforcement
 Discourage incorrect response
Distribution  Even distribution of the questions to the entire class
Fluency  Sufficient number of questions

3.5.6 DESCRIPTION OF THE OF PROBING QUESTIONING

 Probing is used when the students reply is correct but insufficient, because it
lacks depth. Asking a number of questions about the response given to the first
question. Such techniques that deal with pupil responses to your question are
included in the skill of probing questioning.
The five components of the skill of probing questioning are

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1. Prompting technique
Prompting is a technique of probing or going deep into the pupil's initial
response and leading him from no response to the expected response. This involves
the teacher to give clues or hints to the pupil and ask leading questions.
2. Seeking further information
It consists of asking the pupil to supply the additional information to bring
initial response to the criterion level or the expected level.
3. Refocussing
This technique consists of enabling the pupil to view his response in relation
to other similar situations. It requires the pupil to relate a completely acceptable
answer to other topics already studied by him.
4. Re direction technique
Redirection technique involves putting or directing the same question to
several pupils for response. This is mostly used for the purpose of probing and for
increasing pupil participation.
5. Increasing critical awareness technique
This technique mainly involves asking “how” and “why” of a completely
correct or expected response. It is used to elicit a rationale for the answer.
CODING FORM
SKILL OF PROBING QUESTIONS
Interval
PROBING 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
QUESTIONS
Prompting
Seeking Further
Information
Refocussing
Re direction
Increasing Critical
Awareness technique

3.5.7 SKILL OF USING BLACKBOARD

Blackboard is the powerful teaching aid to teach from K.G to P.G.
Blackboard, the visual aid is widely used in all sectors of education and training. The
development of ICT is reducing the chalkboard work. A good blackboard work brings
clearness in perception and it can be suitable used for displaying notes and diagrams
during a lesson.

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 The components of the skill of use of blackboard are:
1. Legibility (L)
2. Size and alignment (S.A)
3. Highlighting main points (HMP)
4. Utilization of the space (US)
5. Correctness (C)
6. Position of the teacher (PT)
7. Eye contact with pupils (ECP)
8. Clearing of blackboard (CB)
1. Legibility (L)
The teacher should see that a clear distribution is ensured between every letter,
adequate space is maintained between individual letters and words etc., to make
handwritings more legible.
2. Size and alignment (SA)
In blackboard writing the size and alignment of the letters is very important.
The letters should be uniform; the size of the capital letters should be as nearly
vertical as possible without being diverged from a line.
3. Highlighting Main points (HMP)
The teacher should underline to highlight the main points or words on the
blackboard. Colored chalks should be used suitably to draw the learners' attention on
the main points.
4. Utilization of the space (US)
Overwriting on the letters should be avoided as it makes the blackboard work
untidy. Only essential material should be retained on the blackboard.
5. Correctness (C)
The teacher should be careful about correct spelling, punctuation, grammar,
etc., in constructing sentences on the blackboard. While writing on the blackboard
inadequate knowledge of English grammar or mistakes done by the teacher reduces
the attentiveness of the learners in the classroom.
6. Position of the teacher (PT)
At the time of writing, the teacher should stand on one side of the blackboard.
With an angle of 45 degrees, so that the written work is visible to the learners on the
blackboard.

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7. Eye contact with pupils (ECP)
The teacher should maintain eye contact with his learners at the time of
writing on the board. This maintains discipline and sustains the attention of the
learners.
8. Clearing of blackboard (CB)
A teacher should clean the blackboard from top to bottom and not spread dust
in the room. After completion of the lesson, the teacher should clean the entire
blackboard before leaving the classroom.
Observation with Rating Scale

Below Above
Poor Avg. Excellent
S. No Components Tallies Average Average
0 1 2 3 4
1. Legibility (L)
Utilization of the
space and
2.
Alignment
(USA)
Size and
3.
Alignment (SA)
Highlighting
4. Main points
(HMP)
Clearing of
5.
Blackboard (CB)

3.5.8 SKILL OF DEMONSTRATION

Demonstration is an activity or process of teaching involving the showing of
specimens or experiments or devices to explain and describe the concerned concept,
idea, teaching point etc., in the teaching – learning process. That process makes the
subject matter concrete with real life situation. The demonstration in teaching makes
learning simpler and meaningful to the learner.
The components of demonstration skill are:
1. Appropriate topic, concepts, ideas, and teaching points (A)
2. Sequence order of presentation (SOP)
3. Adequacy of manipulative skill (AMS)
4. Creation of appropriate situation (CAS) and
5. Generalization (G)

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Appropriate topic, concepts, ideas and teaching points (A)
The demonstration should be appropriate to the topic, concept, idea and
teaching point. The appropriate specimens, experiments, or devices should be related
to the topic, concept and teaching point in the demonstration to make teaching
effective.
Sequence order of presentation (SOP)
The presentation material such as specimens or experiments or devices should
be arranged in sequence order and presented in a systematic way. The sequential
procedure in presentation of material indicates better preparation of the teaching
learning activity.
Adequacy of manipulative skill (AMP)
In the demonstration of experimentation, the instruments or equipment should
be repeatedly displayed in the teaching – learning process. Adequate manipulative or
manual skills would certainly result in creating interest in the minds of the learners.
Creation of Appropriate Situation (CAS)
In the demonstration process appropriate physical situation with proper aids,
instruments, diagrams, gestures, movements etc. should convey the idea
appropriately. The demonstration arouses the curiosity of the learner.
Generalization (G)
Whenever the demonstration comes to an end, the teacher should conclude the
theory and frame a rule or a principle. The teacher performs the demonstration to
consolidate the learned points with the help of the learners.
3.5.9 LINK PRACTICE (INTEGRATION OF TEACHING SKILLS)
When mastery has been attained in various skills ,the teacher trainee is
allowed to teach the skills together. This separate training programme to integrate
various isolated skills is known as ‘Link Practice'
ü It helps the trainee to transfer effectively all the skills learnt in the micro teaching
sessions.
ü It helps to bridge the gap between training in isolated teaching skills and the real
teaching situation faced by a student teacher.
ü Desirable Number of Pupils :15-20
ü Preferable Duration :20minutes.
ü Desirable Number of Skills :3-4 Skills

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• Link practice or integration of skills can be done in two ways; Integration in parts
3 or 4 teaching skills are integrated and transferred them into a lesson of 15-20
minutes duration. And again 3 or 4 skills are integrated and are transferred all the
skills to one lesson.Integration as a whole Student teacher integrates all the
individual teaching skills by taking them as a whole and transferred them into a real
teaching situation.
3.5.10 NEED FOR LINK PRACTICE IN MICRO TEACHING
Link practice is a bridge between microteaching and full-class teaching where
microteaching skills are effectively integrated and transferred.
There is a big contrast between microteaching and full class teaching. In
microteaching, there is a scaled down process in terms of class room size, skills,
scope of the lesson, time etc. Micro teaching is practiced under stimulated conditions.
In macro teaching in addition to the existence of macro elements, there are also class
room management problems. In link practice, the trainees are given chance of
teaching real pupils.
There are many methods for link practice. One of the method is that after
practicing three sub skills separately, the trainee may combine all the three sub skills
in a lesson of 10 minutes. He then practices another three sub skills separately and
links them. He then combines all the six sub skills in a single lesson of 15 minutes.
And so on till the entire sub skills are combined in a macro lesson of 40 minutes and
teaching a full class.
Link practice sessions are arranged with about 20 pupils for about the normal
class period i.e. 20 minutes. The trainee prepares a series of eight short lessons on
single unit and teaches each lesson for 20 minutes using appropriate skills particular
to the content. The number of lessons used in link practice is flexible but selected
topic should be adequately covered. The teaching skills namely ‘Set Induction' and
Closure can not be practiced in microteaching session in isolation. So, in link practice,
the trainees include these skills also. At the end of each lesson, the trainee should get
feed back about the lessons.

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3.5.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
9. A book on ‘Becoming Better Teacher'. A Micro-teaching approach was written
by
10. Eye contact with pupils (ECP) is a component of the Skill of
11. Refocussing is a component of the Skill of
12. Cognitive Link is a component of the Skill of
13. Change in sensory focus is a component of the Skill of
14. The MICRO-Teaching Skills are effectively integrated in
15. Writing pupils answer of the black board is a component of the Skill of

3.6 LET US SUM UP

Microteaching is a scaled-down, simulated teaching encounter designed for

the training of both preservice or in-service teachers. Its purpose is to provide teachers
with the opportunity for the safe practice of an enlarged cluster of teaching skills
while learning how to develop simple, single-concept lessons in any teaching subject.
Microteaching helps teachers improve both content and methods of teaching and
develop specific teaching skills such as questioning, the use of examples and simple
artifacts to make lessons more interesting, effective reinforcement techniques, and
introducing and closing lessons effectively. Immediate, focused feedback and
encouragement, combined with the opportunity to practice the suggested
improvements in the same training session, are the foundations of the microteaching
protocol.

3.7 UNIT- END ACTIVITIES

1. What are the differences between Traditional and Micro-Teaching?
2. What are the Characteristics of Micro-Teaching?
3. Describe the Micro-Teaching Cycle?
4. Describe the steps for Micro-Teaching?
5. Explain the skill of Stimulus Variation?
6. What is the need of Link Practice in Micro-Teaching?
7. Write down the episode for the skill of Probing Questioning

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3.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1.a 9.Dr.Passi
2.5-10 minutes 10.use of Black Board
3. Simple 11.Probing Questioning
4. One 12.Explaining
5. Six 13.Stimulus Variation
6Three 14.Link Practice
7.1967 15.Reinforcement
8.NCERT

3.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

1. ALLEN, D.W. et.al. Micro-teaching – A Description. Stanford University Press, 1969.
2. ALLEN, D.W , RYAN, K.A. Micro-teaching Reading Mass.: Addison Wesley, 1969.
3. GREWAL, J.S., R. P. SINGH. “A Comparative Study of the Effects of Standard MT With
Varied Set of Skills Upon General Teaching Competence and Attitudes of Pre-service Secondary
School Teachers.” In R.C. DAS, et.al. Differential Effectiveness of MT Components, New Delhi,
NCERT, 1979.
4. PASSI, B.K., Becoming Better Teachers. Baroda : Centre for Advanced Study in Education,
M. S. University of Baroda, 1976.
5. SINGH, L. C. et.al. Micro-teaching – Theory and Practice, Agra : Psychological Corporation,
1987.
6. SHAH, G. B. Micro-teaching – Without Television, Nutan Shikshan, 1970.
7. SHARMA, N. L., Micro-teaching : Integration of Teahing Skills in Sahitya Paricharya, Vinod
Pustak Mandir, Agra, 1984.
8. VAIDYA, N. Micro-teaching : An Experiment in Teacher Training. The Polytechnic Teacher,
Technical Teacher, Technical Training Institute, Chandigarh, 1970.

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 UNIT IV INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3. Year Plan
4.3.1 Check Your Progress
4.4 Unit Plan
4.4.1 Check Your Progress
4.5 Preparation Of A Lesson Plan
4.5.1 Importance Of Lesson-Plan
4.5.2 Lesson Plan Writing in Computer Science
4.5.3 Herbartian Lesson-Plan
4.5.4 Outline Of Lesson-Plan
4.5.5 Writing Instructional Objectives
4.5.6 Concept Of Teaching
4.5.7 Meaning of the Term Instructional Objectives
4.5.8 Basis of Developing Learning Experience
4.5.9 Writing Instructional Objectives in Behavioural Terms
4.5.10 Model Lesson Plan
4.5.11 Check Your Progress
4.6 Methods Of Teaching
4.6.1 Lecture Method
4.6.2 Demonstration method
4.6.3 Lecture -Demonstration Method
4.6.4 Project method
4.6.5 Analytic method
4.6.6 Synthetic Method
4.6.7 Scientific method or Problem solving method
4.6.8 The inductive approach
4.6.9 The deductive approach
4.6.10 Check Your Progress

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4.7 Individualised Instruction
4.7.1 Programmed Learning
4.7.2 Computer Assisted Instruction
4.7.3 Steps Involved In The Development CaI Package
4.7.4 Modes Of CAI
4.7.5 Benefits of CAI
4.7.6 Limitations of CAI
4.7.7 Role of the teacher in CAI
4.7.8 Computer-managed instruction
4.7.9 Check Your Progress
4.8 Let us Sum Up
4.9 Unit- End Activities
4.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
4.11 Suggested Readings

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4.1 INTRODUCTION

Computer programming is part and parcel of the computer science education.

It is an essential skill that must be mastered by anyone interested in studying
computer science. Normally, in teaching computer programming, students will first be
introduced to the concept of programming and data structure where they are taught on
how to analyze problems, use specific techniques to represent the problem solution
and validate the solution. Next the learners are required to convert the problem
solution into a program using a specific programming language. They are then
required to test their program to verify for syntactical or logical errors to ensure that
the output is correct according to the problem requirement. Maintenance is the last
process in implementation phase and it is based on user requirement needs.
Maintenance is required when there are changes in user requirements or important
components. In this unit we are discussing Year Plan, Unit plan, Lesson Plan, writing
instructional objectives , planning for specific behavioural changes, Methods and
approaches of teaching Computer Science and Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI).
4.2 OBJECTIVES

On completion of this unit , you must be able to

1. Understand the Steps for Year Plan
2. Write down Unit Plan
3. Understand the need for writing lesson plans.
4. Write down the objectives for a given lesson.
5. Develop the skill in writing Lesson Plan
6. Understand the methods of teaching Computer Science
7. Use different approaches for teaching Computer Science
8. Understand the principles of Individualised Instruction
9. Write down the Programmed Learning Materials in Computer Science
10. Prepare the CAI package in Computer Science

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4.3. YEAR PLAN

A course of study can be divided into units. A unit is defined as the series of
related learning experiences built around one central topic. A unit develops a
generalization through the learning of related facts, concepts and views (or) view
points. Therefore a unit is a large segment of subject matter having a common theme /
idea.
Lesson plan should give clear indication what students are going to do for
learning and what they are expected to grasp in the class room during the process of
teaching.
Planning begins with the goals of teaching-learning situation, carried through
planned means of achieving these goals and ends with plans for evaluating the efforts
of all persons involved.
So plans should be made in terms of goals to be achieved. Therefore, the
stages in planning should be
1. Course planning which could determine the general objectives, specific
objectives, and accordingly select the course to be taught.
2. Organization of the selected material into meaningful segments of activity and
experience.
3. Plan the daily work around a device known as ‘Lesson Plan' In this lesson you
are exposed to the various components of a lesson plan in Computer Science.
An annual plan or Year plan is intended to provide teachers and school
administrators with an overview of curriculum guidelines at a glance, and therefore,
it can definitely help educators to stay on track each month, for instance in meeting
the curriculum goals that have been set up for the school year. Year planning is done
by a teacher at the beginning of the year for the entire course.
Designing Annual Teaching Plan
The following are only suggestions to the layout of your annual plan, and
therefore, you may feel free to adapt, modify or even improve any format resulting
from them to fit your specific needs and the needs of your group(s) of learners.
Section One
Start by labeling your plan, and providing general information about the
subject you are designing the plan for, school's name, school year, and target group
(s) you will be teaching in the first section.

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1. General Information
Area: C- Programming :Class Higher Secondary ………………………………….
School Year: 2015 -2016 Target group (s): XI Standard

Section Two
Take your Curriculum Guidelines to look at the objectives per school year that
have been proposed for each component of the Programming competence in C.
2. Objectives
On successful completion of this course the students should be able to
i. Understand the basics of C language
ii. Use conditional statements and loops
iii. Write programmes using of arrays
iv. Uses functions for writing programmes
v. Uses pointers for writing programmes
vi. Use the skill of file processing
Section Three
3 Model Annual Plan
Insert a blank table for your template in a word processing document and list
the months that correspond the present school year (i.e June to April) in the first
column
Month / weeks I II II IV
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
Section Four
4. Methodological Strategies
Read the Curriculum specifications you have been provided with and
summarize information on the methodological strategies as well as the genres and

108
text types that have been proposed as tools for developing each programming skill
with your corresponding groups of learners.
Unquestionably, you may feel free to propose and write down any other
methodological strategy (ie) you consider pertinent by keeping in mind they should
reflect the basic principles Computer Programming:
 make real procedure of programming.
 provide opportunities for learners to experiment and try out what they know.
 be tolerant of learners' errors as they indicate that the learner is building up his
or her Programming Competence .
 provide opportunities for learners to develop both accuracy and fluency.
 Link the different skills such as analyzing problem, preparing flow chart,
writing algorithms, writing Programmes, debugging the programmes and
executing the programmes together, since they usually occur so in the real
Sitiuation.
 let students induce or discover Programming rules.
Section Five
5. Resources and Equipments
Briefly list the didactic resources (i.e. official textbook/s as well as
supplementary materials and equipment) that are available at your institution or you
have made or provided and which you consider are appropriate to facilitate the
students' learning process.
Section Six
6. Evaluation
Take the Curriculum Guidelines document and carefully look at the
assessment indicators per skill for your target group. Then describe briefly the type of
evaluation you will carry out with your students (i.e. diagnostic, formative, and/ or
summative) according to State regulations and when it will be done (at the
beginning, middle or end of the first/second term, school year, etc.), as well as the
type of assessment you will carry out (i.e. formal/ informal) and the type of
assessment activities and / or instruments you will use (e.g. quizzes, presentations,
writing Programmes etc.)

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Characteristics of Year Plan
 The number of units to be covered as per the syllabus during the academic
year.
 The number of periods needed to cover each unit, the number of periods
allotted for Computer Science per week.
 The number of working days per term and for the year.
 The number of days allotted for project work, revision tests & examinations.
 The number of holidays during the academic year.
Advantages of Year Plan
 Year planning helps the teacher in planning for the entire course for the whole
of the academic year.
 It keeps the teacher on the right track.
 It enables the teacher to cover the syllabus within the allotted time planning
saves waste of time and energy.
 It helps the teacher in orderly and systematic teaching.
 It gives a lot of self-confidence to the teacher as she is sure of what is expected
of her during each period / week / month / term etc.
 It will help to carry out all the curricular and Co-curricular activities in time
without haste and anxiety.
It helps in allotting time for lab, projects, revision, tests and examinations etc
4.3.1 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
1. Year planning is done by a teacher at the of the year for the entire
course.
2. keeps the teacher on the right track.
3. helps the teacher in planning for the entire course for the whole of the
academic year.
4. Self-confidence is achieve by the teachers by using

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4.4 UNIT PLAN

Unit: (Preston) He defines a unit as “a large block of related subject matter as can be
over-viewed by a learner”.
A course of study can be divided into units. A unit is defined as the series of
related learning experiences built around one central topic. A unit develops a
generalization through the learning of related facts, concepts and views (or) view
points. Therefore a unit is a large segment of subject matter having a common theme /
idea.
Unit Planning: Unit planning is a part of year planning and it is a middle ground
between course / year planning and lesson planning. It is longer than lesson plan, but
shorter than course planning.
There are two types of units
1. Resource Units 2. Teaching Units
The Resource unit is intended to be a general guide in assisting the teacher to
enrich the teaching unit. It is more comprehensive, than the teaching unit. It is
according to the level of the knowledge of the teacher. It requires pedagogical skill for
presenting. Resource units are developed by the curricular experts and classroom
teachers.
The teaching unit is important and useful to the prospective or In-service
teachers.
A unit plan is basically a list or series of lesson plans designed around a
specific topic, project, content, etc, and among other reasons that apply for planning
in general, it is important for teachers to design one because a great deal of learning is
directly correlated to teachers' planning and preparation.
Designing a Unit Plan
Unit plans are consistent with State curriculum guidelines. Therefore, you
should be aware of the standards as well as the contents for the subject matter you
intend to write about in a unit.

111
  You must stick to a timeline to complete a unit.
 You should take some time to review what resources are already available to
you (for designing your Unit Plans you may unquestionably resort to your
Curriculum Specifications and the textbooks you receive).
 You should know about your students' needs and interests (through a
diagnosis and/or survey) as well as have pedagogical resources available
before you begin planning the lessons you choose.
 Once you review what resources you can resort to, you should create a
diversity of assessment tools to evaluate learning because you should ensure
students meet the objectives through both formative and summative
evaluation.
 After considering your students' needs and the timeline, select what may fit
their learning styles and use lessons and activities that motivate their curiosity
and interest.
 You can follow a standard Procedure to prepare a unit.
The Procedure may begin with the objectives but also include the
competences addressed, materials, lessons, assessment, resources, etc.
Components in a Unit Plan
1. Unit Title & Subject Area: The theme of your unit and subject you are teaching.
2. Communicative competence components: Briefly list the ones covered in this
unit plan.
3. Classroom/ Level: The classroom in which the subject is taught and the level
according to the Curriculum Guidelines.
4. Unit Rationale: Your rationale is your overall justification for the unit, and
basically .what you will have to do is to provide a paragraph explanation to describe
the value of the unit that is presented, the why the unit is important, how it will
benefit students and where it will fit in the curriculum. This is prepared by individual
teachers based on the students, school, community, and on curricular and
instructional objectives and needs.
5. Goals: They are also called long-term objectives and describe the purposes or
major concepts that will be taught. It is expected that from each goal, several specific
objectives could be pulled out. The goals will cover the entire unit whether it is 3
lessons or 8.

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6. Objectives: These come from the goals and represent the content areas or skills
that would be included on all of the lesson plans for the unit. They are more specific
than the goals. Objectives must be measurable. (Short-term or immediate objectives).
7. Content: Identify and organize the topics that are included in the unit.
8. Learning activities: The main methods/activities for teaching each goal. While not
as detailed as the instructional procedures in a lesson plan, they should contain all
key information. Example: display a power point presentation, introduce the Syntax
for writing a programme.
9. List of Sources: All sources consulted in preparation of the unit should be listed.
Remember multiple sources are expected.
10. List of Materials: List all materials needed to teach the unit that are not readily
available to the teacher every day.
11. Assessment: Identify the ways students' learning will be measured as well as how
students will receive feedback and list the strategies and instruments you will use.
(remember the way you measure students' learning will depend on what you want
them to learn—i.e. objectives—and the learning activities involved)
12. Explanation of how the unit plan addresses a particular student profile.
Demonstrate how your plan addresses the interests and needs of your students
(you may resort to the results you got from the administration of diagnostic tests at the
beginning of the school year because that may have provided you with some
information on your learners' strengths and weaknesses). The example for unit
planning is given below.
Topic: Fundamentals of Internet Computing
Objectives : Objectives must be written clearly explained. For an example, If we are
going to teach the unit Fundamentals of Internet Computing, we can consider
objectives as follows.
On successful completion of this unit students should be able to:
1. Understand the fundamental principles of computer systems and the Internet;
2. Design web sites;
3. Use simple client-side programming;
4. Understand the principles of user interface design and human-computer
interfaces.

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Learning Experiences: This module provides an introduction to the key concepts of
Internet computing. Starting with the fundamentals of computer systems and the
Internet, students progress to learn how to design web sites and how to utilize simple
client-side programming. Issues related to user interface design and human-computer
interfacing (HCI) are covered. Broader issues related to the use of the Internet for
Blogging and Social Networks are discussed. The practical element of the module
allows students to develop skills necessary for web site design using simple client side
programming.
Method & Materials
1. Method: Inductive, deductive, analytic, synthetic, Problem solving etc
2. Techniques: Drilling, Questioning, assignments
3. Materials: CAI, Chart, Model, Chart, Real Objects.
Evaluation
Formal Written Examination; Continuous Assessment
Feedback
The following can be given – Effective Computer Package
- Reteach
- Drilling
- Remedial teaching
Advantages of Unit Plan
 An unit plan should breakup a lengthy unit into smaller sub units so that pupils
can easily grasp the ideas.
 Without losing the continuity, a teacher can present a lesson, principles and
follow a systematic teaching.
 It helps the teacher to plan a variety of learning experiences keeping in mind
the individual differences, the nature of content and objectives to be achieved.
 The pupil can see various facts, principles and can able to relate them with the
unit.
 Unit planning has a proper provision for the diagnosis of the learning
difficulties of the students and subsequent remedial instruction.
 Unit planning paves the way for a proper and appropriate daily lesson
planning.

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4.4.1 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
5. The series of related learning experiences built around one central topic is called a

6. Unit plans are consistent with the guidelines of

7. A course of study can be divided into
8. The middle of year and lesson planning is

4.5 PREPARATION OF A LESSON PLAN

In education it is necessary to plan a lesson scientifically. In the teaching of

Computer Science ,writing a lesson plan is very important. It creates self-confidence
in the teacher. It saves a lot of time through careful organization. In a lesson plan, the
general instructional objectives and the specific instruction objectives must be started
clearly. These GIOs and SIOs determine the learning experiences to be provided.The
main steps in any lesson plan are a. motivation,b. presentation, c.application, d.review
and e. home assignment.
A lesson plan is an instructional outline prepared by the teacher in order to
impart systematic and planned information to the students in the class
It is obvious that a plan is needed for teaching. If a lesson plan is prepared
based on the instructional objectives it is known as an objective-based lesson plan.
Teaching consists of two parts viz., (a) Science part and (b) Art part. Science part of
teaching consists of preparation of lesson plan, preparation of instructional software
materials etc. Art part of teaching involves the execution of the lesson plan i.e.
teaching the lesson by following the lesson plan prepared and utilizing the software
appropriately. Therefore, both the parts of teaching need intensive practice and
training.
4.5.1 IMPORTANCE OF LESSON-PLAN
For constructing a lesson-plan, following elements are important—
1. Teacher should have capacity to write teacher-objective in a general or
behavioural form.
2. Teacher should have controlling distribution and content.
3. Teacher should have complete knowledge about use of teaching- methods

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 and teaching material and he also should know that how these can be
used effectively.
4. Teacher should have capacity to co-ordinate between teaching processes
in access models.
5. Teacher should also know how to construct circumstances of
inspection and evolutionary questions.
6. Teacher should know general comprehension of model of lesson plan.
4.5.2 LESSON PLAN WRITING IN COMPUTER SCIENCE
Objective-based lesson planning, which we are going to follow, consists of
four columns viz. specifications, content, learning experience, and evaluation. A
single lesson plan does not mean a single lesson. Even for a single lesson one can
write many lesson plans. Therefore, a lesson plan denotes a plan for a single
teaching unit. So, before writing a lesson plan one should choose the topic first and
should segment the subject matter on the basis of the instructional objectives viz.,
knowledge, understanding, application and skill.
Then every segment of the subject matter should be stated in behavioural
terms and every then and how the behavioural terms have to be measured by using
appropriate evaluation techniques. While writing a lesson plan one should try to
maintain the horizontal relationship among the four-column viz., . specification
column, content column, learning experience column and evaluation column. The
lesson plan, which you are going to prepare, should be flexible and should be natural.
It is only a tentative plan before teaching a lesson.
A sample objective based lesson plan for teaching a unit lesson in computer
science is given below for better understanding.
4.5.3 HERBARTIAN LESSON-PLAN
It is an ancient method of lesson-plan. This method is used from past time but
today its use is also not less. In mostly training institutions Herbartian lesson-plan is
used. This lesson-plan is centralized on content. It is a gift of classical human
organization theory. In this presentation is forced. Instead of interests, attitudes,
values and relations of student, teaching of memory level is important. In this rote
fiction is emphasized. Herbartian lesson-plan can be easily used in teaching of any
subject.

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Theoretical Foundation
Foundation of Herbartian lesson-plan is apperceptive mass theory. The
concept of this theory is that knowledge is taken from outside and it is stored. By
teaching, which relates new knowledge with previous knowledge learning becomes
effective and permanent.
Herbartian five-step process's different steps are described below-
1. Preparation—Teacher collects elements of content in his mind and arranges
them in a sequence.
2. Presentation—Teacher presents new knowledge by relating it with previous
knowledge of students. He does this presentation with the help of"
developmentory and comprehensive questions.
3. Comparison and Abstraction—Teacher establishes relationship between new
facts and previous facts.
4. Generalization—Teacher tries to tell elements used in more than one facts so
that he can conclude an act.
5. Application—Teacher represents such conditions, in which student can use his
learnt knowledge.
4.5.4 OUTLINE OF LESSON-PLAN
On the basis of these five steps, outline of lesson-plan is developed. Main points
of this are as following:
1. Subject, topic, class, section, time period and date.
2. General objective.
3. Specific objective.
4. Introduction
5. Objective statement.
6. Elucidation.
7. Development Question.
8. Black-board summary.
9. Recapitulation question.
10. Home-work.
In Herbartian lesson-plan, these points are followed. Description of these
points are as follows—

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1. Subject, Class and Topic etc.—It is limitation and specification of lesson-plan.
First of all topic is chosen. On which level teaching should highly done; date of
teaching, class and section etc., are decided early. In which school, teaching will be
done, is also described.
2. General Objectives—General objectives are determined on the basis of first
points. General objectives of language, science, mathematics ,Computer Science and
social subjects are different. By use one topic for different levels of a subject its
general objectives are different. Lesson-plan helps in achievement of general
objectives, but by teaching of a time period only specific goals can be achieved.
3. Specific Objectives—With the help of a lesson-plan, specific objectives related to
general objectives can be achieved, social subjects gets facts and information by
lesson-plan. By teaching, language skill gets developed. By science, Computer
Science and mathematics, efforts are consulted and reason-effort develops the
understanding capacity. In this way on, the basis of topic of subject, specific
objectives are determined.
4. Introduction—How will teacher teach his lesson its introduction is being ready.
In introduction teacher brings students on new topic with the help of questions based
on pre-knowledge. In this much intelligence is needed. In starting of lesson, help is
taken by introductory questions.
5. Objective Statement—Teacher takes out topic from students with the help of
introductory questions and gives statement of topic that we shall discuss this topic
today.
6. Developmentory Question— after objective statement when teacher starts
lesson, then to represent the subject he asks questions, which are called development
questions. Such questions are important for logical development of lesson.
7. Elucidation— when student did not give clear answer of development
questions, then teacher gives his statement for elucidation of that.
8. Black-Board Summary—Teacher writes teaching points and their arrangement
on black-board. In maths, science, language teaching, teacher also writes hand to hand
and in social subjects black-board summary is given at the end
9. Recapitulation Questions—Students also copies black-board summary on their
note-books. After it black-board summary is rubbed by teacher. To revise topic and
exercise, he ask questions. With the help of these questions, knowledge becomes solid
and in a well arranged form is given to opinions. With these question, it is known that
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how much students I have learnt.
10. Home-Work—Teacher also gives home-work to student on the basis lof topic.
Its aim is also to exercise and revise, by home-work students also !gets
opportunity to assimilate.
4.5.5 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
When a child borns, then there is no zoologically difference between him and
an animal but rapidly according to social validities he converts in social personality.
Really only social behaviour is a difference between an animal and human.
This social behaviour makes a human superior than an animal. Behaviour of
animal human, activities by inmate dispositions, whenever of social human activates
according of social validities.
Society consigned liability of this behaviour modification to schools. Even this
behaviour modification is teaching, which is done by internal communication between
teacher and student in schools.
Before studying about objectives of teaching computer science, we should
know, what difference between aims and objects is. Generally student think that aim
and objects have same meaning.
To declare the difference between these both objectives of teaching computer
science can be divided in following two parts.
1. General objectives or aims
2. Specific objectives
General objectives or Aims
In general language, general objectives are also called aims or goals, goals are
ideal. Its area is infinite, generally it is impossible to achieve it in full form. For
achievement of goal whole school, society and nation is responsible.
Anerudite said, “Aims or Goals are broad general statements, some lines
vague in meaning, which generally shape the character of educational programme”.
For example, student should use scientific view point to solve daily life
problems; development of logical capacity of student; to make changes in education.
Causes of Formulation of Goals
Formulation of goals is done for following reasons-
(i) To establish an over all environment of the class-room and
(ii) To help the teacher as a guide for writing special behavioural objectives in his
class-room.

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Specific objectives
Specific objectives are determined for different subjects and sub-subjects.
These objectives are used not only for teaching, but also for checking of student's
acquisition.
Specific objective is a complete statement divided in two parts. Its first part is
related with desired behavioural change of students and second part is related with
contents, by which the change in behaviour of student is to occur. First part and
second part sequentially can be called modification part and content part. Specific
objectives have a finite area and these can be achieved in full form.
4.5.6 CONCEPT OF TEACHING
By behavioural analysation, whole process of teaching can be displayed in
form of a Tripolar Process.
Goal
Educational Objectives (EO)

Means Evidences
Learning Experience (LE) Change of Behaviour (CB)
Before teaching the class, a teacher decides some goals, and to achieve these
goals. He determines some mediums, in which mainly teaching techniques and
syllabus occurs. In the end, he collects evidences, which tells him the limitations of
object achievement, by which feed back of used teaching-objects and teaching
technique is got by teacher. This tripolar process of teaching is called ‘Evolutionary
Approach'.
This type of evolutionary approach is a social and psychological process,
which gives base to entire teaching process.
Technically three poles of this tripolar process can be displayed in form of
figure shown as follows.
First pole of this triangle is related with teaching the class. Second pole is
related with learning experience or desired changes occurred by using this. These
changes are according to objectives. Third pole is related with evaluation, in which

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evidences are collected to confirm the limits of objective achievement through
examination.

Educational Objectives

Learning
Experience Evaluation
In this way these poles are not only related but also dependent with each
other. This is, the process by which it is confirmed that till which limit objectives has
achieved, learning experience given in classroom be effective till which limit goals of
teaching has achieved, it is unremitting process and is an undivided part of complete
teaching approach, in which teacher collects the evidences about change of behaviour
of a student and describes it.
First Phase-objectives
In liberal form, object is a statement which indicated desired behavioural
changes. These are of two types –
(i) Educational objectives
(ii) Teaching objectives
Educational objectives are related with those desired behavioural changes
whose area is broad, comprehensive and general. Its base is philosophical. These are
not directly connected to learning process, even these are related with complete
education. Its nature is formal, indirect and theoretical. To achieve these a long time
period is needed.
Teaching objectives are related with those desired behavioural changes whose
area is limited, determined and special. Its base is psychological. It is directly related
with learning process. These are practical, creative and direct. These can be achieved
in short time period of school.
In definition of educational objectives, B.S. Bloom cleared it in this way,
“Educational objectives are not only the goals towards which the curriculum is shaped
and towards which Instruction is guided, but they are also goals that provides the
detailed specification for the construction and area of evaluation techniques”.

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 NCERT cleared the teaching objectives in this way, “An objective is a point or
end view of something towards which action is directed, a planned change ought
through any activity, what we set out to do”.
4.5.7 MEANING OF THE TERM INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES
At the time of imparting instructions i.e. teaching learning of a particular
lesson unit or sub-unit of the object computer sciences, a teacher has to place before
him some definite and very specific objectives for being attained within a specified
classroom period and resources in hand. Through these so specific classroom
teaching-learning objectives, known as instructional objectives, a teacher tries to bring
desired changes in the behaviour of his pupils in this way, the term instructional
objectives in relation to the teaching of computer sciences may be defined as a group
of statements formulated by the teacher for describing what the pupils are expected to
do or will be able to do once the process of classroom instruction is over. Infect,
instructional outcomes is the teaching learning product in the form of behavioural
changes in the pupils that a teacher expects as a result of his instruction related with a
particular lesson/unit of sub-unit of the subjects. Instructional objectives are thus
nothing but descriptions of the pupils terminal behavior expected out of the on going
classroom instruction.
Taxonomy of Instructional Objectives
The credit of analysation of teaching objectives in the knowledge field goes to
Dr. B.S. Bloom (Chicago University) in 1956, who provided base to educational
evaluation and syllabus change.
Krethwall, Bloom and Mesiha analysed teaching objective in emotional side in
1964. Similarly, taxonomy of teaching objectives of psycho-physical side is not
available, either Simpson's trial in this reference is remarkable.
In India, Regional College of Educational, Mysore represented an advanced
form of teaching objectives, on the basis of taxonomy established by Bloom, which is
knows as R.C.E.M system (Regional College of Educatinoal, Mysore, system).
Really taxonomy of Instructional objectives is a serialized categorization of
human mind development in any form. Even educational taxonomy is a category of
objectives used in different fields of education. This categorization is dependent on
principles of education and psychology. By psychological point of view even
educational taxonomy is a serialized categorization of human behaviour. The most

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important use of educational taxonomy is to make accuracy of communication in
educational objectives and related works.
In the field of education, the absence of clear definition of terms and concepts
is always a subject of critics. Taxonomy of Instructional objectives can be much
useful to remove unclearness of accuracy for communication.
Taxonomy of instructional objectives can make development in reference of
regularity and consolidation of human development, as a result syllabus deciders can
get help for determination of education level of subject matter. This condition is also
for evaluation. For categorization of educational objectives, many trials were done. As
result in primary form it was divided in two categories-
(1) General objectives
(2) Specific objectives
(1) General Objectives : General objectives are those, which are totally, related to
teaching process; for example, problem solving, critical thinking and creativity in
computer science.
(2) Specific Objectives : Specific objectives are generally limited to concepts and
principle of subject for example, programming language, hardware, application
programmes etc. in computer science come in this category.
Teachers expected general objectives as desired goals, but its unclearness did
not provide help in use of these.
To remove this problem in 1948 a group of psychologists tried for
categorization of some elements of human behaviour. This group constructed a
taxonomy, which base was From Concrete of Abstract' and ‘From Simple to
Complex'.
4.5.8 BASIS OF DEVELOPING LEARNING EXPERIENCE
1. For evidence collection of goal-achievement firstly a specific form should be
given to terminal behaviours after identification.
2. Desired behaviour should be defined clearly, by which use of unclear dictionary
can be ignored.
3. Conditions for acquisition should be recognized.
4. After specialization of standards compare to know the volume of change.
Action verbs help to write objectives in behavioural form. But B.S. Bloom and
RCEC System named these mental abilities or specification.

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4.5.9 WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES IN BEHAVIOURAL TERMS
To write instructional objectives in behavioural terms, following steps can be
used.
1. To formulate objective

Objectives Action Verbs

Cognitive Domain
Knowledge To Recall, To Recognise, To Define, To State,
To Write, To list, To Select.
Understanding or Comprehension To Explain, To indicate, To Formulate, To
Present, To Judge, To Classify, To Select, To
Translate, Cite Example
Application To Compute, To assess, To Demonstrate, To
Construct, To Use, To Predict
Analysis To Divide, To Conclude, To Compare, To
Discriminate, To Separate, To Justify.
Synthesis To Argue, To Discuss, To Generalise, To
Summarise, Establish Relationship
Evaluation To Decide, To Identify, To Criticize, To
Defend, To Avoid, Detect Error.
Affective Domain
Receiving To Listen, To Accept, To Visulize, To Select
Responding To Answer, To Develop, To List, To Select
Valuing To Accept, To Influence, To Participate, To
Recognise, To Indicate, To Decide, To
Compare.
Conceptualization To Differentiate, To Relate, To Demonstrate, To
Analyse, To Compare
Organization To Correlate, To Judge, To Determine, To Form
Characterization To Revise, To Change, To Accept, To Integrate.
Psychomotor Domain
Perception To Construct, To Sketch
Set To Design
Guided Response To Inentify, To Fix
Mechanism To Mend, To Drill
Complex Overt Response To Connect, To Create, To Change, To Locate.

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4.5.10 MODEL LESSON PLAN
Trainee teacher Name: Subject: Computer Science
STD: XI Date:
School: Unit: Introduction to Computer
Sub unit: Generations of Computer
Duration: 45Minutes
General Instructional Objectives
The student
1. acquires knowledge of calculators,
2. acquires knowledge of computer,
3. acquires knowledge of parts of a computer and characteristics,
4. acquires knowledge of terms Bits and Bytes,
5. acquires knowledge of classification of computers,
6. acquires knowledge of generations of computers and different types of
computers.
7. understands
a) the reason why the computer has lot of applications.
b) the differences between analog and digital computer
8. applies the scientific knowledge to calculate the total number of bits in 1 kilobyte.
9. develops skill in selecting a suitable electronic component accurately from
the diagram shown.
10. develops attitude towards computer science by showing curiosity in selecting a
suitable electronic component from the chart shown.
Specific instructional objectives:
The student,
1. recalls the terms a) Calculator b) Computer
2. recognize the
a) definition of computer
b) main parts or characteristics of a computer
c) terms Bits and Bytes
d) classification of computers & computer generation
e) different types of computers
3. gives reasons, why a computer has lot of applications
4. differentiates between analog and digital computer
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 5. shows curiosity in selecting the suitable component from the
chart Teaching aids
1. Blackboard
2. Chart
3. Diagrams
4. Real objects
5. Flash cards

Specifications Teaching Teaching and Learning Experiences Evaluation

aids
Stage I : Motivation
Recalls Calculator What is the name of the of the device used to solve
mathematical problems?

Students said: calculator sir, mobile phone sir

Recalls Computer Mention any other name or other name of the

device used to perform calculations with speed
and accuracy
Stage II : Presentation
Recognizes Teacher explains what a computer is. What is a computer?

Computer is an electronic machine or device for

storing, processing and analyzing data, following a
set of instructions given to it by humans – A few
applications of computers
Why do you need it?
Recognizes (diagram) With the help of a Chart the main parts of a Mention a few
computer are explained examples for output
devices.

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Recognizes Chart The functional components of computers are What are the input
explained. devices?

Input unit: Punch card, Tape reader etc –

CPU: Control Unit – Arithmetic and logical unit What are the input
Memory unit – output unit Card punch machine - devices?
magnetic tapes - visual display unit - Printers -
Graph Plotters etc.
output unit Card punch machine - magnetic
tapes visual display unit - Printers - Graph What are the
Plotters etc characteristics
Chart of a computer?
Characteristics of computers
High speed - Greater Accuracy Storage
capacity- Automation, Versatility, Endurance
Calculates The teacher explains the storage capacity of the How many bites are
computers: equal to 1 Kilobyte?
8 bits = 1 BYTE
1024BYTE = 1 KB
1024KB = 1MB
1000MB = 1GB
Recognises chart The teacher explains the classification of How are computers
computers: classified?
Supercomputer, main frames, min-micro systems
depending on speed, word length and capacity of
memory
Recognises Chart The teacher explains the generations of Choose the
computers: generation-I correct answer
generation - vacuum tube - ENIAC (Electronic from the following:
Numerical Integrator and Calculator) by Eckert The first generation
and Mauchly in 1946 EDVAC uses
(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer) a) Vacuum tubes
UNIVAC-I, UNIVAC- II (Universal Automatic, b) Transistors
Computer)
c)IC
IBM in 1953
d) Modulators
Second generation - Transistor
Generation III - Integrated circuit units 1960-1970
speed - cost it reduced small size
Generations - IV
VLSI - micro-processors

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 Generations – V
Artificial intelligence

Recognises Chart Teacher explains the different types of computers: What is a digital
Analog computer - Digital Computer - and Hybrid computer?
Computer – Analog - Greek word means similar-
similarities in the form of current or voltage
Stage III - Review

The teacher ask questions to the students Computer-

definition - parts
of computers -
characteristics -
classification of
computer -
generations -
types of
computer -
Analog - Digital
- Hybrid.

Stage IV : Assignment
1. Write an essay on 'Generations of computers?
2. Explain the different types of computers.
3. With a block diagram explain the main parts
of a Digital computer system.

4.5.11 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
9. ‘To Classify' is the action verb for the objective
10. ‘To Predict' is the action verb for the objective
11. Receiving, Responding and Valuing are the objectives in the domain
12. Perception, Set, Guided Response and Mechanism are the objectives of
domain

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4.6 METHODS OF TEACHING
Introduction
The method of teaching refers to the regular ways or orderly procedure
employed by the teacher in guiding the pupils, in order to accomplish the objectives
of learning situations. Different methods of teaching have been proposed by different
educational thinkers in education. It is desirable for the teacher to know all of them,
so that he can make a rational choice for himself in a given situation. The various
methods of teaching Computer Science are as follows:
1 Lecture
2 Demonstration
3 Lecture-demonstration
4 Problem solving
5 Project method
6 Scientific method
7 Analytic method
8 Synthetic method
4.6.1 LECTURE METHOD
The lecture method has been the earliest known methods of instruction. Books
were not available then and manuscripts were rare and hence lecture method was used
for instruction.
Lecture means teaching a lesson in the form of speech or talk. The teacher
delivers a lecture on a particular topic and the students keep listening in an idle
manner.
Characteristics of lecture method
 Useful for higher classes
 It is easy, brief and attractive for teacher
 More information can be given in a short time period
 More number of students can listen and prepare notes
 The argumentative flow of the subject is restricted
 The flow of thought is maintained and the teacher tells about many new
things
 It is a convenient method for the teacher
 The teacher is always alert

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Advantages
 The proper orientation of the subject can be presented. The general outline of
the scope of the subject can be brought out.
 Many facts can be presented in a short time in an impressive way
 It is possible to stimulate interest in the subject
 Spoken word has greater weight than books
 The language may be made suitable to all the members of the audience
 It facilitates inter-disciplinary approach to topics
Limitations
 It is waste of time to repeat the matter already present in books.
 The teacher to make the lecture impressive may care more for manner and
style rather than matter
 If the lecturer is very fast, the pupils cannot easily take notes and follow the
lecture
 Lectures decrease the initiative of pupils and their problem solving attitude
 Dictation would become prominent in the course of lectures
To make a lecture effective:
 Matter of the lecture should be systematized and summary developed at each
stage
 The objective, the outline of the lecture should be emphasized
 The speed must be measured and considered
 Important points must be emphasized by loud and impressive statements
 The manner of presentation should be cheerful
 Pronunciation must be as far as possible approaching the correct one
 Pupils should be encouraged to take notes
Suggestions
 Make use of the black board where and whenever required
 Proper teaching aids should be used
 More stress should be laid on the principles of generalization
 The students should be given work to do so that they make use of their
previous knowledge and acquire more knowledge on basis of their hardwork
and experience

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  In order to keep them active, questions should be put up to the students from
time to time
4.6.2 DEMONSTRATION METHOD
In this method, the spoken word is supplemented with demonstration using
varied aids resulting in auditory and visual learning. It involves getting answers from
pupils as the demonstration proceeds gradually in stages.
By the help of this method, the student himself makes observation and
acquires permanent and true knowledge. The student makes observations of nature in
gardens, homes, in the groups, in the lab at schools and acquires firsthand knowledge.
The teacher only encourages to make observations and students act accordingly.
Characteristics
 This method helps students to seek, think, give logic and to convey their
thoughts independently
 The students are able to learn the similarities and dissimilarities of objects
clearly and easily
 The work of the teacher is made easy
 The acquired knowledge is from natural resources and is thus permanent
 Develops the interest of the students in the subjects
Advantages
 Much matter can be covered in a short time
 Much time and energy of pupils and teacher is saved
 Only one set of apparatus is required , so it is economical
 Delicate and dangerous experiments which requires delicate manipulations can
be performed by the teacher only with pupils as active observers
 Demonstration will stimulate the thoughts of pupil
 By the expression of the pupils, the method of delivery of lecture could be
varied to suit the needs of the learner
Precautions
 All the aids must be arranged in the order in which they are to be used
 The experiments must be simple and effective and must not take a long time
 The simple experiments should be chosen in preference to complicated ones
 When effects are of small magnitude, they must be shown on a magnified
scale, with suitable aids

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  Any demonstration made must be with a purpose and the definite objective
clearly stated
 All the pupil should be able to see the demonstration
 Pupils also may be made to assist in the demonstration
Common errors in good demonstration
 The apparatus may not be ready for use
 The teacher may not be able to link demonstration with subject matter
 Black board may not be properly used
 The language used may be difficult
 Questions may not be of the right type
 The teachet may not be able ti fix the attention of students
Demerits
 Students are devoid of doing practical work
 It seems that all students see same facts but it does not mean thay follow it
This method can prove to be the best method if the teacher takes active
participation of students.
Suggestions
 Prior to encourage the students for observation, the teacher himself should
check and observe things properly
 Interest and curiosity should be developed in students prior to making
observations
 The students should be given full freedom during observaion
 when required the teacher should pinpoint and put up questions
4.6.3 LECTURE -DEMONSTRATION METHOD
This method of teaching is sometimes also referred to as lecture-cum-
Demonstration method. This is considered to be a superior method of teaching in
comparison to lecture method. In lecture method the teacher speaks and students
listen so it is one way traffic of flow of ideas and students are only passive listeners.
This one sidedness is the major drawback of lecture method. A teaching method is
considered better if both teacher and taught are active participants in the process of
teaching. This particular aspect is taken care of in demonstration method.

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 This lecture-demonstration method is used by the Computer science teachers
for imparting Computer Science education in class-room. By using this method it is
possible to easily impart concrete experiences to students during the course of a
lesson when the teacher wants to explain some abstract points. This method combines
the instructional strategy of ‘information imparting' and ‘showing low'. This method
combines the advantages of both the lecture method and the demonstration method.
4.6.4 PROJECT METHOD
 This method is based on the principle of learning by doing, and learning by
living.
 In this method, school curriculum and contents of studies are considered from
pupil's point of view
 It also illustrates problem solving method
 It is a pupil centered method
 The students work out problems selected by themselves, investigate them and
solve them in groups or individually
 The teacher act as a guide and instructor
Definition
“A project is a problematic act carried to completion in its natural setting”
- Stevenson
“A project is a whole-hearted purposeful activity proceeding in social
environment”
- Kilpatrick
“It is a unit of activity in which pupils are made responsible for planning and
purposing”
-Parker
Steps involved in a Project
1. Providing a situation to propose a project
Many opportunities should be given to students to express their ideas and to
have discussions among themselves. While choosing a problem the teacher should
know that it is real need of students.
2. Planning
The whole project should be planned with common discussions between
students and teacher. Every student should be encouraged to take part in discussion.

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3. Executing
Work should be distributed according to age, interest and ability of every
student. The teacher should see that every child is involved in the completion of the
project.
4. Evaluating
When the project is complete, students should have a discussion over it with
the help of teacher. Deficiencies and weak points should be discussed.
5. Recording
The complete record of the project should be kept i.e. how they planned, what
were their duties, to whom they were assigned, how they discussed the project, the
solutions and the short-comings were recorded.
Merits
1. It is based on three laws of learning i.e. law of readiness, law of exercise, law of
effect
2. It develops among students self confidence
3. Correlation of various subjects is achieved
4. Problem solving method is stressed
5. Learning travels from hand to head and is therefore retained for a longer time
Demerits
1. It is time consuming
2. Work load on teacher is increased a lot
3. There is no provision for drill and practice
4. It is expensive
Criteria of selecting a project
1. It should have definite educational value
2. It should have according to need and ability of students
3. It should be selected by students
4. It should provide purposeful activity
5. It should be challenging
Role of the teacher
1. The teacher should act as a friend and a guide
2. The teacher should provide work to every child
3. Freedom of thought and work should be provided
4. The teacher should see that pupils do not lose interest in the project
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5. The teacher should suggest books for study
4.6.5 ANALYTIC METHOD
1. Analysis means breaking up of subject matter
2. It starts from unknown to known facts
3. This method helps to break the complex problem into simpler ones
4. The students by this method develop the ability to attack upon the problem and
analyze it into simpler form
5. The spirit of investigation and critical reasoning is developed by this method
6. It increases individual thinking
7. New facts are discovered by the objective approach of students
8. It is scientific approach to learning
9. This method is formational. It helps to develop some skills among the students
Merits
1. This is an objective method, so no doubts are left in the minds of the students.
2. The students develop original thinking and reasoning. The spirit of inquiry is
inculcated.
3. It develops practical abilities among students.
4. It develops democratic atmosphere as students discover the facts and the teacher
acts as their guide and friend.
5. It decreases the possibilities of rote memorization.
6. There is always relationship between the student and the teacher.
7. It makes student active participant in teaching learning process.
Demerits
1. It demands too much from the students
2. It is suitable for small children.
3. It is a lengthy method. The whole syllabus cannot be covered by this method. It
involves trial and error.
4.6.6. SYNTHETIC METHOD
1. It binds different known facts into unknown facts.
2. It leads from known to unknown facts
Merits
1. It is a concise and fast method. The syllabus can easily be covered by this
method.
2. Known facts are displayed

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3. It can be used even for small children
4. It requires memorization
5. No trial or error is there as there is no objective approach
6. It does not demand much from the students
Demerits
1. It develops many doubts in the minds of the students
2. It does not develop the ability to investigate and attack a problem or individual
learning
3. It is not a scientific way of learning
4. It encourages rote memorization
5. Intimate teacher student relationship is not developed
6. The students remain inactive
4.6.7 SCIENTIFIC METHOD OR PROBLEM SOLVING METHOD
Any method of solving a problem systematically and scientifically may be
called scientific.
Scientific method refers to a techniques for investigating phenomena,
acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. To be
termed scientific, a method of inquiry must be used.
A scientific method consists of the collection of data through observation and
experimentation, and the formulation and testing of hypotheses.
Steps in Problem solving:
(1) Ability 'to sense the problem and emergence of problem:
 This arises due to students reading of lessons, their interest during teacher's
discussions in the class, through field trips or by seeing film.
 At this stage the teacher can raise a problem by providing situation.
 It should be however, confirmed by the teacher.
 That problem is purposeful and is, according to the need and requirements of
students; availability of material relevant to the problem should also be
considered.
 It should be from majority of students' side and better if it fits into curriculum.
(2) Defining the problem:
 Here the students need much of teacher's help, as children may find it difficult
to define the problem themselves.
 Different statements can be given about it.

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  The most essential feature of the defining of problem is that students should
understand the problem and grasp it.
(3) Collecting the data:
 When the students have defined the problem they know the possible solution.
 Now the teacher should help the students to collect the relevant data.
 They may have to read extra books, draw charts, prepare models, make field
trips.
 They can discuss it with experts.
 It should be by observation, study and experiment.
(4) Interpreting the data:
 When the students have collected the data, they have now to eliminate
unnecessary material.
 This is an important and bit difficult step and it is possible only if the students
do not divert their attention from the main problem.
 This step involves thinking and reasoning
 Judgement should not be given till sufficient data are collected and organized
in a systematic way.
 The teacher should prepare the students in such a way that they do not quickly
jump to conclusion.
(5) Consideration of evidence leading to formation of conclusions:
 After the data are collected and organized, the students should move towards
final solutions.
 The teacher should see that students should complete this step by their essential
thinking.
 Now individual differences will appear as some bright students will find
solution easily whereas others may take longer time.
(6) Testing Conclusions or verification of solution
 The results are to be verified to prove their correctness.
 This can be done by applying the results to other situations or some
demonstration can be done by the teacher.
However, the scientific method involves the following steps:
 Sensing the problem.
 Defining the problem.

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  Analyzing the problem.
 Collecting relevant data concerning the problem.
 Interpreting the data.
 Formulating the hypothesis,
 Selecting and testing the most likely hypothesis
 Drawing conclusion, to make generalization
 Application of the final results to the new situation
Advantages of the problem solving method
 The students discover new knowledge
 They learn how to act in a new situation
 They learn how to make certain things
 They learn how to get out of a difficult situation
 They learn to verify opinion
 It provides opportunity to satisfy their curiosity
 They become able to limit and define problems
 They learn to invent new devices
 They learn to create new ideas
 It develops the habit of extra study
 It takes into account the individual difference
Procedures of Problem Solving
The following two procedures are for problem solving:
(i). The inductive approach
(ii). The deductive approach
4.6.8 THE INDUCTIVE APPROACH
This method requires the study and careful examination of particular facts to
deduce a general principle. Pupils are actively engaged in thinking for themselves and
discovered new rule, generalization etc.The students draw generalization from
particular principles, from observed rules and from instances.
Steps involved
1. Sensing the problem
The pupils define the problem
2. Analysing the situation
The situation is analysed and relevant information is sought. It may require
book study, references, making field trips etc.

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3. Organising information
Under the guidance of the teacher the pupils organise the information
collected
4. Framing solution
The children frame possible solutions. The teacher acts as guide.
5. Eliminating
Possible solutions are kept and others are eliminated
6. Verification
The solutions are applied to the situation and results are checked. The
procedure is related until a correct solution is discovered.
Merits
 It promotes mental ability
 The pupils actively participates in the learning process
 Self learning is promoted
 Children learns to solve the problem, attack them and plan them to reach the
generalisation.
 The process gives the students opportunity to be self dependent
Demerits
 It is an incomplete method
 It is slow and a lengthy method
4.6.9 THE DEDUCTIVE APPROACH
It suggests the verification of general principles, rules, definitions already
learnt. It should be noted that this method has two functions to perform:
 Drawing inferences from general principles studied
 Explaining particular facts with the help of general principles, laws etc.

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Steps
The following steps are used in it
1. Understanding the problem
The pupils understand the problem. They define and formulate it
2. Collecting information
The pupils gather information about the problem
3. Reviewing
Principles, generalizations are reviewed to find facts which may be applied to
find a suitble solution, conclusion or result.
4. Drawing inferences
The principle, rule or generalization is applied to the case and inferences are
drawn that the problem falls under such and such principle.
5. Verification
The principle is applied to the case. If it solves the problem, it is accepted
otherwise the procedure is repeated to find the correct one.
Merits
 Teacher's work is simplified. He gives general principles and the students
have to verify them
 This is fast and economical
 This is suitable for small children who cannot prove the facts by themselves
 There is no danger of arriving at wrong and incomplete results
Demerits
 As ready made material is supplied, children are deprived of exploring the
facts themselves
 It encourages memorisation
 Self confidence is not encoureged
 It does not motivate the students as facts are not found by them

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Comparison of Inductive & Deductive approaches

Inductive Approach Deductive Approach

1. It leads from particular to general If leads from general to particular
concrete to abstract. abstract to concrete.
2. It used for establishing a law (or) a It is used for drilling.
theorem.
3. It is a lengthy approach. Shortcut approach
4. It develops creativity of the learners. It develops rote memory.
5. It is a time consuming approach It is a time saving approach
6. It is the forerunner of deductive It is the follower of inductive approach
approach
7. It creates interest among the learners. It It creates monotony among the students.
is a developmental process.

4.6.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
13. The project method is based on the principle of
14. method is based on the principle of ‘from Unknown to Known'
15. method is based on the principle of ‘from particular to general'

4.7 INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION

Individualized instruction is a method of instruction in which content,

instructional technology (such as materials) and pace of learning are based upon the
abilities and interests of each individual learner.
4.7.1 PROGRAMMED LEARNING
Introduction
Programmed learning is an educational innovation and auto instructional
device. It has been coined from principles of operant learning by B.F.Skinner. He
claimed that desirable changes can be brought out by giving a continuous feedback or
reinforcement for desired responses. It is also named as programmed instruction and
instructional technology.

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Characteristics of Programmed learning
 It is a teaching method and not a test. It helps the students in learning a
material
 It is not an audio visual aid. It is a part of educational technology
 It is not the solution of educational problems. It is a new instructional strategy
for the behaviour modification of the learner
 It cannot replace the teacher because only an effective teacher can prepare a
good programme
 It requires more creativity and imaginative efforts to develop highly
individualized instruction.
Principles of Programmed learning
1. Principle of small steps
The subject matter is broken down into a sequence of small steps. A student
can take a step at a time.
2. Principle of active responding
A student learns better if he actively participates in the lesson and he learns
best if he is actively responding while learning. It is an integral part of learning.
3. Principle of immediate confirmation
The student learns best if his response is confirmed immediately. The
confirmation provides the reinforcement to the learner.
4. Principle of self pacing
In programmed learning each student proceeds at his own rate. This principle
is based on individual differences in the process of teaching and learning.
5. Principle of evaluation
It helps students to learn and grasp the material given in each frame. The aim
of this arrangement is not to test the student but to improve the quality of programmed
materials through checking the number of errors at each step.
Types of programming
The following are the types of programming:
1. Linear Programming of B.F.Skinner
2. Branched programming of Norman Crowder
3. Mathetics programming of Thomas F.Gilbert

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Linear Programming
In the linear style, the subject matter is divided into very small steps, each of
which is called a frame. The frames are numbered. The student is allowed to cover
one frame at a time, responding to each one by one, getting feedback and going on in
a straight line fashion. Every learner goes through the same series of tasks. But
individual students may complete the programme at different rates according to their
respective abilities.
When the student has given his response, he confirms it with the correct
response provided in the programme. There is provision for self pacing. Therefore,
the linear programmed learning has all the principles mentioned below:
1. Information given in small steps
2. Active responding by the student at each step
3. Immediate knowledge of results
4. Self pacing

Branched Programming
The frame size and the amount of information given is larger that that of linear
programme. The student starts by multiple choice questions designed to test the
student's learning of the material.
If the student chooses the correct answer, he is told that his answer is correct
and he is led to the next learning item.
If the answer is wrong he has to go through a discussion where he is told what
was wrong with the answer. He is then taken to the original item and allowed to select
the right response again.

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Techniques in Branch Programme
There are two techniques in which branch programme can be arranged. They
are called Backward Branching and Forward Branching.
Backward Branching
The learner goes from first frame to second frame only if he makes correct
response. If he makes an error, he is led to a remedial frame where he is given some
more help in understanding the concept and in solving the solution by a better logic.
He will then be directed to the original frame number one. He reads again, answers
correctly in the light of remedial material received earlier. So the learner goes through
the same frame twice, once before the remedial material and secondly after the
remedial material.

Forward Branching
In this type, whether the learner is making correct response or wrong response,
he will always be going to new pages, progressing from page to page. When he makes
a wrong choice, he is directed to a remedial frame where his mistakes are fully
explained, probably followed by another parallel question, from which he goes to the
next frame in the main stream.

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Steps in programming
Topic selection
The programmer should select the most familiar topic, otherwise he has to
take the help of the subject expert. He should select a specified content or a small area
of the subject matter.
Content outline
Its outline may be prepared which should cover all the materials on plans to
teach. For this, the programmer has to refer to and examine relevant books and
materials.
Instructional objectives
It involves both task description and task analysis. Task description is the
description of terminal behaviours which the learner is expected to achieve. Task
analysis is the series of component behavious that he is required to acquire in the
process of achieving terminal behaviour.
Entry skill
The learner should have some pre requisite ability and skill to understand
properly the new programme. This programme cannot be prepared without proper
assessment of the entry skill.
Presentation of the material
Suitable format is to be decided for presenting the material from the
educational point of view. Then the programmed material should be presented in a
sequence of frames arranged as step towards terminal behaviour.
Student participation
Student participation is facilitated by presenting the programme in an
interesting format.
Terminal behaviour test
It is known as performance assessment. This provides the feedback to the
programme and shows the effectiveness of the instructional materials.
Revision
The programme may be revised on the basis of feedback. The instructional
materials may be edited and modified according to the needs and requirements of the
pupil.

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Benefits
 To help students to learn by doing
 To provide the situation to learn at his own pace
 To help student to learn without the presence of a teacher
 To present the content in a controlled manner and in logically related steps
 To study by himself and assess his own performance by comparing it with the
given answer.
Conclusion
It is self instructional material developed on the basis of psychological
principles of teaching-learning. A rapid learner can cover the material quickly and the
slow learner may proceed at his own pace. The analytical thinking and self direction
of learners are also promoted through it.
4.7.2 COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
Computer-assisted instruction is a method of using computer technology in
teaching and learning. Computer-assisted instruction (CAI) is an interactive
instructional technique whereby a computer is used to present the instructional
material and monitor the learning that takes place.
Computer Assisted Instruction
 Computer Assisted Instruction is nothing but giving instructions with the help
of computers.
 In CAI, the activity of the learner is the most important attribute.
 CAI is nothing but learning with computers.
 It can be used to impart formal and non-formal education at all levels and also
in all areas
 CAI has been developed from the formal principles of Programmed
Instruction
 It is one of the types of Individualized Instruction
 CAI uses a combination of text, graphics, sound and video in enhancing the
learning process
Development history of CAI
The earliest computer-aided instruction was invented in 1925 - Pressey's
multiple-choice machine (developed by Sydney Pressey, Professor of Psychology at
Ohio State University). Pressey's multiple-choice machine presented instruction,

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tested the user, waited for an answer, provided immediate feedback, and recorded
each attempt as data.
In 1950, Norman Crowder developed a process for the U.S. Air Force in
which a CAI programme presented some content as text, tested the user, provided
some feedback, and then branched to corrective instruction or new information based
on supplied responses. Branching was thought to be an advance on Pressey's multiple-
choice machine
Much influenced by theories of behaviourism, in 1954 at the University of
Pittsburgh, Psychologist B. F. Skinner demonstrated a teaching machine for
"reinforcing" - and not just teaching - spelling and arithmetic with a machine. In
addition users, as reinforcement, may also access auditory material, listen to a passage
as often as necessary then transcribe it. The machine then reveals the correct text.
Students may listen to the passage again and again to discover the sources of any error
and self-correct themselves.
Developers applied principles of data transmission and reinforcement theory
to a variety of educational situations. Skinner used reinforcement theory to downplay
the role of punishment in changing behaviour. Instead, he was convinced that
behaviour could be altered by simply using positive and negative types of
reinforcement. Positive reinforcers presented rewards (good grade or congratulatory
comment) after the user achieved a desired behaviour. Negative reinforcers remove
aversive stimuli after the user failed to achieve a desired behaviour. Crowder applied
these ideas to ‘‘intrinsic programming'' so that a user's responses determined the
material to be presented next. The main advantage of intrinsic programming was that
it did not waste the time of the fast learner with unnecessary repetition.
Early computer based teaching system to enter commercial production was the
Self-Adaptive Keyboard Instructor (SAKI), developed by Gordon Pask and Robin
McKinnon-Wood in 1956.
A project "The Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations
(PLATO)" commenced at the University of Illinois in 1959. By the late 1960s, the
PLATO system was using time-sharing computers to allow large numbers of people
to interact with lesson modules created by the TUTOR programming language.
Subsequent developments in programmed instruction (CAI) arise from perspectives
influenced by behaviourism and cognitive science. While teachers have mostly used

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CAI for drill and practice especially in teaching mathematics and languages, there
have been other users of CAIs as well.
4.7.3 STEPS INVOLVED IN THE DEVELOPMENT CAI PACKAGE
The sequence of the steps involved in the development of instructional
materials may change according to the nature of the problem. The general steps
involved in the development of CAI can be:
1. Analysis Phase
2. Design Phase
3. Programming Phase
4. Validation Phase
Analysis Phase:
Selection of a unit: The computer should be used creatively and judiciously since it
demands more money resource than any other media.. If the teacher decided to write a
programme for CAI, she should bear in mind: Why do we use a computer (CAI)
approach. There should be a rationale for the use of a computer.
Content Analysis: The process of deciding the topic into sub-topics or sub-points is
called content analysis.
Entry Behaviour: The analysis of the target group is very essential. Once the content
and target group are analyzed, a teacher can sequence the concepts so that they are
logically arranged. The specifications of the learner's entry bahaviour are to be
finished.
Specification of objectives: It is like preparing a summary of the learning process in
terms of the competencies to be learnt.
Development of evaluation measures: A statement of objectives describes the
capability to be developed. If this description is clear, it helps us to design a test to
assess how well the learner has acquired that capability.
Design Phase:
The analysis phase is followed by a creative phase, which is the design phase.
Development of modular structure: The whole package would be a set of various
inter related modules. Though they are inter related, one can select modules to be
learnt or the pre test may help the learner in selecting appropriate modules.
Development of flow chart: The flow chart becomes the link between the
information and the screen presentation. It is a chart showing the relationship between
the events, activities, concepts.

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Designing frames: A module consists of a series of frames. Some of these will be
criterion frames, teaching frames and some testing frames.
Criterion frames: It acts as a check that the teaching frames achieve their objectives.
This is a test of the learner's knowledge.
Teaching frames: It contains all the information needed to complete the course.
Testing frames: These can be in the form of prompt or cue.
Preparing screens with reference to actual programming:
Once the frames are designed, they should be converted in a manner useful for
screen display. Therefore, screen layout forms are designed at this stage.
The essential characteristics for screen display includes
 Screen layouts
 Text
 Graphics
 Timing
 Animation
 Sound
 User control
Programming Phase
The course ware author may perform the programming task or it could be
performed by team of programmers. Generally, a teacher who does the instructional
design of the CAI package may not possess programming expertise. Such a teacher is
provided programming facility by special tools. These tools are called authoring tools.
Some fundamental features must be provided by any authoring system:
 Present text and questions on the screen
 Accept responses entered using a keyboard
 Analyze the responses
 Store details of responses and values of counters on a file
 Branch to other parts of the learning programme
 Provide feedback
 Interface with sub routines written in computer programming language
Validation Phase
It means testing the whole package. The following factors should be
considered while evaluating the package:

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  Content
 Accuracy
 Presentation
 Adherence to presentation standards and guidelines
 Use of the authoring language
It should be followed by evaluation by experts, testing, pilot study and field tryout.
4.7.4 MODES OF CAI
There are several kinds of CAI programmes that are available and the
important ones are as follows
1. Drill and Practice
2. Tutorial Mode
3. Simulation Mode
4. Discovery Mode
5. Gaming Mode
Drill and Practice
In this mode, the computer presents the learner with a series of exercises
which he or she does by giving some responses. It provides the learner some feedback
about the answer (i.e. responses) in the form of a congratulatory message if it is right,
or a corrective comment if it is wrong. Thus, CAI provides drill and practice with
repetition at a pace that can be controlled by the learner. The computer proceeds only
when mastery is achieved by the learner.
Tutorial Mode
In the tutorial mode, as in programmed instruction, information is presented in
small bits followed by questions. The learner's response is analyzed by the computer
and appropriate feedback is made available to him/her.
Simulation mode
Learning experiences regarding real life systems or phenomena are provided
to the learners through this mode. The thing that cannot be brought into a classroom
(real or imaginary) can be represented by simulations.
E.g: Aircraft, Fire safety
Discovery mode
This mode uses inductive approach to learning wherein the problems are
presented and the learner solves them through trial and error.

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Gaming mode
In gaming mode teaching can be imparted, through play or game.
Basic Assumptions of CAI
 CAI can be provided simultaneously even for 4000 students and thereby it
facilitates individualized instruction
 Immediate feedback can be provided to the learners
 Teachers can use the data in making the best teaching strategy for the learner
 It is suitable for all types of teaching and learning activities
4.7.5 BENEFITS OF CAI
 Self pacing -allow students to proceed at their own pace
 Reteaching and reinforcing
 Personalized feedback of instruction
 Multimedia helps to understand difficult concepts through multi sensory
approach
 Simulations
 Acquiring knowledge through games
 Great motivator
 One-to-one interaction
 Effective use of educational technology for drill and practice of basic skills
 Students learn more, and more rapidly in CAI courses
 Students feel more successful and motivated to learn and have increased
self Confidence and self esteem
 Teachers and administrators can use computers and information technologies
to improve their roles in the education process.
4.7.6 LIMITATIONS OF CAI
CAI has some limitations also, even though it has lot of advantages. They are
a. Lack of human qualities
b. Restricted text displays
c. Limited sensitivity to needs
d. A poor substitute for actual experience
e. Software limitations
f. Hardware limitations
g. Over use of multimedia may divert the attention from the content

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h. Lack of infrastructure
4.7.7 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN CAI
1. In CAI the role of the teacher has changed from the traditional method of
delivering lectures to a supervisor or a guide
2. No computer can replace a teacher, as teacher's role is very important in the
process of teaching and learning
3. Infact the CAI will definitely increase the scope and quality of contribution of
teachers in the society
4. In CAI, the teacher has to play many roles like computer engineer, lesson writer
and a system operator.
4.7.8 COMPUTER-MANAGED INSTRUCTION
Meaning
Computer-managed instruction is an instructional strategy whereby the
computer is used to provide learning objectives, learning resources, and assessment of
learner performance. It refers to the use of a computer system to manage information
about learner performance and learning resources options.
Computer-managed instruction (CMI) aids the instructor in instructional
management without actually doing the teaching.
Computer in Teaching Learning process
In computer managed instructions, the computer gathers, stores and manages
information to guide students through individualized learning experience.
At the computer is being used in administrative and management, these days,
such type of use of a computer is known as computer based learning, for example in
distributing the salaries of the teachers and other employers.
Computer is not used directly in teaching – learning process, but it used as an
helper in teaching learning process. If a teacher is made free by assigning his other
duties to the computer such as administrative, managemental activities, then he can
utilize his spare time in an effective manner in the classroom.

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4.7.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
16. The linear programming was introduced by
17. The programmed Instruction is based on psychological principle.
18. Simulation is one of the modes of
19. Self-Adaptive Keyboard Instructor (SAKI) was developed by Gordon Pask and
Robin McKinnon-Wood in the year
20. A The Programmed Logic for Automatic Teaching Operations (PLATO)" was
introduced in the year

4.8 LET US SUM UP

Pedagogy is a systematic approach to creating an educational process that will

lead to knowledge transfer - the appropriate reuse of knowledge and learning
experiences gained in one setting to a variety of new situations. An effective
pedagogy includes the content elements and the strategy for presenting that content;
how the elements are assembled to construct a scaffold for learning based on the
principles of cognitive psychology, and finally how to evaluate whether that process
is working as intended and leading to increased learning. There is a long standing
tradition that instruction is "delivered" in a classroom, from an expert standing at a
podium in front of the room while the students scribble madly trying to take down
everything of importance. But today's instructional technologies, coupled with
cognitive research findings are transforming teaching and learning.
One of the most powerful movements in education today is towards "learner-
centered" or "active learning". Active learning requires a shift from simply "delivering
instruction" to setting the conditions for the process of engagement, application,
syntheses and authentic understanding. Active learning can occur in any delivery
format - classroom, blended or online. The common denominator is that students are
"interacting" with their peers and real problems and issues in constructing knowledge
and understanding.

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4.9 UNIT- END ACTIVITIES
1. Describe the steps for annual planning
2. Describe steps for unit planning
3. What are the importance lesson plan?
4. Choose a topic of interest in Computer Science for XII Standard and write
down the objectives and specific objectives for the topic.
5. How would you use lecture-demonstration method for teaching Computer
Science for XI standard?
6. Describe the steps for problem solving method for teaching Computer Science.
7. Describe the steps for project method for teaching Computer Science.
8. How would you use analytic and Synthetic methods for teaching Computer
Science?
9. What are the differences between Inductive and Deductive methods for teaching
Computer Science?
10. What are the modes of CAI?\
11. Describe the steps for developing CAI package in Computer Science.
12. Describe the role of Teachers in CAI.
13. How would you use ICAI for teaching Computer Science?
14. What are the merits and limitations of CAI?
15. What do you mean by Computer Managed Instruction?

4.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. beginning 11.Affective
2. Year plan 12.Psycho-Motor
3. Year Plan 13.Learning by Activity
4. Year plan 14.Analytic
5. unit 15.Inductive
6. objectives 16.S.E.Skinner
7. units 17.operant conditioning
8. Unit planning 18.CAI
9. Comprehension 19.1956
10 Application 20. 1959

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4.11 SUGGESTED READINGS
Kochhar, S. K. (1992). Methods and techniques of teaching. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Pvt Ltd.
Oosterhof, A. C. (1990) . Classroom applications of educational measurement. Ohio:
Merrill Publishing.
Chauhan, S. S. (1985). Innovations in teaching learning process. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing house Ltd.
Stephen, M. A., & Stanely, R. (1985). Computer based instruction: Methods and
development. NJ: Prentice Hall.
Balaguruswamy. E., & Sharma, K. D. (1983). Computer in education and training.
NewDelhi: NI
Sidhu, K. S. (2006). Teaching of mathematics. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private
Ltd.
Vanaja, M. (2006). Educational technology. Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications Pvt.
Ltd.
Goel, H. K. ( 2005). Teaching of Computer Science. New Delhi: R.Lall Book Depot.
Krishnamurthy, R. C. (2003). Educational technology: Expanding our vision. Delhi:
Authors Press.
Kumar, K. L. (1997). Educational technology. New Delhi: Angel International (P)
Ltd.
Mangal S.K., Uma Mangal, (2009) Essentials of Educational Technology, PHI
learning Private Limited, New Delhi.

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 UNIT V INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Istructional Aids in the teaching of Computer Science
5.3.1 Functions of Instructional Aids
5.3.2 Characteristics of Instructional Aids or Aiudio-Visual Aids
5.3.3 Instructional Aids Used in Teaching:
5.4 Visual Media
5.4.1 Chalk Board
5.4.2 Charts
5.4.3 Graphs
5.4.4 Maps
5.4.5 General Principles to be followed In The Use Of Audio-Visual Aids
5.4.6 Qualities of Good Audio-Visual Aids
5.4.7 Place of Using Audio-Visual Aids
5.4.8 Advantages of Using Audio-Visual Aids
5.5 Interactive Whiteboards
5.5.1 Use Of Interactive Whiteboard
5.5.2 Interactive WhiteBoards to promote student learning
5.5.3 Interactive WhiteBoard activities in the Computer Science
Classroom
5.5.4 Interactive WhiteBoard activities which support oral skills
5.6 Power Point Presentation
5.6.1 Definition
5.6.2 Powerpoint For Teachers
5.6.3 Powerpoint For Students
5.6.4 Steps In Creating An Effective Powerpoint Presentation
5.6.5 Designing The Powerpoint Presentation
5.6.6 Enhancing Teaching and Learning with powerpoint

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 5.6.7 Engaging Students With Powerpoint
5.6.8 Merits Of Power Point
5.6.9 Demrits Of Powerpoint
5.6.10 Check Your Progres
5.7 Let us Sum Up
5.8 Unit- End Activities
5.9 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.10 Suggested Readings

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5.1. INTRODUCTION

You know that language has many limitations that may contribute to learning
difficulty. Sensory experience forms the foundation for intellectual activity. Sensory
aids effect an economy of time in learning. Generally modern educators recognize the
Audio-Visual materials whose basic values as concreteness, enrichment and dynamic
interest. Especially in the teaching of Computer Science, even the most abstract
concept can be presented to the pupils in a concrete way by means of more than one
aid. In this lesson you will be exposed to the use of Audio Visual Aids in the teaching
of Computer Science .
5.2 .OBJECTIVES

After Studying this unit, you will be able to

1. Understand the concept of Instructional aids
2. Indentify the types of . Instructional aids
3. Understand the Functions Of Instructional Aids
4. Explain the Procedure of Using Visual media
5. Understand the procedure of using Interactive White Boards
6. Explain the procedure preparing multimedia presentation
5.3 INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS IN THE TEACHING OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

Now a days knowledge is growing very fast. Our children are learning more
than what we have learnt. Hence the problem gets new dimension now. We teachers
have to teach more to more. That is, we have to teach more content to more number of
students. For solving this problem, the teacher has to use new teaching techniques
and Multi Media approach in his teaching so as to cater the needs of all students.
Audio-Visual Aids are intended to help the teacher to give more life and
impressiveness to his teaching. The various Audio-Visual Aids are intended to make
the subject matter more attractive to the pupils.
Some of them have a wrong notion about Audio-Visual Aids that it will isolate
the teacher. But it is a wrong assumption. Audio-Visual Aids will assist you in your
teaching, make your teaching as learning process more effective and meaningful. The
teacher will be the centre of the scheme.

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 Audio visual aids are sensitive tools used in teaching and as avenues for
learning. These are planned educational materials that appeal to the senses of the
people and quicken learning facilities for clear understanding
Definitions:
According to Kinder S. James: Audio visual aids are any device which can be used to
make the learning experience more concrete, more realistic and more dynamic.
According to Carter.v.Good: audio visual aids are those aids which help in
completing the triangular process of learning that is motivation, classification and
stimulation.
According to Edger Dale: audio visual aids are those devices by the use of which
communication of ideas between persons and groups in various teaching and training
situations is helped. These are also termed as multi sensory materials.
According to KP. Neeraja: an audio visual aid is an instructional device in which the
message can be heard as well as seen
GATE WAYS OF KNOWLEDGE
The eyes and ears are the most important of the gate ways of human
knowledge. What we see and hear we grasp quickly and understand perfectly. It is
said that 83% of our knowledge is acquired through the eye gate and 11% through the
ear gate, while the other three or smell, taste and touch account for 3.5% 1% and 1.5%
respectively. Education which makes full use of the ear gate and the eye gate is
spoken of as Audio-Visual Education, and whatever used in this respect is and Audio-
Visual Aid.
PSYCHOLOGY OF USING TEACHING AIDS
There is an old saying which reads:
i) I hear, I forget
ii) I see, I remember
iii) I do, I understand
I HEAR, I FORGET
The traditional teacher depended too much on verbal exposition. The pupil
hears and forgets. It is necessary particularly in science and technology that
knowledge gained by an individual is accurate, where considerable visualization of
objects and processes is needed and formation of accurate concepts is essential.

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I SEE, I REMEMBER
As a sensory organ, the eye is very highly developed when compared to other
sensory organs. Our eye has binocular vision. Hence it is quite natural that the
knowledge gained through the sense of sight is more vivid, accurate and permanent.
Hence what one sees, one remembers. As I have already mentioned 83% of our
knowledge is gained through our eyes.
I DO, I UNDERSTAND
When one is engaged in any practical activity, involving physical work (doing
practical work in the laboratory, workshop or in the field) all the senses are used to
perceive. Knowledge is through all the senses. Project method (do you remember? If
not, go through your package having Project Method) is an ideal method of making
the pupil acquire complete knowledge.
5.3.1 FUNCTIONS OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS
Instructional material must be seen in their relationship to teaching as a
whole and to the learning process as a whole, until the teacher understands the
relationship between audio visual material and teaching learning process.
Instructional materials are produced, distributed and used as planned
components of educational programs. It helps the process of learning that is
motivation, classification and stimulation. A.V. aids are multisensory materials which
motivate and stimulate the individual. It makes dynamic learning experience more
concrete realistic and clarity. It provides significant gains in thinking and reasoning.
I. Motivation
Instructional aids present the knowledge in the concrete form by attracting the
attention of the pupils. It provides motivation and curiosity to the pupils in learning
the subject. The pupils listen with attention and learn easily the lesson taught by using
Instructional aids than the traditional lecture method.
II. Principle Of Activity
The pupil gets various opportunities of doing various activities by using
Audio-Visual Aids. when Audio-Visual Aids are used while teaching a lesson, the
pupils talk, ask questions and discuss. This stimulates their various sense organs. As a
result of this, their interest in the lesson prevails and they learn the most difficult
things in a natural way without any difficulty.

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III. Clarification
The use of Instructional aids clarifies the most difficult contents. Its only
reason is that whatever the pupils hear, they also see it with their own eyes. After
seeing with their own eyes, all the confusions are eliminated and they acquire the
knowledge with precision.
IV. Fixation
With the help of Instructional aids ,knowledge is fixed firm in the pupils
minds.
V. Meaning Experience
With the help of Instructional aids, the lesson is taught to the pupils in a
concrete form. Every pupils tries to understand correctly by seeing and touching an
object. This makes the lesson easy, interesting and entertaining and all the pupils
acquire it happily
VI. Discouragement To Cramming
By using Instructional aids, the pupil take interest in the development of the
lesson and they acquire the knowledge by doing. This makes the learnt knowledge
definite and stabilized. There is no need of cramming anything.
VII. Increase In Vocabulary
The use of Instructional aids increases vocabulary of the pupils. Its reason is
that while using radio, telephone, television and cinema, new terms are used and they
acquire them.
VIII. Efficiency In Teaching
The use of Instructional aids causes efficiency in teaching. Also the teaching
becomes more effective. In other words, those minute things and difficult ideas which
a pupil is unable to understand with chalk and talk are followed easily by using
Instructional aids. it means to say, dry and disinteresting subjects and topics can be
made easy, interesting and precise by Instructional aids.
From the above discussion, it is clear that the Instructional aids make teaching
effective. It helps the pupils in learning with low I.Q.

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5.3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS OR AIUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
J.K. Davies has suggested the following five characteristics of Audio-Visual
Aids:
1. Audio-Visual Aids help in developing perception.
2. It helps in developing understanding. It enables the pupils to acquire correct
knowledge.
3. Audio-Visual Aids help in transfer of training.
4. These are helpful in acquiring knowledge and providing reinforcement.
5. Audio-Visual Aids help in developing retention. Its use facilitates assimilation
of knowledge.
5.3.3 INSTRUCTIONAL AIDS USED IN TEACHING
The Instructional aids used in the teaching can be classified into the following
ways:
a. Traditional Aids: Blackboard/chalkboard, books, periodicals.
b. Visual Aids: Objects, picture, map, figure, chart, posters, model, bulletin board,
flannel board, globe, graph or any other type of graphics such as| diagrams, cut-
outs, cartoons, etc.
c. Mechanical Aids:
i. Audio: Radio, tape recorder, teaching machine.
ii. Visual: Projector, epidiascope, film strips, motion picture, etc.
iii. Audio-Visual: Films, television, video, cassettes, etc. Visual Material
Aids: Use of Chart: The most commonly used types of charts include
outline charts, tabular charts, flow charts and organization charts. Flip
charts and flow charts are also being used.
5.3.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
1. The most important of the gate ways of human knowledge are ----------------
2. The multisensory instructional materials are ---------------
3---------------------Aids help in transfer of training.

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5.4 VISUAL MEDIA

Visual media serves to channel message from the source to receiver. The
message will be deliverd and poured into visual symbols.In addition,the function of
the visual media are to attract attention, serving to clarify ideas,illutrate or embellish
facts that may be quickly forgotten if not visualised. The Visual Aids are as follows.
Visual Aids: Objects, picture, map, figure, chart, posters, model, bulletin board,
flannel board, globe, graph or any other type of graphics such as| diagrams, cut-outs,
cartoons, etc
5.4.1 CHALK BOARD
A chalkboard or blackboard is a reusable writing surface on which text or
drawings are made with chalk or other erasable markers. Blackboards were originally
made of smooth, thin sheets of black or dark grey slate stone. Modern versions are
often green or brown and are thus sometimes called a green board or brownboard
instead.
A blackboard can simply be a piece of board painted with matte dark paint
(usually black or dark green). A more modern variation consists of a coiled sheet of
plastic drawn across two parallel rollers, which can be scrolled to create additional
writing space while saving what has been written. The highest grade chalkboards are
made of a rougher version porcelain enameled steel (black, green, blue or sometimes
other colours). Porcelain is very hard wearing and chalkboards made of porcelain
usually last 10-20 years in intensive use.
Blackboards and Whiteboards
Many people underestimate the value of a blackboard and whiteboards.
Boards are an effective teaching tool and visual aid. Some uses for boards include:
 Outlining the day's topics.
 Listing the major points of your lecture or lab.
 Summarizing ideas raised in class discussion.
 Spelling difficult names, words or other new terminology.
 Drawing diagrams, graphs and timelines.
 Showing formulas, computations, or steps in a proof.

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Merits
 Can validate students' responses.
 Can help you to pace your lecture.
 Very little can go wrong with this low-tech tool.
Demerits
 Can be difficult to write on and can be messy.
 Can lead to stream-of-consciousness-based teaching.
Tips for Using the Black or White Boards
 Practice writing on boards before you start teaching.
 Put information on the boards before class if possible.
 Bring a back up dry erase marker to class because the one in teh classroom
may not work properly.
 Use a chalk holder and have a cloth handy so that you can wipe chalk dust
from your hands.
 Break the chalk in half or hold it at a 45° angle in order to avoid squeaking.
 Read aloud what you have written on the board after you have finished writing
it and you are once again facing the students.
 Use the most visible part of the board for the most important points (the upper
left-hand corner of the board is often the most prominent spot).
Structure your board work. Use titles, headings, underlining, circling, boxing,
and capital letters to differentiate and emphasize items. You can also organize your
work by dividing the board into sections.
5.4.2 CHARTS
These visual symbols used for summarizing, comparing, contrasting or
performing other services in explaining subject matter. A chart is a combination of
pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material, which presents a clear
summary.Chart is defined as a visual aid which depicts pictorial and written key
information in systematic way to summarize, compare, ex: anatomical charts and
figure, diagrams.
PURPOSES OF CHARTS:
Charts serve the following purpose:
1. For showing relationship by means of facts, figures and statistics.
2. For presenting materials symbolically.

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 3. For summarizing information.
4. For showing continuity in process.
5. For presenting abstract ideas in visual form.
6. For showing development of structure.
7. For creating problems and stimulating thinking.
8. For encouraging utilization of other media of communication.
9. For motivating the students.
Types of charts:
1. Narrative chart: Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the events in the
process or development of a significant issue to its point of resolution or we can show
an improvement over a period of years.
2. The cause and effective chart: Arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing the
relationship between rights and responsibilities or between a complex of conditions
and change or conflict.
3. The chain chart: arrangement of facts and ideas for expressing transitions or
cycles.
4. The evolution chart: facts and ideas for expressing changes in specific items from
beginning data and its projections in to future.
5. Strip tease chart: it enables speaker to present the information step by
 It increases the interest and imagination of the audience.
 The information on the chart is covered with thin paper strips to which it has
been applied either by wax, tape or sticky substance or pins.
 As the speaker wishes to visually reinforce a point with words or symbols, he
removes the appropriate strip or paper. It produces interest. It increases
learning and aids recall.
6. Pull chart: it consists of written messages which are hidden by strips of thick
paper. The message can be shown to the viewer, one after another by pulling out the
concealing strips.
7. Flow chart: diagrams used to show organizational elements or administrative or
functional relationships. In this chart lines, rectangles, circles, are connected by lines
showing the directional flow.

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8. Tabulation chart: it shows the schedule of an activity or of an individual ex:
time-table of a class. These are very valuable aid in the teaching situation where
breakdown of a fact or a statement is to be listed. Also it is a useful aid for showing
points of comparison, distinction, and contrasts between two or more things. While
making the table charts the following points must be kept in the mind. The chart
should be 50 X 75 cm or more in size.The chart should be captioned in bold letters.
The vertical columns should be filled in short phrases rather than complete sentences.
9. Flip chart: a set of charts related to specific topic have been tagged together and
hang on a supporting stand. The individual charts will carry a series of related
materials or messages in sequence. The silent points of specific topic will be
presented.
10. Pie chart: a circle will be drawn and divisions will be made into different
sections, each section will be coded differently and code key will be given at right
corner of the chart as legend. The circumference is divided into suitable sections. It is
relevant for showing the component part.
5.4.3 GRAPHS
Graphs are the visual teaching aids for presenting statistical data and
contrasting the trends or changes of certain attributes.
Method of preparation:
1. Before making the bar chart makes a rough sketch of it in a note book.
2. For drawing the bar graph use the chart paper of 50x 72 cm size.
3. Use two different color shades for the two contrasting groups.
4. The bars should be equi-spaced.
5. Write the key to the bar graph in a box on the right hand side corner of the chart
paper.
6. Numbers specifying the magnitude of the bars should be on the top on the bars.
Types of Graphs
Pie graph: These are called as circle diagram. The data are presented thorough
the sections of portions of a circle.

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  In determining the circumference of a circle we have to take in to
consideration a quantity known as pie.
 The surface area of a circle is to cover 360 degree.
 The total frequencies or value us equated to 360 degree and then the angles
corresponding to component parts are calculated.
 After determining their angle, the required sectors in the circle are drawn.
Bar graph:
The graphic presentation extends the scale horizontally along the length of
bars. Each bar must be of the same width, height of the bar over a period represents
the corresponding time of the variable. Graphs are available in 2 forms that is vertical
and horizontal.
Line graph:
To show the trends and relationships ex: single line shows the relation and the
variation in the quantity. Quantitative data are plotted or when the data is continuous.
The concepts are represented with the help of lines drawn either horizontally or
vertically. The plotted points are connected to one another, instead of the base thus
producing the curve.
Pictorial graph:
It is an out standing method of graphic representation. Pictures are used for the
expression of ideal; they are more attractive and easily understood. Vivid pictures will
be used to create rapid association with the graphic message; each visual symbol may
be used to indicate quantity.
5.4.4 MAPS
A map is a graphic aid representing the proportionately as a diagram, the
surface of the earth, world or parts there of. It conveys the message by lines, symbols,
words and colors.
Types of maps:
Political maps: these maps show political divisions of the world, a continent, a
nation.
Physical maps: shows the physical contour of a place, area, and region.
Relief maps: it shows the actual elevations and depressions in a place, area, and
region.

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Weather maps: shows the amount of rains, temperature extremes, humidity in an
area, region country.
Population maps: shows the distribution of population in various parts of region,
country.
Picture or tourist maps: shows historical spots monumental sites.etc.. Road maps:
shows the roads of a region connecting various parts and points together.
Railway maps: shows the railway links between various points.
Air maps: shows the air routes between various points.
Sea root maps: shows the sea routes between various sea ports.
Importance of Visual Aids
Visuals (or pictures) are a great tool for seeing and understanding. Visual aids
allow children the time they need to process what they are being asked to do. They do
not disappear into thin air to be forgotten as spoken words or hand gestures do.
Visuals can also be sequenced to breakdown and learn a skill bit by bit. Visuals
remain the same and allow for identical rehearsal and consistent memory pathways to
be created. With this rehearsal and memory of sequenced activities comes learning
and understanding and ultimately increased confidence and self esteem. Visual
aids should be used in conjunction with other forms of communication such as
speech, signing and tactile experiences.
Advantages of Visual Aids
Visuals will help children who have difficulties with:
 listening and attending
 understanding and responding
 processing sequenced information
 motivation and play
 following instructions and routines
 anxiety and resistance to change
 social isolation and shyness
 challenging behaviour

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5.4.5 GENERAL PRINCIPLES TO BE FOLLOWED IN THE USE OF AUDIO-
VISUAL AIDS
1. There are three stages in a learning process when an educational aid is used to
supplement the ordinary teaching. Viz.,
i) preparing the pupils for the learning experience
ii) reinforcing the values while the pupils are sharing the experience and
iii) relating the experience with the lesson and thus stimulating further
learning
2. The aids must be adopted to the intellectual maturity of the pupils and to the
nature and extent of their previous experience.
3. There is no best aid which has all the advantages. Most visual aids suffer from
some psychological limitations. The teacher should be familiar with the
advantages and limitations of the various types of sensory aids.
4. Visual aids should not be considered as substitutes for oral and written methods
of acquiring knowledge. They should be used to supplement the classroom
teaching.
5. Visual instruction in the classroom should not be confused with entertainment.
The effective use of an aid depends primarily on careful planning by the teacher.
6. In all cases, the time and effort on the use of a particular aid in preference to
others must always be justified.
5.4.6 QUALITIES OF GOOD AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
1. Audio-Visual Aids help in achieving the teaching objectives.
2. Audio-Visual Aids are beautiful and attractive but at the same time they are
made in such a way that students should not be deviated from the lesson.
3. Audio-Visual Aids should neither be large nor so small. But it should be of the
size that it can be seen by every student inside the class.
4. Audio-Visual Aids are very useful. Irrelevant material wastes the time and
creates indiscipline in the class.
5. Audio-Visual Aids should arouse the curiosity of the pupils instead of their
entertainment, otherwise pupils will divert towards entertainment only.
6. The pictures, maps or charts which are displayed before the pupils should not
bear unnecessary informations. It decreases their influence.

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7. The visual aids which are presented before the pupils should accompany the
actions also. Such materials will provide some signals to the pupils and the
teacher can also prove his desire successfully.
5.4.7 PLACE OF USING AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
The following are the rules and principles which make us aware of the fact
that when and how there Audio-Visual Aids should be used.
1. Audio-Visual Aids can be used in three phases of the lesson namely, introduction,
presentation and Recapitulation.
In introduction, Audio-Visual Aids are used to create interest in the pupils for
their lessons. In presentation, Audio-Visual Aids are used to make the minute and
difficult facts and ideas of the lesson more precise while in Recapitulation, these are
used to evaluate the lesson.
2. Audio-Visual Aids should be used only to clarify the minute and different ideas
of the lesson.
3. While using Audio-Visual Aids, the teacher should remember whether a
desirable impression can be left on the pupils by clarifying the ideas of the
lesson in simple, interesting and entertaining way.
4. Before presenting the Audio-Visual Aids, necessary background should be
prepared. It saves the time and the pupils understand the necessary things
quickly.
5. Audio-Visual Aids should be used only when the need arises. When it is used
excessively, it looks like a juggler's show. In such a situation teaching flops.
The trainee teachers should remember that the success of teaching does not
depend on the plenty of material, but depends on its proper use.
6. Audio-Visual Aids should not be presented before the pupils merely for an
bird's eye view only. It causes no benefit to the pupils. Hence the teacher should
present the material for so much time that the pupils may have sufficient time
for its observation and thinking.
7. Some questions must be asked about the displayed material. This simplifies and
clarifies the sense of the lesson.
8. The repeated use of one type of aid creates boredom amongst the pupils. Hence,
there should be variety.

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9. Audio-Visual Aids should be shown by placing it on the table or by hanging on
the wall. Some trainee teachers show the aids by holding them in their hands,
which is not correct. This restricts the movement of the teacher.
10. After using Audio-visual aids, the teacher should come immediately on his
lesson. Its reason is that the teacher's main aim is only the development of the
lesson, not showing the material.
11. Audio- Visual Aids should be immediately removed after their presentation.
Otherwise they will deviate from their lesson. Therefore, after displaying a
picture chart, it should either be placed at some safer place or it should be
reversed on the wall.
12. Audio-Visual Aids are means to achieve the teaching objectives, not the ends.
5.4.8 ADVANTAGES OF USING AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
The following are the general advantages of using Audio-Visual Aids:
1. By using Audio-Visual Aids, inaccessible processes, materials, events, objects,
changes in time, speed and space could easily be brought to the class.
2. Use of Audio-Visual Aids results in greater acquisition of knowledge of facts
and ensures longer retention of the information gained.
3. Use of Audio-Visual Aids in the classroom can provide effective substitutes for
direct contact of students with the environment social and physical.
4. By using suitable Audio-Visual Aids, any expected change in attitude and
behaviour could be facilitated.
5. Proper Audio-Visual Aids can provide integrated experiences varying from
abstract to concrete.
6. Proper Audio-Visual the approach is through more than one sense multi-sensory
approach and hence they will be able to secure and retain the attention of pupils
as well as develop the communication skills of pupils.
7. Audio-Visual Aids could be used to motivate and stimulate interest of pupils to
gain further knowledge.
8. Audio-Visual Aids could be used to advantages for any age or ability groups.

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5.4.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
4. For presenting materials symbolically----------------is used
5. The individual charts will carry a series of related materials or messages in
sequence is called---------
6. Diagrams used to show organizational elements or administrative or functional
7. Relationships is called----------------
8. Material which consists of written messages which are hidden by strips of
thick paper is called-----------------

5.5 INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD

An Interactive White Board is a touch-sensitive screen that works in

conjunction with a computer and a projector. It is a presentation device that interfaces
with a computer. The computer images are displayed on the board by a digital
projector, where they can be seen and manipulated. Users can control software both
from the computer and from the board. Participants can add notations, and emphasize
by using a pen and or highlighter tool. By using his/her finger as a mouse, the teacher
or student can run applications directly from the board. Another user at the computer
can also have input. Any notes or drawings can then be saved or printed out and
distributed to group members.
5.5.1 USE OF INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD
Interactive WhiteBoards are an effective way to interact with digital content
and multimedia in a multi-person learning environment. Learning activities with an
interactive whiteboard may include, but are not limited to the following:
 Manipulating text and images
 Making notes in digital ink
 Saving notes for later review by using e-mail, the Web or print
 Viewing websites as a group
 Demonstrating or using software at the front of a room without being tied to a
 computer
 Creating digital lesson activities with templates, images and multimedia
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  Writing notes over educational video clips
 Using presentation tools that are included with the white boarding software to
 enhance learning materials
 Showcasing student presentations.
5.5.2 INTERACTIVE WHITE BOARDS TO PROMOTE STUDENT LEARNING
In social Learning most people need to reinforce their beliefs and
understandings by asking others questions, thereby making learning an inherently
social activity. Current education theories are grounded in the notion of the social
learner and position student engagement as a key component of knowledge
construction. First, Whole-class teaching brings the entire class together, focuses
their attention and provides structured, teacherfocused group interaction. Second,
Constructivism relies on the learner to select and transform information, build
hypotheses in order to make decisions and ultimately construct meaning. Third,
Active learning learners actively engage in the learning process through reading,
writing, discussion, analysis, synthesis and evaluation, rather than passively absorbing
instruction (e.g., lecture model of instruction).
A common thread between these three learning theories is the understanding
that student engagement is crucial to learning and, as a growing collection of
international research proves, Interactive WhiteBoards promote student learning.
Educators can use digital resources while maintaining dynamic interaction
with the entire class, provide computer-based learning without isolating students and
encourage a higher level of student interaction in both teacher-directed and group-
based exchanges. Interactive WhiteBoards promote interaction among the students,
the learning materials and the teacher, and enrich ICT by providing a large work
space for hands on work with multimedia resources.
Having a display surface large enough for everyone to see encourages a high
level of student interaction. A teacher and a student can interact with the Interactive
WhiteBoard at the front of the class and the rest of the students remain involved. As
research indicates, the functionality of the Interactive WhiteBoard and its
accompanying software allows for the development of classroom activities that are
engaging for students, so they encourage greater focus, participation and interaction,
and improve student learning outcomes as a result.

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5.5.3 INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD ACTIVITIES IN THE COMPUTER SCIENCE
CLASSROOM
An Interactive WhiteBoard supports the teaching process of Computer
languages in two main ways: it supports interaction and conversation in the classroom
and it promotes the oral skills. A projection onto an Interactive Whiteboard is very
different from a classic projectionof what is found on a computer screen. With an
Interactive White Board the user is able to navigate from the board. He does not need
to continually go back to the computer and, as a consequence, turn his back to the
class. The teacher can spend his time concentrating on the learning process of the
student instead of the technology. This is very important when using Interactive
WhiteBoards to teach and is crucial in the computer language classroom. The
Interactive WhiteBoard also facilitates navigation of the sitebecause it is finger driven
on the board. This, too, facilitates classroom activities.
5.5.4 INTERACTIVE WHITEBOARD ACTIVITIES ACTIVITIES WHICH
SUPPORT ORAL SKILLS
The introduction of the projector associated with the Interactive White Board
brings the problem into a new perspective. When presented to the whole class, a web
document can enhance oral interaction within the whole class. Opinions and ideas can
be exchanged. It is possible to extend this operation of the Interactive WhiteBoard in
order to let the student, instead of the teacher, navigate the board. The other students
may guide him by giving directions in the target language. As suggested for group
activities using the computer the Interactive WhiteBoard brings people together and
encourages communication. It is also possible for students to present projects on the
Interactive WhiteBoard. This enables them to speak without having to worry about
the mouse.Pictures and text are shown without delay with the simple touch of a finger.
This places the oral production in the target language in the foreground.

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5.5.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
9. A touch-sensitive screen that works in conjunction with a computer and a
projector is -------------
10. For Viewing websites as a group-----------is useful
11. Active learning is possible by using------------.
12. Pictures and text are shown without delay with the simple touch of a finger
with the help of ---------

5.6 POWER POINT PRESENTATION

PowerPoint can be an effective tool to present material in the classroom and

encourage student learning. PowerPoint can be used to project visuals which would
otherwise be difficult to bring to class
5.6.1 DEFINITION
Microsoft Office product that provides users with an interface to design
multimedia slides to be displayed on a projection system or personal computer. The
software incorporates images, sounds, videos, text, and charts to create an interactive
presentation. Microsoft PowerPoint interacts with other Office products such as
Microsoft Word and Excel, and is included with most Microsoft Office packages.
PowerPoint is a complete presentation graphics package. It gives you
everything you need to produce a professional-looking presentation. PowerPoint
offers word processing, outlining, drawing, graphing, and presentation management
tools- all designed to be easy to use and learn.
5.6.2 POWERPOINT FOR TEACHERS
Teachers can use PowerPoint in many applications in their classroom. Teacher
have a choice for how much or how little they would like to apply this technology to
their classrooms.
How teachers can use PowerPoint:
 Notes and Lessons
 Images
 Daily routines

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  Classroom or student showcase
 Meeting agendas
 Videos and multimedia presentations
 Graphs and charts
 Audio
5.6.3 POWERPOINT FOR STUDENTS
PowerPoint can be used in the classroom in many ways. Students can learn
how to use PowerPoint and apply their knowledge in many ways. When students learn
PowerPoint they also gain valuable tech skills.
How students can use PowerPoint:
 Creative writing classes
 Visual interpretations
 Presenting information to the class
 Creating graphs
 Creating instructions
 Creating self quizzes
 Creating games
 Displaying student work
 Slideshows of class events and activities
 Problem Based Learning
5.6.4 STEPS IN CREATING AN EFFECTIVE POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
According to Penciner[ these are the steps to an effective PowerPoint
presentation:
1. Create three documents: speaker notes, a hand out and your slides. This
will allow a presenter from putting too much information on a slide.
2. Use narration and relevant images.
3. Narration and images are better than narration and text.
4. Consider not to use bullets.
5. Limit the information on one slide.
6. Use interesting multimedia presentations but avoid excess.
7. Speak in a conversational manner.
8. Do not read slides.
9. Direct learners to important passages and events in your presentation.

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5.6.5 DESIGNING THE POWERPOINT PRESENTATION
Preparing for the presentation
– Consider time and effort in preparing a PP presentation—give yourself plenty of
lead time for design and development.
– PowerPoint is especially useful when providing course material online.
– Student technology compatibility with PowerPoint material put on the Web—ensure
images and graphics have been compressed for access by computers using dial-up
connection.
– Student accessibility—visually impaired may not be able to fully access a
PowerPoint presentation, especially those with graphics and images.
– Copyrighted material—be sure to properly cite source material. This is especially
important when using visuals obtained from the Internet or other sources.
– Message interpretation—will students be able understand material in a PowerPoint
presentation outside of the classroom? Will you need to provide notes and other
material to help students understand complex information, data, or graphics?
– If you will be using your own laptop, be sure the classroom is equipped with the
proper cables, drivers, and other means to display your presentation the way you have
intended.
Slide Content
Use PowerPoint to cue and guide the presentation rather than project long and
complete sentences.
– Use the Notes Pages feature to add content to your presentation which the audience
will not see.
– Relate PowerPoint material to course objectives to reinforce their purpose.
Number of slides
– As a rule of thumb, plan to show one slide per minute to account for discussion and
time and for students to absorb the material.
– Reduce redundant or text heavy sentences or bullets to ensure a more professional
appearance.
Emphasizing content
– Use italics, bold and color for emphasizing content.
– Use of a light background with dark typeface or a dark background (blue, purple,
brown) with a light typeface is easy to read in a large room.

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– Consider using different color slide backgrounds to change the pace of the
presentation
– Avoid using underlines for emphasis which typically signifies hypertext in digital
media.
Typeface
– Use a sans serif typeface such as Arial, Helvetica, or Tahoma.
– Limit the number of typeface styles to no more than two per slide.
Point size
– Ensure the typeface is large enough to read from anywhere in the room: titles and
headings should be no less than 36-40 points.
– The subtext should be no less than 32 points.
Clip art and graphics
– Use clip art and graphics sparingly. Research shows that it's best to use graphics
only when they support the content.
– Photographs can be effectively used to add realism.
– Size and place graphics appropriately on the slide – consider wrapping text around a
graphic.
– Use two-dimensional pie and bar graphs rather than 3-D styles which can interfere
with the intended message.
Animation and sound
– Add motion, sound, or music only when necessary. When in doubt, do without!
– Excessive movement within or between slides can interfere with the message and
can be annoying. Avoid or use only simple screen transitions.
Final check
– Check for spelling, correct word usage, flow of material and overall appearance of
the presentation.
– Colleagues can be especially helpful to check your presentation for accuracy and
appeal. Note: Typos are more obvious when they are projected.
– Schedule at least one practice session to check for timing and flow.
– PowerPoint's Slide Sorter View is especially helpful to check slides for proper
sequencing and information gaps and redundancy.
– Prepare for plan —B in case you have trouble with the technology in the classroom
– how will you provide material which is located on your flash drive or computer?

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Handouts. PowerPoint slides can be printed in the form of handouts—with one, two,
three, four, six, or nine slides on a page—that can be given to the students for
reference during and after the presentation. The three-slides-per-page handout
includes lined space to assist in note-taking.
– Notes Pages. Detailed notes can be printed and used during the presentation or, if
they are notes intended for students, they can be distributed before the presentation.
– Outline View. PowerPoint presentations can be printed as an outline which
provides all of the text from each slide. Outlines provide a welcome alternative to
slide handouts and can be modified from the original presentation to provide more or
less information than the projected presentation.
The Presentation
– PowerPoint should provide key words, concepts, and images to enhance your
presentation (but PowerPoint should not replace you as the presenter).
– Avoid reading from the slide—reading the material can be perceived as though you
don't know the material. If you must read the material, provide it in a handout instead
of a projected PowerPoint slide.
– Avoid rapidly moving the laser pointer across the slide. Also, use a laser pointer
with a dot large enough to be seen from all areas of the room.
– Allow no more than one to two slides per minute of content.
– Incorporate blank slides to allow students to reflect on what has just been discussed
or to gain their attention .
– Stand to one side of the screen and face the audience while presenting.
– Leave classroom lights on and turn off lights directly over the projection screen if
possible.
– Learn to use PowerPoint efficiently and have a back-up plan in case of technical
failure.
– Give yourself enough time to finish the presentation. Trying to rush through slides
can give the impression of an unorganized presentation and may be difficult for
student to follow.
5.6.6. ENHANCING TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH POWER POINT
Class Preparation
PowerPoint can be used to prepare lectures and presentations by helping
instructors refine their material to salient points and content. Class lectures can be
typed in outline format which can then be refined as slides. Lecture notes can be

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printed as notes pages and can also be given as handouts to accompany the
presentation
Student’s Learning Preferences
Using PowerPoint can address students' learning preferences through the
projection of: color, images, video and shapes for visual learners; sound and music for
auditory learners; and interactive slides which ask students to do something for
kinesthetic learners which involve group or class activities where students can
practice or review concepts .
Type-on Live Slides
PowerPoint allows users to type directly during the slide show which provides
another form of interaction. These write-on slides can be used to project students'
comments and ideas for the entire class to see. When the presentation is over, the new
material can be saved to the original file and posted electronically
Just-In-Time Course Material
You can make your PowerPoint slides and notes pages available online 24/7
through Blackboard and other Web sites. Students can review the material before
class, bring printouts to class and be better prepared for listening rather than taking a
lot of notes during the class period.
5.6.7 ENGAGING STUDENTS WITH POWERPOINT
Running Slide Show as Students Arrive in the Classroom
This technique provides visual interest and can also have a series of questions
students can answer as they sit waiting for the class to begin. These questions could
be future texts or quizzes.
– Opening Question—project an opening question—Take a moment to reflect on
.
– Think-Pair-Share—can be projected at different intervals of a presentation to
allow students to concentrate on, and discuss with a partner, what has been presented.
o Think of what you know about .
o Turn to a partner and share your knowledge about .
o Share with the class what you have discussed with your partner.
– Focused Listing—list as many characteristics of or write down as many
words related to (this technique helps with recall of pertinent
information).

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– Brainstorm—what do you know about ? Start with your clearest
thoughts and then move on to those what are kind of —out there (this technique
stretches the mind, promotes deep thinking and recall of prior knowledge).
– Questions—ask students if they have any questions so far—do this about every 15
minutes or so. (This technique provides time for students to reflect and is also a good
time for a scheduled break and for the instructor to interact with students).
– Note Check—take a few minutes to compare notes with a partner—to summarize
the most important information—identify and clarify any sticking points.
– Questions and Answer Pairs—take a minute to come with one question then see if
you can stump your partner!
– Two-Minute Paper—summarize the most important points of today's lecture—
submit the paper at the end of class. (This technique allows the instructor to check the
class progress).
– If You Could Ask One Last Question—What Would it be? (This technique
allows for students to think more deeply about the topic and to apply what they have
learned in a question format).
– Classroom Opinion Poll—do you believe in or what are your
thoughts on (This technique provides a sense of where students
are on certain topics).
– Muddiest Point—what is the muddiest point of today's material? (This technique
allows anonymous feedback to inform the instructor if changes and or additions need
to be made to the class).
– Most Useful Point—what is the most useful point in today's material and how can
you illustrate its use in a practical setting? (This technique can tell the instructor if the
course is on track).
5.6.8 MERITS OF POWER POINT
– PowerPoint saves time and energy once the presentation has been created, is easy to
update and can be modified for other courses.
– PowerPoint is portable and can be easily shared with students and colleagues.
– PowerPoint supports multimedia such as video, audio, images and animation.

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5.6.9 DEMRITS OF POWERPOINT
– PowerPoint can reduce the opportunity for classroom interaction (by being the
primary method of information dissemination).
– PowerPoint can lead to information overload, especially with long sentences and
paragraphs.
– PowerPoint can —drive the instruction and minimize the opportunity for
spontaneity and creative teaching.

5.6.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
13. -------------can be used to project visuals which would otherwise be
difficult to bring to class
14. When students learn PowerPoint they also gain valuable---------skills.
15. PowerPoint slides can be printed in the form of ----

5.7 LET US SUM UP

Instructional aids are educational aids and are not intended to amuse the pupil.
On the other hand, they serve to inspire in them an interest and a desire to learn.
Pupils of varying degrees of intelligence will all be equally drawn to Instructional
aids.
With the growth of Science and Technology and with the additional
importance being attached to its teaching, the use of Instructional aids is unavoidable.
Today it has been proved beyond doubt by research and classroom experience that
Instructional can contribute more for effective teaching as well as learning. A good
Computer Science teacher like you can make a difficult concept so clear and easy, to
a below average pupil in your class easily with the help of Instructional aids .

5.8 .UNIT END ACTIVITY

1. What are the advantages of visual aids?
2. Describe the uses of any three Visual aids
3. Describe the importance and use of Interactive White Boards for Teaching
Computer Science

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 4. How will you use the Power point slides for Student interaction in teaching?
5. How will you design power point slide for teaching Computer Science?
6. What are the advantages of Visual aids?
7. How will you use power point slides for effective teaching?

5.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. the eyes and ears
1. The eyes and Ears
2. Audio-Visual Aids 9.Interactive White Board
3. Audio-Visual Aids 10. Interactive White Board
4. Chart 11. Interactive White Board
5. Flip Chart 12. Interactive White Board
6. Flow Chart 13.Power Point Slides
7. Pull Chart 14.Presentation
8. Chain Chart 15.Hand Outs

5.10. SUGGESTED READINGS

Manju Gehlawat (2012), Information Technology in Education, New Delhi : Dorling
Kindersley(India) Pvt. Ltd., Licenses of Pearson in South Aisa - Core Paper - III
(Page 34)
Mohanty, L. (2006). ICT strategies for schools. New Delhi: Sage Publication.
Norton, P. (1998). Introduction to computers. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co Ltd.
Sharma, R. A. (2008). Technological foundation of education. Meerut: R.Lall Books.
Depot
Sharma, R. N. (2008). Principles and Techniques of Education. Delhi: Surjeet
Publications.
Sharma, R. C. (1998). Modern science teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Raj and Sons.

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 VI LATEST TRENDS IN INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Structure
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Multi Media
6.3.1 Nature of Multimedia Approach
6.3.2 Interactive Multimedia Components
6.3.3 Multimedia In Teaching-Learning
6.3.4 Role of teacher in Multimedia approach
6.3.5 Educational Implications of Multimedia
6.3.6 Benefits of Multimedia in the Classroom for Learning
6.3.7 Check Your Progress
6.4 Desktop Publishing
6.4.1 The Features of Desk Top Publishing
6.4.2 Check Your Progress
6.5 Internet
6.5.1 Internet and Its Components
6.5.2 Uses of Internet
6.5.3 Check Your Progress
6.6 E-Learning
6.6.1 Definition Of E-Learning
6.6.2 Value Of E-Learning
6.6.3 Common E-Learning Terms/Tools
6.6.4 Common E-Learning Terms/Tools
6.6.5 Sharing Of E-Learning
6.7 Virtual Learning
6.7.1 Virtual Learning
6.7.2 Features Of VLEs
6.7.3 Advantages Of Virtual Learning
6.7.4 Different Forms Of Virtual Learning
6.7.5 Check Your Progress

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6.8. Web-Based Learning
6.8.1 Definition Of Web-Based Learning
6.8.2 Advantages Of Web-Based Learning
6.8.3 Disadvantages Of Web-Based Learning
6.8.4 Check Your Progress
6.9 Teleconferencing
6.9.1 Meaning Of Teleconferencing
6.9.2 Audio Conferencing
6.9.3 Video Conferencing:
6.9.4 Computer Conferencing
6.9.5 Check Your Progress
6.10 Let us Sum Up
6.11 Unit- End Activities
6.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.13 Suggested Readings

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6.1 INTRODUCTION

Multimedia and networking technologies have significantly impacted on our

daily activities, particularly in terms of how we learn. E-learning technologies have
made it possible to provide a virtual classroom environment on the Web through
supporting teacher-student and student-student communications, course material
distribution as well as online student assessments. They provide students with more
control over their learning schedule and pace. On top of this, multimedia technologies
further offer students different forms of media to match their learning styles, leading
to enhancements of their learning effectiveness.The Information Technology is
revolutionizing the way, in which we live and work. It is changing all aspects of our
life and lifestyle. Technology has become an essential part of education at all levels..
Multimedia approach is one such innovation that is aimed at improving the teaching
learning process. This unit deals with the Latest Trends in Information Technology:
Multi media, desk top Publishing,Internet and its uses,E-learning,Virtual
Learning,Web enabled/based learning,Tele conferencing and Video conferencing.
6.2 OBJECTIVES

After Studying this unit, you will be able to

1. Understand the Importance of Multi Media for Teaching
2. Explain the Use of Multi Media
3. Understand the applications of Internet
4. Explain the Meaning of E-Learning
5. Understand the characteristics of E-Learning
6. Explain the Modes of E-Learning
7. Illustrate the E-Learning Tools
8. Explain the concept of Virtual Learning
9. Understand the procedure of Web based Learning
10. Explain the types of Tele conferencing
11. Understand the concept of Video Conferencing

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6.3 MULTIMEDIA.

The term multimedia by definition means ‘more than one media'. According
to Hofstetter (2001),multimedia is the use of computer to present and combine text,
graphics, audio and video with links and tools that let the user navigate, interact,
create and communicate. In other words, multimedia is the combination of various
digital media, into an integrated multi-sensory interactive application or presentation
to convey information to an audience . Other than that, interactivity is also part of the
elements that are required in order to complete interactive communication process
through the use of multimedia.
6.3.1 NATURE OF MULTIMEDIA APPROACH
1. Multimedia approach uses a number of media, devices, techniques, in the
teaching learning process.
2. Multimedia approach has come out of researches and experiments in educational
technology that have been undertaken in order to improve the process of
teaching learning.
3. Multimedia approach aims at providing meaningful learning experiences via a
mix of media in order to achieve predetermined objectives.
4. The choice of the media has to be done carefully so that one does not hamper or
reduce the effect of the other i.e. each media must complement the after.
5. The media have to used sequentially and judiciously. Only necessary ones are to
be used.Then it would be possible to make optimum use of them in a most
economical manner.
6. In multimedia approach, several media and techniques are used as powerful
means of communication.
6.3.2 INTERACTIVE MULTIMEDIA COMPONENTS
Interactive multimedia is a tool which has had a great impact in the field of
education.
This tool uses five elements and combines them into a single powerful tools.
The five media are –
i) Text ii) Animation iii) Video iv) Graphics v) Sound.

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6.3.3 MULTIMEDIA IN TEACHING-LEARNING
 Multi-Media approach has unique importance in the educational system and
social transactions. It has revolutionized the lives of people in the world. It has
played an important role ininnovation and improvement in teaching
methods,individualization of instruction and an effective learning system for a
fairly large number of students.
 Multi-media approach in teaching and learning is psychologically
sound.Variety and newness of the media motivate the students for learning
both at the preparation and participation stages and promote learning. Students
profit from recreational activities like pictures, charts, posters, models, stories
and plays, accounts of travels and musical productions.
 Multi-media approach in teaching and learning is essential for the effective
realization of learning objectives and also provides Learning environment in
which students take active part in the learning process.
 Multi-media approach in teaching and learning is learner-centred in the sense
that it can accommodate learner's needs and interests. The variety and
flexibility of multi-media offer the opportunity to adopt any media
combination for use in individualised instruction.
 Various types of media like computer, television, video cassettes, video discs
 etc, can be of great value in supplementing and enriching the class-room
instruction.
 Media like audio cassettes and CD's enable the learners to receive any given
information according to their own convenient time.
6.3.4 ROLE OF TEACHER IN MULTIMEDIA APPROACH
The teacher has to make a lot of modifications and adjustment if he has to
adopt multimedia approach. His role would have a different connotation compared to
the traditional role. He would have to make these changes.
i) The teacher has to adopt a number of methods and techniques, he cannot be
satisfied with the lecture or the chalk talk method.
ii) The teacher has to be aware of the different available media and their
availability the teacher should be physically competent to use and demonstrate
the use of different media.

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iii) The teacher should be skillful enough to make a judicious choice of media and
be competent enough to mix them sequentially and in an orderly manner.
iv) The teacher's role is that of a facilitator or manager of activities. He has to lead
his students for independent, individualized learning.
v) The teacher should provide experience such that the students can link practice
and theory & integrate them.
6.3.5 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS OF MULTIMEDIA
1. Multimedia enables students to represent information using several different
media. Hypermedia links allow students to organize information in meaningful
ways.
2. Multimedia can take into account different learning styles. Some students learn
by interpreting text, while others require more graphical or aural representations.
3. Multimedia allows for self-pacing and discovery, students can take the time they
need and choose the path of learning making learning meaningful and
pleasurable.
4. Multimedia helps in development of higher order thinking skills. Interactive
multimedia encourages student for learning.
5. Multimedia provided the students the flexibility of anywhere, ‘any time'
learning.
6. Multimedia helps in developing group and interpersonal skills. Better
communication between students via e-mail, chat sessions etc., can encourage
collaborative learning and enhance student-teacher interaction.
7. Multimedia helps students to learn the content in a given discipline. It helps
students to think effectively, practice problem solving and decision making.
8. Multimedia helps students to construct knowledge actively, work in group and
use multi-senses at a time. Multimedia is very effective and advanced
approach in higher education.
6.3.6 BENEFITS OF MULTIMEDIA IN THE CLASSROOM FOR LEARNING
The simplicity and power of multimedia enriches teacher's creativity and leads
to multi-sensory students learning. It is also a whole lot of fun! For qualitative
improvement in Teacher Education in teaching learning process, Multimedia can
prove as a big breather as it is capable of sustaining the interest of the learners,
through visuals and audio inputs. It also brings in the elements of the outer world into
the classroom. It can help learners in understanding the complex concepts in a very

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simple way. Today more emphasis is laid upon the experience rather than rote
learning.

6.3.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
1. The term multimedia by definition means
2. Multimedia approach aims at providing meaningful learning experiences
through-------in order to achieve predetermined objectives.
3. The simplicity and power of multimedia enriches teacher's creativity and
leads to---------students learning.
4. Multimedia allows for self-pacing and ------------
5. Multi-media approach in teaching and learning is -----------

6.4 DESKTOP PUBLISHING

Desktop publishing is the process of preparing documents for printing via

special page layout software known as desktop publishing software. But actually,
there is a bit more to the term than that.
The term entered the vocabulary of computer users in the late eighties after the
development of one of the first desktop publishing applications — Aldus PageMaker.
Until recent years, desktop publishing software typically denoted the top of the line
professional programs used mostly by graphic designers to transform their ideas into
the visual representation of a document meant for printing.
The introduction of desktop publishing presented marketing with a lot of
scope and brought FYI enthusiasts and small businesses the means to take business
promotion into their own hands without too much of a struggle. Perhaps this is why
the term "desktop publishing" holds a slightly different meaning these days. Today
desktop publishing encompasses any creative project meant for desktop and
commercial printing or electronic distribution. This may include a greeting card to
Grandma, a family scrapbook cover, or an electronic newsletter. In fact, desktop
publishing today often refers to documents that are not at all meant for printing. This
is due to developments in communication and promotion via the Internet.

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 This new paradigm has produced desktop publishing software that is
specialized for a certain type of document (e.g. business cards or disc covers). Such
software aims to simplify the user experience by eliminating tools unnecessary for
that particular type of project. Though this has been the latest trend, there still exists a
set of standard features for any type of desktop publishing software.
6.4.1 THE FEATURES OF DESK TOP PUBLISHING
Below is a list and description of the most basic and essential features that any
desktop publishing software should have. Some of them may prove more crucial than
others depending on the type of print project you are working with. Though these
features are important, the list surely does not end here.
Support For Numerous Project
The ability to create a variety of projects defines the flexibility of a desktop
publishing application. The key to delivering this is by supporting an abundance of
paper layouts and the ability to create custom page layouts without too many
restrictions.
Layout Tools
The term “layout tools” involves a range of tools that help to place and align
objects accurately. Such tools include but are not limited to rulers, adjustable and
automatic guides, multiple editing layers, object snapping, and object grouping. The
guides and snapping options offer a point of reference when placing images and text
in the document. Multiple editing layers keep the workspace more or less uncluttered
which helps to prevent selecting and moving the unintended object. Object grouping
helps in a similar way by making sure that multiple objects remain positioned
proportionate to one another.
The integration of so-called “master pages” in a desktop publishing
application saves you from having to create the same background multiple times for a
multi-page document. This option creates a type of template that can be applied to
every page of a document.
Text Tools
Desktop publishing software should offer a wide range of text editing tools
extending beyond standard operations on text. Linked text boxes are an absolute must
in desktop publishing. Such text boxes allow text to flow freely within a network of
text boxes. This make editing text content much easier since the text boxes
automatically adjust the contained text.

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 Adjusting the text properties of headers and other portions of text can be quite
tedious. Applications with styles sheets make that process much quicker. One can
think of style sheets as customizable text templates that can be applied to any portion
of text by selecting it and choosing the corresponding style sheet. Other important text
tools include circle text and artistic text effects.
Graphic Tools
The ability to edit images is also an absolute must for desktop publishing
software. Ideally, an application should allow you to do more than just manipulate
images (resize, angle, crop, or compress). It should give you a set of built-in image
effects and filters as well as other functions related to design. Such functions may
include adding shadows, controlling the transparency, and so forth. Highly
professional applications may offer advanced drawing tools.
Printing and Sharing
Supporting a ton of paper layouts and printers is not enough to make a desktop
publishing application great. If you are running an older printer, you will definitely
need the ability print your project as a raster image since many old printers can not
handle vector data. A person looking to send his document to the printshop will find
that a variety of export options and the means to convert text to curves will turn out to
be useful. Those who plan on printing any kind of booklet should look for an
imposition functionality.
Desktop publishing has come quite a long way since its introduction in the
1980s. The process is basically the same but for a more broad range of results. The
future will no doubt bring changes to both the process and result. This will probably
bring about new tasks in the desktop publishing world, and hopefully, their solutions.
For the moment, desktop publishing presents itself as a great solution for small
business and even big business. It is as simple as identifying needs and areas where
desktop publishing can provide a solution and finding the right software to help you
get there.

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6.4.2 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
5. One of the first desktop publishing applications is -------
6. A range of tools that help to place and align objects accurately is - --- ---
7. Desktop publishing was introduced in the year --------

6.5 INTERNET

The Internet has revolutionized the communication methods the world. Sitting
at a workstation or a PC, one can get any kind of information one wants. The latest
technological advances have enabled it to be used as a business tool as well, with the
result that companies are today spending considerable amount of money on internet
research. The amalgamation of Computer and Communication technologies has
resulted in the integration of data, sound and video on the internet, which in turn has
made it a powerful tool for reengineering business, processes the world over.
6.5.1 INTERNET AND ITS COMPONENTS
Definition of Internet
The Internet is a system that lets computers all over the world to communicate
with each other. The internet is a network of networks that connects computers all
over the world.
Origin of Internet
In 1960's the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) of US Defense
department funded a project to connect university computer scientists and engineers
via their computers and telephone lines. This project called ARPANET, allowed
researches to share each other's computer facilities over long distances. Email has
been used by the user for their communication during the war time.
As more and more computers connected, the ARPANET was replaced by the
NSFNET, which was run by National Science Foundation.
In late 1980's the barrier of NSFNET for using military and Research people
has been broken away. By that it has reached public to use it.
In 1989, the WWW has emerged for information services and 1990's the
combination of Email, the web and online chat boosted the use of Internet Service
across National and International prominence.

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Purpose of Internet
One can use the internet for the following purpose:
i. To exchange electronic mail with friends all over the globe for a small price.
ii. To participate in group discussions in topics of interest, through public news
groups.
iii. To find educational tools, Universities around the world, books stores, and
libraries are sharing online information.
iv. To shop-Commercial electronic store fronts are growing in number in USA and
Europe. One can order different products over the Internet.
v. In the case of business one can get technical support for products one is using.
One can publish information such as technical or marketing literature.
vi. Because the Internet is electronic, one can make changes to reflect late breaking
news that would be impossible for printed publications. Change becomes easier,
updates are simpler and information is instant.
vii. The Internet has become the first global venue for publishing information. This
network has enough users now and it is benefiting from the positive feed back
loop: the more users it gets, the more content it gets; and the more content it
gets, the more users it gets.
The Components of the Internet are explained as follows:
Internet Service Provider (ISP)
An ISP is an organization that provides dial-in Internet account, usually a
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or a SLIP account.
To use a PPP account, the user need a PPP compatible program such as
windows dialup networking program. This program dials the phone by using the
modem, connects to the ISP, logs into the account with username and password, and
connects to the ISP. Thus connecting the computer to Internet once Connected, the
browser can be used to read the e-mail, browse the web and access other services of
the internet. After completion of the browsing disconnect from the internet with the
help of disconnect option in the dial-up networking. After connection establishment,
the computer will be one among the billions of systems in the Internet.

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Computer Address (IP)
Each host computer on the Internet has a unique number and it is called as
Internet Protocol Address (IP Address). It is in the format of a.b.c.d, where the values
of a, b, c and d will be in range of 0 to 255 and each one is called an octet. For
example 192.168.32.251 is an IP Address of any host in the Internet.
A telephone number identifies a particular telephone. Similar is the IP
Address. It identifies a particular Computer in the Internet. When a system is
connected in the Internet an IP address is allocated dynamically by the ISP. By getting
that IP Address, the host can communicate with each other system available in any
part of the world.
Internet Protocols
A set of rules is called a Protocol. The most commonly used protocols are
i. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP / IP)
ii. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
iii. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
i. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol (TCP/ IP)
TCP / IP are actually a collection of protocols, or rules, that govern the way
data travels from one machine to another across networks. The Internet is based on
TCP /IP. TCP / IP have two major components: TCP and IP.
a. IP: The IP component does the following
i. Envelopes and addresses the data.
ii. Enables the network to read the envelope and forward the data to its destination.
iii. Defines how much data can fit in a single “envelope”.
b. TCP: The TCP component does the following
i. Breaks data up into packets that the network can handle efficiently.
ii. Verifies whether all the packets have arrived at their destination.
iii. “Reassembles” the data.
ii. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
FTP or File Transfer Protocol is used to transfer files between computers on
internet. These are two types of FTP connections, anonymous and not-anonymous.
These are also two types of file transfer, ASCII and binary. ASCII is for text transfer
only. Binary transfer are for transferring any thing else.

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iii. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is the set of rules, or Protocol, that governs the transfer of hypertext
between two or more computers. The World Wide Web encompasses the universe of
information that is available via HTTP.
HTTP is based on the Client / Server principle. HTTP allows “Computer A”
(the Client) to establish a connection with “Computer B” (the Server) and make a
request. The server accepts the connection initiated by the client and sends back a
response. A HTTP request identifies the resource that the client is interested in and
tells the server what “action” to take on the resource. When a user selects a hypertext
link, the client program on their computer uses HTTP to contact the server, identify a
resource, and ask the server to respond with an action. The server accepts the request,
and then uses HTTP to respond to or perform the action.
Telnet
Telnet is a service of the internet that allows to access remote computers
outside the area. Many computers in the internet are set up to allow telnet access.
Some requires login names and passwords but many do not have restrictions. Through
telnet, we can access libraries, data bases and other public services all over the world.
Gopher
Gopher is a distributed information service, developed at the University of
Minnesota that makes hierarchical collections of information available across the
Internet. Gopher uses a simple protocol that allows a single Gopher client to access
information from any accessible Gopher Server, providing the user with a single
“Gopher Space” of information. Public domain versions of the client and server are
also available.
Wide Area Information Service (WAIS)
WAIS is an Internet Search tool that is based on the Z39.50 standard. The
Z39.50 standard describes a protocol, or set of rules, for computer-to-computer
information retrieval.
WAIS also works on the client /server principle. A WAIS client program
enables the user's computer to contact a WAIS server, submit a search query, and
receive a response to the query.
WAIS has the capability of simultaneously searching in more than one
database. After the search phrase has been typed into the client interface, the user can
then choose which databases should be used to complete the search. Depending on the

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WAIS client software being used, this may be a matter of using a mouse to select
database names displayed on a screen, or of typing in the database names using the
keyboard.
Uniform Resource Locator (URL)
A URL identifies a particular Internet resource; for example a web page, a
Gopher server, a library catalog, an image, or a text file. URLs represent a
standardized addressing scheme for Internet resources, and help the users to locate
these resources by indicating exactly where they are. Every resource available via the
World Wide Web has a unique URL.
URLs consist of letters, numbers and punctuation. The basic structure of a
URL is hierarchical, and the hierarchy moves from left to right.
Protocol: // Server-name. Domain-name. Top-level-domain: port / directory
/filename.
World Wide Web (WWW)
World Wide Web is also called the WEB, WWW and W3 is an interlink
collection of hyper text documents residing on web servers and other documents,
menus and databases, available via URLs. Web documents are marked formatting and
linking with Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) and web servers use hypertext
transport protocol to deliver web pages. It is the multimedia experience on the
Internet. The WWW consists of pages where we can find out just about anything we
want or don't want to know about. The best place to start is to a search on one of the
many search engines. Click on the net search button at the top of browser and follow
instructions.
Internet Relay Chat (IRC)
IRC is a multi-user chat system that allows many people to communicate
simultaneously across the Internet, in real time. IRC conversations take place on
channels and a person can chat with other people by typing messages at the keyboard.
IRC is where to meet people on the net. There is a channel for just about anything.
First few words of warning after that IRC is a great place of visit. One can meet
people from all over world and can talk about any subject.
News Groups
News groups are like an international bulletin board. Each group is a forum for
a different subject, where the user can post questions and answers. There are many
thousands of groups covering just about any area of interest. The user can just Internet

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explorers or Netscape Navigator to view these groups. Any post that we make to a
new group will be sent all over the world to every news server on the planet, so never
post anything personal to newsgroup. Also, these are many newsgroups which may
contain material that is not suitable for children.
Usenet
Usenet is the international meeting place where people gather to meet their
friends, discuss the day's events, keep up with computer trends, or talk about what
ever is one their mind. Jumping into a Usenet discussion can be a liberation
experience. The basic building block of Usenet is the news group, which is a
collection of messages with related theme. On other networks, these are called
conferences, forums, bulletin boards, or special interest groups. Not all Internet hosts
subscribe to Usenet and not all Usenet hosts are on the Internet. These are dozens of
software packages used at various sites to transport and read Usenet articles.
Electronic Mail: (E-mail)
E-mail stands for Electronic mail. It is the most widely used tool to send and
receive messages electronically on a network. It is the most widely used internet
resources. Just as, a written letter can be sent to multiple recipients, on electronic
mail, message can be sent to one or more e-mail addresses.
An E-mail address identifies a person and the Computer for purposes of
exchanging electronic mail messages.
6.5.2 USES OF INTERNET
The key to success of Internet is the information. The better the quality, the
more usage of Internet operations.
Large volume of Information: Internet can be used to collect information from
around the world. This information could relate to education, medicine, literature,
software, computers, business, entertainment, friendship and leisure. People can
search for information by visiting the home page of various search engines such as
Google, Yahoo, Bing, etc.
News and Journals: All the newspapers, magazines and journals of the world are
available on the Internet. With the introduction of broadband and 3G services, the
speed of internet service has increased tremendously. A person can get the latest
news about the world in a matter of few minutes.

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Electronic Mode of Communication: Internet has given the most exciting mode of
communication to all. We can send an E-mail (the short form of Electronic Mailing
System) to all the corners of the world.
Chatting: There are many chatting software that can be used to send and receive real-
time messages over the internet. We can chat with our friend and relatives using any
one of the chatting software.
Social Networking: People can connect with old friends on social networking sites.
They can even chat with them when they are online. People are even concluding
business deals over these social networking sites such as Facebook.
Online Banking (Net-Banking): The use of internet can also be seen in the field of
banking transactions. Many banks such as HSBC, SBI, Axis Bank, Hdfc Bank, etc.
offers online banking facilities to its customers. They can transfer funds from one
account to another using the net-banking facility.
E-commerce: Internet is also used for carrying out business operations and that set of
operations is known as Electronic Commerce (E-commerce). Flipkart is the largest e-
commerce company in India. The rival, Amazon, is giving stiff competition to
Flipkart.
Mobile commerce: Mobile commerce (also M-Commerce) refers to the commercial
transaction that takes place over the mobile internet. Using the mobile internet
technology, many companies have introduced mobile version of websites and mobile
apps, to promote and sell their products. Customers can simply browse several
through the products and buy online through mobile internet.
Mobile wallet: Many companies offer the service of mobile wallet to its customers.
Users must have a smart-phone and internet connection to use this service. Users can
pay an amount into their mobile wallet, which they can use to make online payment
such as bill payments, recharges, etc.
Entertainment: Apart from a major source of knowledge and information, the utility
of Internet in the field of entertainment cannot be undermined. We can visit various
video sites and watch movies and serials at our convenient time.
Technology of the Future: Internet is the technology of future. In the times to come,
offices would be managed at distant places through Internet.
Internet is very useful for everyone. It is the superhighway of information. The
cost of Internet has been reduced over-time. The cost of the computer system, modem
and other associated hardware is also likely to come down. In case computer system is
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not available, one can browse internet over the mobile phones. All major smart-
phones support browsing functionality.
6.5.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
9. WWW has emerged for information services in the year------------
10. The particular Internet resource is identified by----------
11--------is the international meeting place where people gather to meet their
friends,
12. WAIS also works on the---------------principle
13. HTTP is

6.6 E-LEARNING

Did you know that almost everyone who uses a computer has completed some
type of e-learning? Perhaps it was called web-based training, or online learning, or
computer-based training, but it's all under the same e-learning umbrella. E-learning
can encompass a wide variety of online initiatives. So a good, broad way to think
about e-learning is as the use of electronic media (computers, tablets, or phones) to
educate or train learners.
6.6.1 DEFINITION OF E-LEARNING
E-learning is mostly associated with activities involving computers and
interactive networks simultaneously. The computer does not need to be the central
element of the activity or provide learning content. However, the computer and the
network must hold a significant involvement in the learning activity.
Evolving E-Learning
The past decade has radically transformed e-learning. In the early days, e-
learning courses were typically custom creations, coded by programmers and
developers who used highly specialized tools and code to create these courses. In
those days, it could easily require an entire team to create a simple, linear e-learning
course. Very few people had the skills or knowledge to do so on their own.

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 Now, with advances in technology, creating e-learning is much more
accessible. The course development tools have advanced to a point where just about
anyone can create an e-learning course, without any programming or coding
knowledge.
Changes in technology have also impacted the types of hardware tools we use.
We've gone from using desktop computers exclusively to a mix of desktops, laptops,
tablets, and smartphones. Naturally, e-learning has followed suit to span the array of
devices we use. In fact, e-learning developed specifically for mobile devices, such as
tablets and smartphones, is sometimes referred to as as “m-learning,” or mobile
learning.
The learner's experience of accessing e-learning has also evolved. It wasn't so
long ago that learners had to first add custom applications and/or download players
before they could view course content. This setup often took time and was fraught
with challenges for the learner—even before the course started.
Then, in the late nineties, Adobe Flash became the standard for e-learning,
which made it really simple to view and share e-learning content. For nearly a decade,
a majority of browsers came with Flash, so learners could play courses through the
Flash player in their browser. However, now that many mobile devices and tablets are
not Flash compatible, many developers are shifting to HTML5 to publish and share e-
learning courses.
6.6.2 VALUE OF E-LEARNING
E-learning offers a lot of value compared to more traditional training options,
like facilitated sessions or lectures. E-learning ...
 can be either an asynchronous or synchronous activity: Traditionally,
e-learning has been asynchronous, which means there is no predetermined time
for the learning to take place. Everyone can go at their own pace, and take their
time to learn what they need to know, when they need to know it. However,
more synchronous e-learning is now being offered through web conferencing
and chat options. The great thing about e-learning is it gives you the option to do
one, or both.
 has a global reach: E-learning can simply be placed online and easily accessed
by people around the world. There is no need for expensive travel or meetings
across multiple time zones.

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  spans multiple devices/mobile: Online courses can work on computers as well
as on mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets. This means e-learning
courses can literally be in the hands of the people who need them, at all times.
 is just-in-time/needs-based: It's possible to create, publish, and share a course
within a few hours. The software is so easy to use that almost anyone can create
engaging courses.
 reduces costs: All of the above-mentioned factors result in a cost savings for
organizations that use e-learning courses to replace some of their traditional
instructor-led training.
As the world becomes more connected and globalized, more people have
consistent access to the internet, computers, smartphones, and other technological
devices. When we provide people with learning opportunities on these devices, they
can use them to access timely resources and training while on the job.
The value of e-learning is that it can save time and money. It can often be more
efficient to develop one course that can be distributed electronically and consistently
to thousands, versus one that's delivered in person to training groups, where the
message, equipment, and other conditions can vary enough to affect the outcome of
the course.
6.6.3 COMMON E-LEARNING TERMS/TOOLS
There are countless tools, techniques, people, acronyms and resources
associated with e-learning. Below we cover some of the ones we think you are likely
to come across.

Tool / Term Description

Virtual learning An online space provided by the institution to support e-learning. All
environment (VLE) forms of digital media can be delivered using its various tools. There
is a wide range of VLEs on the market.

Personal learning A concept of understanding that individuals utilise a range of

environment (PLE) networks – combining both institutional and personal networks and
devices to learn.

Blackboard Example of a VLE that is commonly used in the UK.

Moodle An Open Source VLE that is commonly used in the UK.

Podcast, either A method of delivering multimedia content. The video podcasts are

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video or audio sometimes called vodcasts/vidcasts.

RSS A method used to push and pull content across the Internet.
Particularly useful for subscribing to a podcast
http://web2practice.jiscinvolve.org/rss-2/

Face-to-face A method of delivering teaching and learning that is normally used to

teaching distinguish between the classroom teaching environment and online.

Learning object An object such as an audio file. Courses are typically made of many
learning objects

Blended learning A method of delivering teaching and learning that involves both face-
to-face teaching and the use of technology together at the same time.
For example the internet may be used to support a session that
includes interactive tasks for the learner.

Distance learning Delivering teaching and learning remotely, typically using

technology and the internet Multimedia resource are often
incorporated to provide context to text-based resources.

Discussion forum A communication tool for posting

messages/work/comments/opinions. Often text-based but some do
offer the ability to use multimedia.

Blog A way of posting educational material online, normally organised by

date and topic category. Images, video and audio can be shared in
this manner. Blogs typically allow commenting, which can be a
useful feature for teaching and learning.

Wiki An editable tool for working with others that has a trackable history
of changes (wikipedia is the most popular example).
Much like a blog, its strength is that can be used to share multimedia
resource.

Web 2.0 Essentially leveraging some of the more recent developments to

support better interaction including social features.
Many of these web 2.0 services provide community tools for sharing
and commenting on resources, such as video.

Web service A web delivered service that can be used for many types of activity
including the storage and delivery of multimedia. Examples of web
services include YouTube and web storage.

Netbook A laptop that is very lightweight, portable and is often cheaper than
most laptops. In order to achieve this, typically size and power are

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 sacrificed. They can be used to create, use, manage and deliver
multimedia.

e-book reader Used to read digital e-books. Many of these readers can play audio
books and/or read text out loud.

Flash player A plug-in piece of software that adds functionality to the browser.
Many e-learning resources have been created using Flash and most
web videos at present use this technology.

Mobile learning Using mobile devices including mobile phones to facilitate teaching
(use of mobile and learning.
phones and other
handheld devices)

Open-source Software that is provided under a license that permits the user to
software have access to the source code.
Open source software can be used to create, consume and delivery
multimedia. An example is the audio editing tool ‘audacity' which is
very popular for creating and editing audio podcasts.

Creative Commons A way to share copyrighted work within a documented license

licensing scheme. Creative Commons licenses are increasingly applied to
teaching resources that are typically made available using the
internet.

HTML The structural code that makes websites. Multimedia is typically

delivered from websites that are built from HTML.
Websites in turn allow us to produce e-learning for teaching and
learning.

Scripts Bits of code that add additional functionality to a website or service.

Scripts can be created to support teaching and learning.
For example, JavaScript is used to increase the functionality of the
browser which can be used to create interactive based activity.

Web browser A browser is a piece of software that allows us to interact with the
web via a computer. Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox are two
popular examples of web browsers that provide access to e-learning
material and multimedia resources

Social media Social media tools are used to communicate between people on the
web and can be used to support teaching and learning. For example it
is often desirable to use social media tools to facilitate online
community opportunities including learner collaboration

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6.6.4 SOFTWARE USED FOR CREATING E-LEARNING
In the early days of e-learning, only programmers and coders had the complex
programming skills to create e-learning courses. Then came applications like
Authorware, which still required programming, and Microsoft PowerPoint, which
came into play in the late 1980s. PowerPoint quickly became the go-to tool for
designing slide-based e-learning courses for much of the 1990s.
A huge leap forward for e-learning development occurred with the advent of
PowerPoint-to-Flash tools. With that advancement, developers could convert
PowerPoint courses, which were rarely interactive, to Flash, without needing to do
any programming. Developers could also use form-based tools like Articulate Engage
to push the creative envelope of their content beyond what they could do in
PowerPoint.
The new millennium saw even more advancements as new tools were
introduced. With these, the average layperson was better equipped to design and build
their own e-learning courses. Today's e-learning authoring tools are typically broken
down into two categories: form-based and free-form development.
Form-based authoring tools:
Using a form-based application means certain aspects of the e-learning course
are prebuilt. You simply need to add in the proper text, images, and colors. With
different combinations of these, you can vary the look of the interactions created from
the same form.
Form-based tools are great for people who want to develop content quickly.
They also work well for people who are less technical, or who are newer to e-learning
and want less of a learning curve. Articulate Engage (part of the Articulate Studio
suite) is a perfect example of a form-based tool. The application comes with 20
prebuilt interactions, from a bulletin board to a circle diagram to a pyramid
interaction. All you do is use the form-based tool to add your own information.
Free-form authoring tools:
While form-based tools offer prebuilt key functionalities, free-form software
does just the opposite. A free-form tool generally starts you out with a blank slide,
and you then build the entire functionality and design for yourself. This gives you
more options for customizing the look, and is better suited to someone who is
comfortable with the technology. Free-form applications are often used to create
highly customized, complex e-learning modules.

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 The trade-off with free-form authoring is that you have to make every little
decision, which requires more planning. For example, say you wanted to create a tabs
interaction. If you used the form-based tool in Engage, you'd be finished in minutes.
If you wanted to use a free-form tool, you'd need more time to determine the screen
layout, colors, interactive elements, and logic of how the tabs work.
In short, free-form gives you more power and more options, but it also
requires more skill and time.
6.6.5 SHARING OF E-LEARNING
Once you've created an e-learning course, you need to distribute it to learners.
There are many ways to do this, and—like everything else related to e-learning—
those ways are constantly evolving and improving. Here, I'd like to look at two ways
to share content: informal distribution and formal distribution.
Informal distribution
Informal distribution of e-learning content typically means users are trusted to
view the e-learning course, and are not tracked or scored for completion. One way to
informally share an e-learning course is to put it on a web server, then send
participants the link and have them view the course. You don't really have a
systematic way of knowing whether learners have completed the course, but
sometimes that's not necessary.
Formal distribution
Sharing an e-learning course formally means there's a need to track and record
learner results. Most organizations that have a need for formal distribution of e-
learning have specific systems and standards in place for this.
Tracking is usually done in what is called a Learning Management System
(LMS). Certain standards are in place to report the information to the LMS, including
AICC, SCORM, and, more recently, Tin Can.
A Few Important Terms to Understand the Distribution of E-learning:
 LMS: LMS stands for Learning Management System and refers to software
used to administer, track, report, and document the delivery of your e-learning
courses.
 SCORM: A Shareable Content Object Reference Model is a collection of
specifications and standards for e-learning, which allows communication
between the e-learning content and the LMS. There are several versions of
SCORM.

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  AICC: The Aviation Industry Computer-Based Training Committee is a set of
specifications designed so learning technology vendors can spread their costs
across multiple markets.
 Tin Can: Tin Can API (Application Programming Interface) is a new
specification for e-learning, which is not tied to an LMS and collects data about
a person's learning experiences across various devices. These devices are able to
communicate with each other using this new spec.

6.6.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
14. E-learning developed specifically for mobile devices called -------
15. A laptop that is very lightweight, portable and is often cheaper than most
laptops is called ------
16. LMS stands for ----------
17. VLE stands for ----------
18. PLE stands for ------------

6.7 VIRTUAL LEARNING

Learning is one of the never ending processes. There is tremendous to learn

everyday as there is the technology developing every day. Since it happens daily, one
can say that it is pretty difficult for everyone to get directly in touch with all the
updates. But there has also been the development made even for that. Yes, the answer
is the virtual learning sessions happening in most of educational institutions. Here we
can have a discussion in detail about the features and the advantages of the virtual
leaning process.
The rapid development in information and communication technology (ICT)
provides such as computers, interactive multimedia CD-ROMs, e-mail and internet.
The use of such well advanced technologies has now enabled the learners of flexible
learning to stimulate a virtual learning and take the learners to a virtual campus where
teacher learner interaction becomes possible in the cyberspace. The World Wide Web
technology is a vehicle for disseminating course materials and for creating active
experiences within a classroom-based course.

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6.7.1 DEFINITION OF VIRTUAL LEARNING
“A generic term to describe a broad range of ICT systems which are used to
deliver and support learning. A learning platform usually combines several functions,
such as organizing, mapping and delivering curriculum activities and the facility for
learners and teachers to have a dialogue about the activity, all via ICT. ”
virtual learning environment is a set of teaching and learning tools designed to
enhance a student's learning experience by including computers and the Internet in
the learning process.
A Virtual learning environment is a system designed to support teaching
and learning in an educational setting. The main feature of the virtual learning process
is that there will be learning from home option which makes the learning process
more widespread than any other learning process. VLE has the potential to change the
way we learn. The virtual learning process usually begins with the installation of the
virtual learning software in your system. The internet serves as the medium for the
virtual learning process. The internet helps the user to get connected with training
room which is present at a remote connection. The virtual learning process has the
presence of the teachers who are present at a distant location and also there is the
video conferencing made to the students live on the teaching-learning process.
The students in the virtual learning rooms also have the feature to ask doubts
to which the teacher is able to respond immediately. The process of virtual learning
also has the books and other regular features. The exams are mostly conducted
through online and the results of the virtual learning also are declared online.
The principal components of a VLE package include curriculum mapping to
support breaking curriculum into sections that can be assigned and assessed; learner
tracking; online support for both instructor and learner; and electronic communication
tools such as email and Internet links to outside curriculum resources. Furthermore, a
VLE is not only a well-structured information space but also includes the functional
relationship between how information is structured and represented and how it can be
used in learning activities and interaction.
A VLE will normally work over the Internet and provide a collection of tools
such as those for assessment (particularly of types that can be marked automatically,
such as multiple choice), communication, uploading of content, return of students'
work, peer assessment, administration of student groups, collecting and organizing

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student grades, questionnaires, tracking tools, etc. New features in these systems
include wikis, blogs, RSS and 3D virtual learning spaces.
6.7.2 FEATURES OF VLEs
 Synchronous Vs. asynchronous: A lecture streamed through the online
classroom live is a synchronous event. Video and audio that is pre-recorded is
asynchronous and allows students to take in the material at different times.
Synchronous events are often archived for students unable to participate at the
time of the broadcast. With synchronous features, VLEs often provide a way
for students to ask questions via a chat function.
 Multimedia capabilities: Depending on the VLE, instructors may include
video and audio materials or set up video conferences with students. It's
important to determisne whether video will be streaming, i.e. playing through
your Internet connection, or if you'll need specific software with which to
download and play the video. It's Learning allows students to record audio and
video using the classroom interface.
 Browser vs. application access: You will be accessing the virtual classroom
from any computer with an Internet connection (browser access) or will you
need to download and install specific software on your personal computer
 Mobile access: Increasingly, VLEs are beginning to allow for access from
PDAs and smart phones.
 Document management: Documents can be organized in different ways.
Often the VLE has both shared and private, or permission based, areas for
coursework and other materials. It includes a Webliography, dedicated area for
sharing web links. Desire to Learn's Locker feature allows students to securely
store their own documents and invite others to view selected items.
 Discussion: Threaded discussions are the backbone of VLEs. Instructors can
now add features such as video and audio conferences and live chat to the
interactive options.
 Assignments: Most VLEs have something called a drop box where students
can upload finished assignments for review by the instructor.
 Real time interaction: e-College's Class Live feature combines a live chat
with a whiteboard function, allowing the instructor to demonstrate information
with graphs and slideshows. Live Room is a similar feature designed by

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 Desire2Learn that can incorporate PowerPoint files and allow participants to
ask questions in real time.
 Quizzes and tests: Instructors can administer quizzes and tests with most
VLEs. Once a student begins the test, most often a series questions with boxes
in which to type answers, they are prevented from backing up or exiting the
quiz page.
6.7.3 ADVANTAGES OF VIRTUAL LEARNING
The concept of virtual learning environment is becoming famous all around
the world because of the following advantages.
1. VLE is often used in schools and other educational establishments in order to
make the learning experience more interactive.
2. While originally created for distance education, VLEs are now most often used
to supplement traditional face to face classroom activities, commonly known
as Blended Learning.
3. These systems usually run on servers, to serve the course to
students Multimedia and/or web pages.
4. Anyone can learn and the necessity to spend a whole lot of time is not required.
5. Learning is made flexible and adaptable to the comfort of the end user in the
phenomenon of virtual learning.
6. Lot of time is saved and also there is updating of the knowledge with all the
technology available. Thus one can conclude that the virtual learning process is
really a boon to those whose passion is learning and knowing more.
7. One can surely enroll in any of the virtual learning short training sessions that
are happening a lot more nowadays.
8. Students will begin to maximize their learning through customized and
individualized learning.
9. With one-to-one computing, brought about by powerful, smaller and thinner
devices (PDAs and Web pads), teachers will finally be able to offer meaningful,
formative, ongoing assessment targeting individual needs.
6.7.4 DIFFERENT FORMS OF VIRTUAL LEARNING
 Computer-Based: Instruction is not provided by a teacher; instead, instruction
is provided by software installed on a local computer or server. This software
can frequently customize the material to suit the specific needs of each
student.

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  Internet-Based: This is similar to computer-based instruction, but in this case,
the software that provides the instruction is delivered through the Web and
stored on a remote server.
 Remote Teacher Online: Instruction is provided by a teacher, but that teacher
is not physically present with the student. Instead, the teacher interacts with
the student via the Internet, through such media as online video, online
forums, e-mail and instant messaging.
 Blended Learning: This combines traditional face-to-face instruction, directed
by a teacher, with computer-based, Internet-based or remote teacher online
instruction. In effect, instruction comes from two sources: a traditional
classroom teacher, and at least one of the forms of virtual learning described
above.
 Facilitated Virtual Learning: This is computer-based, Internet-based or
remote teacher online instruction that is supplemented by a human
“facilitator.” This facilitator does not direct the student's instruction, but rather
assists the student's learning process by providing tutoring or additional
supervision. The facilitator may be present with the learner or communicating
remotely via the Web or other forms of electronic communication.
Similar forms of virtual learning are sometimes grouped into broader categories:
 Online Learning: This is any form of instruction that takes place over the
Internet. It includes Internet-based instruction; remote teacher online
instruction; and blended learning and facilitated virtual learning that involves
these two virtual learning methods. It excludes computer-based learning.
Full-Time Online: This is online learning with no regular face-to-face instruction or
facilitation. It is Internet-based and remote teacher online learning only, though it
may include some occasional interaction with human teachers and facilitators.
6.7.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
19. The dedicated area for sharing web links is called-----
20. A lecture streamed through the online classroom live is a -------
21. Any form of instruction that takes place over the Internet is----

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6.8. WEB-BASED LEARNING

6.8.1 DEFINITION OF WEB-BASED LEARNING

Web-based learning encompasses all educational interventions that make use
of the internet (or a local intranet). There are currently three broad classifications or
configurations within WBL: tutorials, online discussion groups, and virtual patients.
Online tutorials are similar to face-to-face lectures. They generally consist of
information structured by the teacher in a way that will (hopefully) facilitate learning.
Tutorials are often enhanced by features such as multimedia (sound, pictures, movies,
and animations), links to online resources (full-text journal articles or related
websites) and other areas within the course, and self-assessment tools. Effective
online tutorials often also make use of patient cases. Online discussion is similar to
the face-to-face small group session.
6.8.2 ADVANTAGES OF WEB-BASED LEARNING
Perhaps the most obvious advantage of WBL is that it overcomes physical
distances. This is the cardinal feature separating WBL from other computer-assisted
instructional methods, and enables WBL to facilitate the teaching of students scattered
across different practice sites in the same city, different cities, and even different
countries.. The result of distance independence is that learners have the opportunity to
participate in the same instructional activities regardless of physical location.
Flexible scheduling
Along with flexibility in physical location, WBL offers flexibility in timing of
participation. In contrast to lectures given at a fixed time, learners can access a WBL
tutorial. Participating in an asynchronous online discussion group also offers
flexibility, but it is tempered by the need to respond to communications from other
group members in a timely manner and adhere to agreed schedules. Easily updated
perpetual resource.
Changes in medical practice and feedback from students often prompt teachers
to update or alter their course. With WBL, such changes can be made quickly and
easily, and avoid the expense of reprinting the course syllabus. Other faculty, and
even students, can also be involved in the process of updating the course. Web-based
learning products persist long after the course ends.

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Individualised learning
Web-based learning offers the promise of individualized learning. Learners
can be given greater control over the learning environment by allowing them to select
from among multiple different learning opportunities within a given course and move
at their own pace. Learners struggling to learn a topic can pursue remedial work, those
interested in learning more can do so, and those already familiar with the topic can
move quickly to the next. Likewise, asynchronous communication in an online
discussion group allows learners to tailor participation to their needs; those desiring or
requiring more time for study and reflection can use it.
Another way to individualise instruction involves adaptive instruction in
which the computer uses information about the learner to alter and thus optimise the
learning experience. Adaptation has been suggested in response to various individual
differences including baseline knowledge of the subject matter, motivation, attitudes
toward computers, and learning and cognitive styles.
Novel instructional methods
Web-based learning facilitates several instructional methods that would be
infeasible or at least difficult in traditional settings. . This provides the opportunity to
‘experience' uncommon scenarios, facilitates the repetition (deliberate practice) and
temporal spacing (distributed practice) required for enduring learning, and allows
communication of detailed performance-based feedback. Other learning exercises,
such as interactive models and games, or using the internet to search for and
assimilate information from multiple sources, can engage learners. Multimedia
(colour, sound, video, photographs, graphics, and animations) can enrich a course in
ways that would be difficult, if not impossible, using a textbook. The asynchronous
nature of many online discussion groups allows time to think deeply about the issues
at hand and spend time constructing a thoughtful response. This is in contrast to a
face-to-face setting where the conversation may move on before a learner has had
time to grasp the concepts let alone formulate a question or comment.
Assessment and documentation
Finally, WBL facilitates assessment and documentation of educational
objectives. Online assessment has the same flexibility in distance and timing as the
WBL intervention, and also allows immediate customised feedback. Furthermore, in
an age when documentation of learning tasks and competence is increasingly
expected, WBL can serve a useful administrative purpose.
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Automated record-keeping can verify exactly what content.
6.8.3 DISADVANTAGES OF WEB-BASED LEARNING
Social isolation
Flexibility in time and location means that the learner using WBL tutorials and
virtual patients is often studying alone, which over time may lead to a percept on of
social isolation. Online discussion groups have a distinct social organisation which
differs to that of a face-to-face small group. In an era when teamwork and team
learning is increasingly valued, will WBL build or detract from critical interpersonal
relationships and communication skills?
De-individualised instruction
Despite the promise of individualised instruction noted above, it has yet to be
clearly shown that these theoretical promises bear fruit as hoped. On the contrary,
more often WBL fails to respond to the individual needs of the learner. Whereas a
good teacher can monitor the group and adapt instruction to accommodate various
learning needs, adaptive WBL interventions must be explicitly programmed to
monitor, recognise, and respond appropriately to individual needs.
Cost
Offsetting the potential economies of scale are the large up-front costs
associated with developing WBL. While it is a simple matter to convert an existing
textbook, syllabus, or lecture to a web-based format, such conversions rarely if ever
constitute effective instruction. In contrast, the development of an effective online
tutorial or virtual tutoring can be very expensive
Technical problems
Despite best intentions, technical problems are inevitable with virtually all
instructional media (for example, running out of chalk when teaching with a
blackboard). However, as instructional media become more dependent upon
technology the impact of technical problems becomes greater. In the absence of chalk
a good teacher could improvise and teach, but serious computer problems will
completely disrupt a WBL course.
Poor instructional design
The quality of instructional design varies in all teaching settings. However, in
WBL this is more obvious because once complete a website can be viewed and
critiqued by all users. Furthermore, in contrast to a face-to-face course in which a

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talented instructor can teach with minimal preparation, instruction in WBL must be
explicitly planned and implemented. WBL more sensitive to flawed designs.
Technology for technology’s sake
Perhaps not so much a disadvantage as a potential error, many educators and
administrators are seeking out WBL and other education technologies for the sake of
technology, rather than to achieve an educational goal. It is as though the technology
train is leaving the station and no one wants to be left behind. Unfortunately, this has
often led to poor instructional design (as noted above) or, worse yet, the use of WBL
in situations in which other instructional methods or media would be more effective.

6.8.4 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit.
22. Web-based learning is based on --------
23. WBL facilitates assessment and documentation of ---------
24. Web-based learning offers the promise of -------
25. WBL offers-------in timing of participation.

6.9 TELECONFERENCING

6.9.1 MEANING Of TELECONFERENCING

The term teleconferencing refers to electronic meetings that involve people
who are at physically different sites.
Telecommunication technology system allows meeting participants to interact
with one another without travelling to the same location.Teleconferencing is an
important form of electronic meeting systems. Sessions are held in real time, with
major participants being televised while participants at remote sites usually take part
with voice input of questions and responses. Teleconferencing can also consist of
using closed-circuit television to reach large groups at multiple sites. Several major
communication carriers and hotel chains now offer teleconferencing services for such
events as sales meetings, new product announcements, and employee education and
training. Three different types of teleconferencing exist: audio teleconferencing, video
teleconferencing and computer conferencing.

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6.9.2 AUDIO CONFERENCING
Audio conferencing is the use of voice communication equipments to establish
an audio link between geographically dispersed persons, one that allows them to
conduct a conference. The conference call was the first form of audit conferencing
and is still in use. Some firms install more elaborate systems consisting of private,
high-quality audio communications circuits that can be activated with the flip of a
switch. Audio conferencing does not require a computer. It only requires a two-way
audio communications facility. Audio conferencing is best suited for firms that are
spread over a wide area. However, since it is a form of synchronous communication
that requires all participants to be present at the same time, it is difficult to schedule
conferences when time zones are far apart.
6.9.3 VIDEO CONFERENCING
Video conferencing is the use of television equipment to link geographically
dispersed conference participants. The equipment provides both sound and picture.
Like audio conferencing, video conferencing also does not necessarily require a
computer.With video conferencing, participants can see and hear each other.
Generally, participants gather in relatively expensive, specially equipped rooms that
can handle the complexities of simultaneous video and audio transmission. There are
three possible video conferencing configurations.
One-Way Video and Audio: Video and audio signals are sent from a single
transmitting site to one or more receiving sites. This is a good way for a project leader
to disseminate information to team members at remote locations.
One-Way Video and Two-Way Audio: People at the receiving sites can talk to
people at the transmitting site, while everyone views the same video images.
Two-Way Video and Audio: The video and audio communications between all sites
are two-way. Although this is the most effective of the electronically aided
conferencing approaches, it can be the most expensive as well.
6.9.4 COMPUTER CONFERENCING
A third form of electronic conferencing is computer conferencing. There is a
fine line between this system and Email. Both use the same software and hardware.
Two factors determine this application, who uses the system, and the subject matter.
E-mail is available to any one who has access to the network and that includes
practically everyone in the office. Also, the E-mail system can be used for any
purpose. Computer conferencing, on the other hand, is the use of a networked

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computer that allows particular task. Computer conferencing is more disciplined form
of E-mail. Unlike an audio conference, a, computer conference group can consist of
large number of participants. One of the largest computer conferences was formed
within IBM to include anyone who had an interest in the IBM PC. Its members
exceeded 40,000, and there were over 4,000 separate topic areas. Computer
conferencing differs from audio and video conferencing because it can be used within
a single geographic site. A person can use computer conferencing to communicate
with someone in the office next door.
6.9.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with given
answers at the end of the unit
26. The electronic meetings that involve people who are at physically
different sites is called ------
27. The use of voice communication equipments to establish an audio link
between geographically dispersed persons is called ----
28. The use of television equipment to link geographically dispersed
participants is called----------

6.10 LET US SUM UP

Technology provides numerous tools that teachers can use in and out of the
classroom to enhance student learning. Technology can support student collaboration
on creating new knowledge, reflecting on what they are learning, or working together
to achieve a deeper understanding of course material. Educational technology
includes numerous types of media that deliver text, audio, images, animation, and
streaming video, and includes technology applications and processes such as audio or
video tape, satellite TV, CD-ROM, and computer-based learning, as well as local
intranet/extranet and web-based learning. Information and communication systems,
whether free-standing or based on either local networks or the Internet in networked
learning, underlie many e-learning processes.
Theoretical perspectives and scientific testing influence instructional design.
The application of theories of human behavior to educational technology derives input
from instructional theory, learning theory, educational psychology, media
psychology and human performance technology.

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 Educational technology and e-learning can occur in or out of the classroom. It
can be self-paced, asynchronous learning or may be instructor-led, synchronous
learning. It is suited to distance learning and in conjunction with face-to-face
teaching, which is termed blended learning. Educational technology is used by
learners and educators in homes, schools ,businesses, and other settings.
6.11 UNIT- END ACTIVITIES
1. Explain the Use of Multi Media in teaching
2. Describe the features of Desk Top Publishing
3. Describe the components of Internet
4. What are the uses of Internet?
5. Describe the characteristics of E-learning
6. List Out E-Learning Tools\7.
7. Describe the different modes of e-learning
8. What are the features of Virtual learning?
9. Describe the different forms of Virtual Learnig?
10. What are the advantages of E-learning?
11. What are the advantages of Web based lea\rning?
12. Decrive the role of teleconferencing in Education?

6.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. More than one media 15. Netbook
2. Mix media 16. LME
3. Mult-Sensory 17. VLE
4. Discovery 18. Learning Management Environment
5. Learner-Centred 19. Webliography
6. Aldus Page Maker 20. Synchronoous Communication
7. Layout Tools 21. On-Line Learning
8.1980 22.Internet
9.1989 23.Educational Objectives
10. URL 24.Individualised Learning
11. USENET 25.Flexibility
12. Client/Server 26.Teleconferencing

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13. Hyper Text Transfer Protocol 27.audio Conferencing
14. Mobile Learning 28Video Conferencing

6.13 SUGGESTED READINGS

Srinivasan, T. M. (2002). Use of computers and multimedia in education. Jaipur:
AavisakarPublication.
Alexis, M. L. (2001). Computer for every one. Leon: Vikas Publishing house Ltd:
New Delhi.
Norton, P. (1998). Introduction to computers. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing CoLtd.
Sharma, R. C. (1998). Modern science teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Raj and Sons.
Kumar, K. L. (1997). Educational technology. New Delhi: Angel International (P)
Ltd.
Stone, E. (1996). How to use microsoft access. California: Emergyville.
Kochhar, S. K. (1992). Methods and techniques of teaching. New Delhi: Sterling
PublishersPvt Ltd.

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 VII EVALUATION IN COMPUTER SCIENCE

Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Evaluation: Concept And Importance
7.3.1 Purposes of Evaluation
7.3.2 Steps involved in Evaluation
7.3.5 Check Your Progress
7.4 Types Of Evaluation
7.4.1 Formative Evaluation And Its Definition
7.4.2 Characteristics Of Formative Evaluation
7.4.3 Summative Evaluation And Its Definitions
7.4.4 Characteristics Of Summative Evaluation
7.4.5 Difference Between Formative and Summative Evaluation:
7.4.6. Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation
7.4.7 Marks and grades
7.4.8 Check Your Progress
7.5. Techniques And Tools Of Evaluation
7.5.1 Questionnaire
7.5.2 Rating Scale
7.5.3 Observation Method
7.5.4 Interview Method
7.5.5 Inventory
7.5.6 Assignment
7.5.7 Check Your Progress
7.6 Achievement Test
7.6.1 Definition
7.6.2 Functions of Achievements Tests
7.6.3 Preparation of Objective Based Achievement Test
7.6.4 Characteristics of A Good Achievement Test
7.6.5 Check Your Progress

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7.7 Computer-Aided Evaluation
7.7.1 Online Examinations
7.7.2 Creating Data Banks And Tests With The On Line Examination
System
7.7.3 Control mechanisms in the test
7.7.4 Online Examination System Feedback
7.7.5 Question Types Of The Online Examination System
7.7.6 Other features of the Online Examination System
7.7.7 Evaluating the Online Examination System
7.7.8 Check Your Progress
7.8 Diagnostic Test
7.8.1 Educational Diagnosis
7.8.2 Need For Diagnostic Test
7.8.3 Levels of Diagnosis
7.8.4 Steps Constructing diagnostic tests
7.8.5 Uses Of Diagnostic Tests
7.8.6 Check Your Progress
7.9 E-Assessment
7.9.1 Components
7.9.2 Types of E-Assessment
7.9.3 Advantages
7.9.4 Disadvantages
7.9.5 check your progress
7.10 Let us Sum Up
7.11 Unit- End Activities
7.12 Answers to Check Your Progress
7.13 Suggested Readings

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7.1 INTRODUCTION

Evaluation is the structured interpretation and giving of meaning to predicted

or actual impacts of proposals or results. It looks at original objectives, and at what is
either predicted or what was accomplished and how it was accomplished.
In this unit, we are going to deal with the concept of evaluation, tools and techniques
in evaluation, Formative and summative evaluation, Grading pattern, Computer Aided
Evaluation,On line examination and E-assessment.
7.2 OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you will be able to

1. Understand the Concept of Evaluation
2. Understand Objective Based Evaluation
3. Indentify the tools of evaluation
4 Understand the procedure of Constructing Diagnostic and Achievement tests
5. Understand the Formative and summative Evaluation
6. Understand Comprehensive Evaluation and Grading Pattern
7. Understand the Concept of Computer Aided Evaluation
8. Understand the procedure of On-Line examination
9. Understand the meaning of e-assessment and types.
7.3 EVALUATION: CONCEPT AND IMPORTANCE

Evaluation in general is an act or a process that allows one to make a

judgement about the desirability or value of a measure. Evaluation in educational
situation is thus a relatively new term introduced to designate a more comprehensive
concept of measurement than is implied in conventional tests and examinations. The
emphasis in evaluation being upon broad personality changes and major objectives of
an educational programme and therefore include not only subject matter
achievements, but also attitudes, ideals, ways of thinking, work habits and personal
and social adaptability. Thus evaluation is not just a testing programme. Tests are but
one of the many different techniques that may contribute to the total evaluation
programme. Evaluation is any systematic continuous process of determining:
i) The extent to which specified educational objectives, previously identified and
defined are attained.
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ii) The effectiveness of the learning experiences provided in the classroom.
iii) How well the goals of education have been accomplished.
Thus evaluation is integrated with the whole task of education and its purpose
is to improve instruction and not merely to measure its achievements. It exercises a
great influence on the pupils' study habits, the teacher's methods of instruction and
thus helps not only to measure educational achievements, but also to improve it. The
techniques of evaluation are necessary for collecting evidence about the students'
development in desirable direction. In its highest form, evaluation brings out the
factors that are inherent in students' growth such as proper attitudes and habits,
manipulative skills, appreciations and understandings in addition to the conventional
acquisition of knowledge.
7.3.1 PURPOSES OF EVALUATION
The following are the purposes of evaluation:
 To provide for the collection of evidence which will show the degree to which
the pupils are progressing towards curricular goals.
 To permit teachers and supervisors evaluate the effectiveness of curricular
experiences, activities and instructional methods.
 To make provision for guiding the growth of individual pupils, to diagnose
their weaknesses and strengths, to point out areas where remedial measures are
desirable.
 To provide a basis for modification of the curriculum or for the introduction of
experiences to meet the needs of the individuals and groups of pupils.
 To motivate pupils towards better attainment and growth.
7.3.2 STEPS INVOLVED IN EVALUATION
The process of evaluation involves the following steps:
 Define the objectives to be tested: Determining and classifying what is to be
evaluated always has priority in the evaluation process.
 State objectives: State objectives in terms of behaviour modification i.e. the
learning outcomes.
 Selection of evaluation tools: After the objectives are clarified, select the
evaluation tools and techniques to appraise a group of them.
 Efficacy of tools: Ensure that the selected tools satisfy the criteria of validity,
reliability, objectivity and usability.

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  Administrability of tools: Administer the tool of evaluation selected or
constructed to assess the selected objectives. This will yield raw scores of the
students.
 Interpretation of data: Interpret the scores obtained using various methods of
interpretation.
 Application of results: Apply the results of evaluation to the teaching methods,
learning activities and experiences.

7.3.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with
given answers at the end of the unit
1. Thus evaluation is integrated with the whole task of education and its
purpose is to improve ----
2. The purpose of evaluation is to modify the ------------- of the course

7.4 TYPES OF EVALUATION

Many types of evaluation exist, consequently evaluation methods need to be

customised according to what is being evaluated and the purpose of the evaluation. It
is important to understand the different types of evaluation that can be conducted over
a program's life-cycle and when they should be used. The main types of evaluation
are process, impact, outcome and summative evaluation. There are various types of
evaluations but two main philosophical approaches are formative and summative.
7.4.1 FORMATIVE EVALUATION AND ITS DEFINTION:
The concept of formative and summative evaluation was given by Michael
Seriven in 1967. Generally, in teaching-learning process the whole content is
presented to pupils in small units, and at the end of each unit students are given tests
and their weaknesses are diagnosed. After diagnosis, remedial teaching is arranged
and then formative test is given. Thus, formative test is constructed to evaluate each
unit. Such tests are used to make teaching-learning more effective and to give students
opportunity to get mastery over the content matter. Here, more emphasis is laid on the
achievement rather than objectives. In other words, such tests are employed to
monitor the instructional process and to know whether the learning process is taking
place properly or not. This process works in a long term and so, it is regarded as
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continuous evaluation of which unit tests, class tests and assignments are the essential
components. To some others, when any educational plan is evaluated during the
developmental stage and corrected accordingly, then this type of evaluation is known
as formative evaluation. Whenever and educational plan is evaluated to increase its
quality, effectiveness, desirability and utility then it is known as formative evaluation.
Thus, it is clear that any educational plan, if evaluated and corrected before finally
approving it, then it is formative evaluation.
In exact terms formative evaluation has been defined as under
“Formative evaluation is concerned with judgements made during the design
or development stage of a programme which are directed towards modifying, forming
or otherwise improving the programme before it is completed”. -A.J. Nitko
“Formative evaluation is conducted to monitor the instructional process, to
determine whether learning is taking place as planned”. - Ebel and Frisble
“Formative evaluation occurs over a period of time and monitors student
progress”. -Wiersma and Jurs
7.4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMATIVE EVALUATION
Following are the main characteristics of formative evaluation.
1. Its design is flexible and exploratory.
2. It is a continuous evaluation.
3. It lays emphasis on molecular analysis.
4. It is cause seeking in nature.
5. Due consideration is given to broader experiences of programme users.
6. Local effects of a particular programme are ignored here.
7. It helps in tracing influential variables.
8. It focuses on detailed analysis of instructional material needed for the successful
implementation of the programme or effectiveness of teaching-learning process.
7.4.3 SUMMATIVE EVALUATION AND ITS DEFINTIONS
Summative test is given to students at the end of the year to measure the
educational attainments and achievement of and to determine the grade or division or
certificate for the individual learner. It provides a complete picture of the progress of
the learner individually and aims at total evaluation of the learner. So, summative
evaluation is supposed to be comprehensive rather than narrow. In other words, from
summative evaluation on one hand is judged the general level of student and on the
other hand, effectiveness of teaching and instruction is evaluated simultaneously.

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Thus, it provides reinforcement to teacher and helps in planning and organizing
further teaching programmes. On the basis of students' performance, it can be judged
to what extent objectives have been realized keeping in view effectiveness of the
teaching. Such knowledge helps us to decide whether the scheme or plan should be
continued or not. To illustrate the same in a simple manner, suppose, a teacher has to
refer a book to his students, and he after evaluating several available books on the
topic refers a particular book, then this sort of evaluation is known as summative
evaluation. Thus, it is clear that summative evaluation is a process of selecting the
best out of available alternatives.
In exact terms summative evaluation has been defined as under
“Summative evaluation describes judgements about the merits of an already
completed programme, procedure or product”. - A. J. Nikto
“A Summative evaluation can provide evidence that the programme is
satisfactory and should be continued to next year's students or if it is unsatisfactory a
new programme is needed”. - Gilbert Sax.
“Summative evaluation is done at the conclusion of instruction and measures
the extent to which students have attained the desired outcomes”.
-W. Wiersma & S.G. Gurs
7.4.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SUMMATIVE EVALUATION
Following are the main characteristics of summative evaluation.
1. It focuses on analysis.
2. It tends to stress local effects.
3. It is non-reactive and un-obtrusive.
4. It provides detailed analysis.
5. It requires well-defined evaluation designs.
6. It concerns with wide range of issues.
7. Instruments used here are reliable and valid.

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7.4.5 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE EVALUATION:

Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation

1. Its purpose is to diagnose the strength 1. Its purpose is to classify and promote
and weaknesses of the students. the students on behalf of their
achievement.
2. It focuses on improvement in students’ 2. It focuses on evaluation of students'
achievement. performance.
3. It forms an integral part of the total 3. It is considered as an end of the content
teaching-learning process. matter.
4. It is carried during the course of 4. It is done at the end of the academic
teaching and instruction. session.
5. Information and evidences collected 5. Evidences and results obtained are
here are used as reinforcement for used to determine grade and certificate
further progress of the teacher as well as for individual learner.
of the student.
6. It is meant for continuous evaluation 6. It is simply meant for terminal tests,
through unit tests, assignment etc. annual tests and external examinations.
7. Here continuous feedback is provided 7. Here, no such feedback is provided
both to the teacher and student. either to the teacher or to the student.
8. Here, we get relevant informations 8. Here, we get over-all information
which help in improving teaching- about the success or failure of the entire
learning process. instructional programme.
9. Here, we arrange remedial teaching 9. Here, we make provision for placement
and enrichment programmes for and predictions keeping in view student's
backward and gifted students future needs.
respectively.
10. Finally, this is achievement based 10. Finally, this is objective based
evaluation. evaluation.

7.4.6. CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION

Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation was formulated by Ministry of
Human Resource Development, Sibal. This is the new teaching method introduced
recently to decrease the accumulated stress of board exams on the students and to
introduce a more uniform and comprehensive pattern in education for the children all
over the nation. CCE helps in improving student's performance by identifying his/her
learning difficulties and abilities at regular time intervals right from the beginning of
the academic session and employing suitable remedial measures for enhancing their
learning performance. CCE is the modern method of evaluating all the prime
dimensions of a student's personality that of how much he has been through out.

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New scheme of evaluation
As a part of this new system, student's marks will be replaced by grades which
will be evaluated through a series of curricular and extra-curricular evaluations along
with academics. The aim is to reduce the workload on students and to improve the
overall skill and ability of the student by means of evaluation of other activities.
Grades are awarded to students based on work experience skills, dexterity, innovation,
steadiness, teamwork, public speaking, behavior, etc. to evaluate and present an
overall measure of the student's ability. This helps the students who are not good in
academics to show their talent in other fields such as arts, humanities, sports, music,
athletics, etc.
7.4.7 MARKS AND GRADES
In CCE, the marks obtained in an exam are usually not revealed. However,
equivalent grades, which would be deduced using a special method by the teachers
during evaluation would be revealed. This is considered as a drawback since a child
with 92 marks will get the same grade as the child with 100 marks and their talents
cannot be recognized by anyone else other than their teachers. Though this system
might have some drawbacks it instills this value that students need to compete with
themselves to get a better grade and not with others.
The grading system is as follows
CGPA Grade Qualified Merited
9.1-10.0 A1 Yes Yes
8.1-9.0 A2 Yes Yes
7.1-8.0 B1 Yes Upon upgradation
6.1-7.0 B2 Yes Upon upgradation
5.1-6.0 C1 Yes No
4.1-5.0 C2 Upon upgradation No
3.1-4.0 D Upon upgradation No
2.1-3.0 E1 No No
1.1-2.0 E2 No No

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Examination pattern
Unlike CBSE's old pattern of only one test at the end of the academic year, the
CCE conducts several. There are two different types of tests. Namely, the formative
and the summative. Formative tests will comprise the student's work at class and
home, the student's performance in oral tests and quizzes and the quality of the
projects or assignments submitted by the child. Formative tests will be conducted four
times in an academic session, and they will carry a 40% weightage for the aggregate.
In some schools, an additional written test is conducted instead of multiple oral tests.
However, at-least one oral test is conducted.
The summative assessment is a three-hour long written test conducted twice
an year. The first summative or Summative Assessment 1 (SA-1) will be conducted
after the first two formatives are completed. The second (SA-2) will be conducted
after the next two formatives. Each summative will carry a 30% weightage and both
together will carry a 60% weightage for the aggregate. The summative assessment
will be conducted by the schools itself. However, the question papers will be partially
prepared by the CBSE and evaluation of the answer sheets is also strictly monitored
by the CBSE. Once completed, the syllabus of one summative will not be repeated in
the next. A student will have to concentrate on totally new topics for the next
summative.
At the end of the year, the CBSE processes the result by adding the formative
score to the summative score, i.e. 40% + 60% = 100%. Depending upon the
percentage obtained, the board will deduce the CGPA and thereby deduce the grade
obtained. In addition to the summative assessment, the board will offer an optional
online aptitude test that may also be used as a tool along with the grades obtained in
the CCE to help students to decide the choice of subjects in further studies. The board
has also instructed the schools to prepare the report card and it will be duly signed by
the principal, the student and the Board official.

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 7.4.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with
given answers at the end of the unit.
3. Continuous evaluation through unit tests and assignment is called ----------
4. The terminal tests, annual tests and external examinations are called ------
5------------------is the modern method of evaluating all the prime dimensions
of a student's personality that of how much he has been through out.

7.5 TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS OF EVALUATION

You rnay recall evaluation involves decision making. We can make rational
decisions if we have necessary information or data. Various tools and techniques are
used for collecting information. In order to select the most appropriate tool and/or
technique 'for a givene valuation situation, it is necessary to acquaint ourselves with
various types of tools and techniques. Selection of tools and techniques is critical to
the whole evaluation process. It does not matter how carefully you have planned an
educational activity or an effort if inadequate instruments are involved, because poor
tools can lead to 'poor' decisions. This means that the selection of an appropriate tool
for evaluation purposes is essential, though we may be familiar with the wide variety
of tools that exist.
In this Unit we present to you a few criteria which are applied in selecting one
tool from among alternatives. This will serve the major purpose of this Unit, i.e.to
provide an overview of the various types of tools and techniques used in evaluation
processes.
7.5.1 QUESTIONNAIRE
Questionnaire method of assessing personality traits consists in questioning
the individual himself by drawing up a list of questions pertaining to the particular
trait and asking the candidate to record his answers on the questionnaire itself by
drawing a circle around ‘Yes' or ‘No'. It presents a variety of situations which are
likely to confront a person in the normal course of his daily life and aims to measure
neurotic tendency, anxiety, introversion-extroversion, dominance-submissiveness,
fear, anger, humour or incidence of inferiority, likes, interests, beliefs, preferences,
attitudes, opinions, confidence and sociability etc. For each situation several possible

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 answers are presented and the subject has to indicate the one which most adequately
characterizes his behaviour. A personality inventory, thus, is like a Paper-Pencil-Test.
The psychological questionnaires require one to answer questions which touch
on what he has done in the past, how he feels about certain matters concerning his
adjustment now and how he thinks he might act with respect to given situations in
future. In some inventories direct questions are asked, in others the purpose of the
enquiry is disguised. The form of the inventory varies according to variation in
selecting questions. For example, Minnesota Multi-purpose Personality Inventory
(MMPI) is meant for measuring different personality traits both in the normal and
abnormal persons, California Personality Inventory (CPI) intends for self-appraisals
of both self and social adjustment, All port-Vernon scale measures economic,
political, social, religious and aesthetic values etc.
An ideal form of a questionnaire is presented here-
Do you often feel just miserable? Yes/No
Do you often feel that time is passing away fast? Yes/No
Do you like to be let alone? Yes/No
Do you have sound sleep? Yes/No
Do you join social functions? Yes/No
Can you stand noise? Yes/No
Are your feeling easily hurt? Yes/No
Does criticism disturb you greatly? Yes/No
The Questionnaire Method is, however, objectionable on the ground that it
demands answers either in the affirmative or in the negative, while the vast majority
of individuals would prefer an intermediate answer. Apart, it has few more
limitations.
7.5.2 RATING SCALE
Rating scale is one of the important methods of assessing personality traits.
The measurement of personality with a graduated scale is called Rating-Scale. It
consists in asking certain persons, who know the candidates to be assessed on certain
traits. The idea behind this procedure is that people who have known a candidate for
some time while living or working with them can certainly form an opinion about him
and can estimate his particular quality or trait asked for more objectivity. But, human
beings, as they are, the judges can have their own subjective judgements and may
differ from other judges.

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  Rating scale is an important technique of evaluation. Rating is the assessments
of a person by another person. This is one of the oldest methods of personality
assessment.There are certain general approaches to assess personality like
holistic or overall approach, projective test approach and trait approach. In this
rating scales and inventories come under the trait approach.
 Barr & others define rating as: “Rating is a term applied to expression of
opinion or judgement regarding some situation, object or character. Opinions
are usually expressed on a scale of values. Rating techniques are devices by
which such judgements may be quantified”.
A rating scale is a device by which the opinion concerning a trait can be
systematized
 Three point scale
Above average / Average / Below average
 Five point scale
Excellent / Very good / Good / Average / Poor
 Seven point scale
7.5.3 OBSERVATION METHOD
Observation is of great value in throwing light on the personality traits. The
purpose of observation is to watch social behaviour, likes and dislikes and leadership
qualities. Here, the experimenter has simply to observe the behaviour of the
individual. If he finds that good traits are present in his behaviour, he tries to know to
what degree they are present in him. This is a very long process, thus it takes a very
long time in deciding the character of the child.
Observation is done in two ways, viz., (a) observation under natural
conditions, and (b) observation under controlled conditions. Observation under
natural conditions is the method, when the investigator himself observes and makes
the assessment of the traits expressed by the individual in his overt behaviour in
certain situations. The investigator is the impartial spectator and his observation is not
to be influenced by his own desires, wishes or hopes to fit in the data for his own pet
theory. In the study of personality traits, it is found of use when we study children's
behaviour in the class, on the play-ground and other social occasions. The keen eye of
the teacher can see, if a child comes to school in time, does his home-work regularly,
sits in the last bench, never asks a question in the class does not speak much with
other children, and is hardly seen participating in games, dramatics or other cultural

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activities. Such a child can be spotted as a very shy or withdrawn child. Direct
observation is also done in the play room, in a child guidance clinic, where it may be
observed that a child picks up many toys from the shelf, throws some on the ground,
kicks some and breaks the legs of some male toys or the neck of an elephant. He
splashes water from the bucket all over the floor. Such a child is very aggressive. He
may later be found to be suffering from deprivation of love and his case-study may
reveal that his real mother died some years ago and that he was looked after by his
step-mother who naturally could not give him the love of the real mother and so the
child was destructive and aggressive wreaking his revenge on everything, person or
toys he comes in contact with. For close observation, the observer is to be well-
motivated and keenly interested to look for the traits, with a great deal of objectively,
who should record his views and impressions soon after the session and not to
postpone the recording, as lapses of memory may distort the data.
Observation under controlled conditions or experimentation may also be used
to study specific personality traits such as honesty, cheating, deceit or lying, self-
control, co-operation, social-service, self-denial, charity persistence etc. Hartshorne
and may reported some experimental procedure adopted to study some personality
traits. For example, a dictation from some difficult text was given to children in a
class. The scripts were collected and the spelling mistakes committed by each child
were recorded without making any mark or remark on the scripts. These evaluated
scripts were handed over back to the children after some time and they were asked to
check their spelling mistakes themselves by comparing the scripts with the text.
Naturally, some children had the temptation to correct ‘e' here or ‘o' there and
counted the mistakes according to their own marking. The difference in the number of
mistakes recorded by the investigator and by the child himself gave an indication of
the degree of dishonesty shown by some children, through some were found honest
and some less honest than some others. In a similar manner cheating as a trait could
be studied by asking a group of children to write down the names of all the books they
had seen, consulted or read during the last year. The lists drawn up by each child were
to be checked by putting questions to each child to test if he ever knew the book. The
degree of cheating could be known from the number of titles put in the list by each
child without knowing anything about them. Co-operation could also be tested by
asking children to contribute as much money as they could from their own pocket
money to the relief fund of flood affected people. In a room a tray or box was put for
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the money to be deposited by individual children going into the room one by one.
There was also a device installed in the room by which any child putting the money in
the tray could be seen as reflected by a mirror in the ceiling. The amount donated by
each child could be thus known. Some may not have donated at all. The amount of the
money thus donated by each child could be taken as the basis of the measure of
children's sense of co-operation to help in such a case. This could also reveal their
sense of social service. Some such experimental situations can be created to bring out
the character traits and to assess them in different children or others. This second type
of observation is also known as situational tests.
7.5.4 INTERVIEW METHOD
The interview is a popular method of appraising personality. In selections for
various jobs the selection committees or even public service commission interview
candidates with a view to find out the more suited candidates for the job. The
suitability for the job implies certain qualities, attributes or traits which should be
present in the candidate. This requires job analysis to pin down the traits to be looked
for in the more suitable candidates. The candidates have to be asked pin-pointed
questions to bring out these traits. The task of putting questions to the candidate can
be divided among members of the selection committee who are supposed to come
prepared for putting the relevant questions and thus interview require planning and
adequate preparation beforehand. It should follow a definite scheme and aim should
be to elicit relevant information and not to harass the candidate. Actually, nterview is
a face-to-face meeting of the subject and the experimenter in which the subject is
encouraged to talk freely without any inhibition so that he can express himself freely.
The experimenter simply listens to him and accepts all that he says without comment.
If anything he nods or says some encouraging word, it is just to help and induce him
to continue talking as intimately and freely as he likes. Again, while the subject is
engaged in answering questions, the experimenter makes his observations regarding
his postures, manner of speaking, his hesitations, his fidgeting, his emotional
responses and the like. The interview together with the opportunity for close
observation yields a fairly intimate picture of the person and an experienced
interviewer is able to size up the interviewed people fairly correctly.
In spite of all this, the interview method is subjective and is less valid. Its
success rests on the rapport established between the interviewer and the interviewed, a
friendly, intimate and personnel approach is necessary and this is not always easy to

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secure. The interview should always be in a cheerful atmosphere not in a jockey
atmosphere.
7.5.5 INVENTORY
Definition: A personality inventory is an assessment tool used to determine which of
these personality types a person falls into: extroverted, introverted, thinking, feeling,
sensing, intuitive, judging, and perceptive. It is used as part of a self assessment done
for career planning purposes.
Examples:
The career counselor administered a personality inventory called the Myers
Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI Personality Inventory for Children. The Personality
Inventory for Children, related questionnaires provide objective multidimensional
evaluation of children and adolescents through complementary, although independent,
application of descriptions obtained from parents and teachers, as well as from the
student being evaluated. The 275-item parent-completed PIC-2 and 270-item student-
completed Personality Inventory for Youth (PIY) were written at a high 3rd-/low 4th-
grade reading comprehension level and require a true or false response to descriptions
of behavior (My child sometimes swears at me. I often disobey my parent(s).) affect
(My child is usually in a good mood. I hardly ever smile.), ability (My child often has
trouble finding the right words to say. It is hard for me to make good grades.), as well
as family status (There is a lot of tension in our home. My parent(s) do not understand
me.) and peer relations .
7.5.6 ASSIGNMENT
As challenging as the design and interactive teaching of writing assignments
are, perhaps the most challenging aspect of incorporating writing assignments into an
engineering or science course is evaluating those assignments. Here, evaluation does
not mean simply assigning a grade, but constructing a process in which the students
receive useful feedback that serves to tell them not only what should be strengthened
in the writing, but also what was done well.
A well-done evaluation has three attributes: clarity, consistency, and a sense of
hierarchy. By clarity, I mean that your marks on the paper clearly identify what the
weakness (or strength) of the writing is, and if a revision is proposed, then what that
revision is. By consistency, I mean that your evaluation is such that students feel as if
the evaluation was based on logic, not whim. Also, students feel as if everyone was
graded fairly. By a sense of hierarchy, I mean that your evaluation emphasizes the

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most important weaknesses (and strengths). Moreover, students understand that not all
writing faults are equal in importance.
7.5.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it
with given answers at the end of the unit
5.---------------------is the modern method of evaluating all the prime dimensions
of a student's personality that of how much he has been through out.
6. Inventory which is meant for measuring different personality traits both in
the normal and abnormal persons is called------
7. Personality Inventory which intends for self-appraisals of both self and
social adjustment is called---
8. ---- -------- scale measures economic, political, social, religious and
aesthetic values.
9. The measurement of personality with a graduated scale is called --- ------
10. The purpose of observation is to watch----------- -

7.6 ACHIEVEMENT TEST

Scholastic achievement tests constitute an important tool of evaluation. It is

necessary for the teacher to know how far the pupils have attained in a particular
subject area. In the school evaluation programme, various forms of achievement tests
are used to measure the accomplishment of the pupils.
7.6.1 DEFINITION
“Any test that measures the attainments or accomplishments of an individual
after a period of training or learning is called an achievement test”. – Downie
“An achievements test in a proficiency test used to ascertain what and how
much has been learnt or how well a task can be performed, the focus being on
evaluation of the past without reference to the future, except for the implicit
assumption that acquired skills and knowledge, will be useful in their own right in the
future” – Super, D.E.
“An achievement test is a test designed to measure a person’s knowledge,
skills, understanding, etc., in a given field taught in a school.” – Good’s Dictionary

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 “Achievement test is a test designed to measure the effects of specific teaching
or training in an area of the curriculum”.
- The International Dictionary of Education
“Achievement tests are useful aids for diagnosing a student’s specific learning
needs, for identifying his relative strength and weaknesses, for studying his progress
and predicting his success in a particular curriculum. Of all the different types of
tests, achievement tests are used most frequently”. – Waters
From the above definitions, a more comprehensive definition of an
achievement test can be stated as: Achievement test is an instrument
designed to measure the accomplishment of the students in a specified area of
learning, after a period of instruction.
7.6.2 FUNCTIONS OF ACHIEVEMENTS TESTS
The major functions of achievements test are that they
 Provide basis of promotion to the next grade.
 Help in finding out at the beginning of the year where each student stands in
the various academic areas.
 Help in determining the relative position of a student in a particular subject or
area of learning.
 Motivate the students before a new assignment is taken up.
 Help the teacher to see for himself how effectively he is doing, what is getting
across pupils and what is not.
 Provide the teacher evidence relating to the realisation of the objectives,
effectiveness of the learning experiences provided and mode of instruction
employed.
 Help the teacher in identifying pupils' difficulties and arranging for remedial
measures.
7.6.3 PREPARATION OF OBJECTIVE BASED ACHIEVEMENT TEST
The preparation of a good test is a systematic process having well defined
stages. The important steps envisaged in the preparation of a good teacher-made test
are as under.
 Planning the test
 Preparation of a design
 Designing the test items

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  Reviewing and editing
 Arranging the items
 Providing directions
 Preparing the scoring key and marking scheme
 Administering the test and scoring
 Evaluating the test
Planning the test
“Test planning encompasses all of the varied operations that go into producing
the test; but it must also involve careful attention to test item difficulty, to type of test
items, to directions to the examiner”. (Lindquist, E.F). We shall cover most of these
considerations under the heading; preparation of design for the test or blueprint of the
test.
Preparation of design
Designing is the first and most important step in the test construction. At this
stage, the test constructor has to take a number of decisions regarding selection of the
objectives, the selection of the content, form of questions, the difficulty level of test
items and the weightages to be allotted to the objectives, to the content and the form
of questions. The set of those decisions will be called the design of the test from an
analogy with the work of an architect. Important decisions have to be taken
concerning the following.
i) Identification of the objectives and allotting weightage to the objectives
The most important step while planning a test is the identification of the
instructional objectives and stating them in terms of specific observable behaviour.
After the objectives are identified and stated, the test maker has to decide their
relative weights in the test. The fundamental principle to be observed here is that the
test should reflect the actual emphasis being given to various mental processes during
instruction. These weights will be by and large a function of time, effort and resources
spent on their acquisition as also for the importance for the society and the learning of
the subject in terms of retention and transfer value. The simplest basis for assigning
the weights could be to weight them in terms of time devoted for their achievement.
weightages could, of course, be given in numerical terms, distributing 100 points over
the objectives, giving the greatest number to those that are to receive the greatest
emphasis.

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 For the sake of illustration, given below are the objectives identified for
teaching some units in mathematics and the weightage allotted to them.
SHOWING THE WEIGHTAGE ALLOTTED TO THE OBJECTIVE
S.No Objectives Marks Allotted Percentage
1. Knowledge 5 20
2. Understanding 8 32
3. Application 10 40
4. Skill 2 8
Total 25 100

ii) Selection of the content and allotting weightage to the content

Content being the means through which objectives are attained, it becomes
very necessary to decide the weights to be given to different parts of it. A convenient
number of units can be selected for testing. In assigning relative weights to units a
number of factors will have to be taken into account. However, the easiest method to
decide weightages, may to be base them on the time required to teach various units
and relative importance of each unit.
For the sake of illustration, given below is the table indicating the weightages
given to three units.
WEIGHTAGES GIVEN TO POLYNOMIALS, FUNCTIONS AND
QUADRILATERALS
S.No Unit Marks Given Percentage
1. Word 10 40
2. Excel 8 32
3. Powerpoint 7 28
Total 25 100

iii) Selection of the form of questions and giving weightage to the questions:
The test-maker has to decide about the form of questions to be used, the
number of questions to be chosen and the relative weightage to be given to each form.
Perhaps judicious combinations of the different forms will have to be used in
achievement tests. However, among the objective type questions, multiple choice may
be given more weightage.

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 In the question paper which is being taken for illustration, the weightage to
different forms of questions could be as follows.
WEIGHTAGE GIVEN TO DIFFERENT FORMS OF QUESTIONS
S.No Form Marks Given Percentage
1. Essay (E) 6 24
2. Short Answer (S.A) 9 36
3. Objective Type (O) 10 40
Total 25 100

iv) Distribution of difficulty level

A decision also has to be taken concerning the distribution of difficulty level.
To get optimum discrimination through a test, most of its questions should be of
average difficulty level. A few easy questions, to motivate the below average students
and a few difficult ones to challenge the gifted should find a place in the question
paper. If achievement can be assumed to be normally distributed, some weightages in
terms of percentages can be suggested for easy, average and difficult questions as
shown in table.
DISTRIBUTION OF DIFFICULTY LEVEL FOR QUESTIONS
S.No Difficulty level Percentage
1. Difficult questions 15
2. Average questions 70
3. Easy questions 15
Total 100

v) Preparation of blueprint: (Table of specifications)

Preparation of the blueprint refers to the final stage of the planning of a test.
The blueprint is a three dimensional chart showing the weigthage given to the
objectives, content and the form of questions in terms of marks. It is also called a
table of specifications as it relates outcome to the content and indicates the relative
weight given to each of the various areas. The units or the content are spread along
the vertical axis while the objectives are listed on horizontal axis. Each column is
further subdivided into columns that indicate the forms of questions. Thus we get a
number of cells, each cell having three dimensions, the objective, the content and the
form of question. What is required on the part of the test maker is to fit in all the

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 questions in different cells in such a way that the blueprint reflects the decisions of the
design(er). When this is done, all rows and columns are balanced, the blueprint is
ready. It is illustrated in table.
Objectives Knowledge Understanding Application Skill Total
Sl.No
Content E SA O E SA O E SA O E SA O
1 3 1
1. Word 3 (1) 1 (1) 10
(2) (1) (1)
1 1
2. Excel 3 (1) 1 (1) 8
(2) (2)
1
3. Powerpoint 4( ) 2( ) 7
(1)
Total 5 8 10 2 25
Note: The number inside the bracket indicates the number of questions and the
number outside the bracket indicates the marks allotted to each question.
Uses of Blueprint
The preparation of the blueprint serves the following purposes. The blueprint:
 Helps to improve the content validity of the test.
 Defines as clearly as possible the scope and emphasis of the tests.
 Relates objectives to the content
 Gives greater assurance that the test will measure learning outcomes and
course content in a balanced manner.
 Lays before the tester a complete picture of the test he is going to prepare.
Writing the Test Items
When the blueprint is ready the next step is to prepare or select the items. Take
each cell of the blueprint and draft an item taking care of the various dimensions; the
objective, the content and the form as laid down in the blueprint. The decision
concerning the distribution of difficulty level also has to be implemented at this stage
itself. It is always desirable to prepare more items than the requirement of the cells of
the blueprint since defects are likely to become apparent in some items during the
later review.

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Reviewing and Editing
The pool of items for a particular test after being set aside for a time can be
reviewed by the help of experts. A more careful evaluation of the items can be made
by considering them in the light of each of the following questions.
 Does each item measure an important learning outcome included in the table
of specifications?
 Is each item appropriate for the particular learning outcome to be measured?
 Does each item present a clearly formulated task?
 Is the item stated in simple, clear language?
 Is the item free from extraneous clues?
 Is the difficulty of the item appropriate for the students to be tested?
 Is each item independent and are the items, as a group, free from overlapping?
 Does each item fit into one of the cells of the blueprint?
Arranging the Items
When the final selection of the items has been completed and they are ready to
be assembled into a test, decision must be made concerning the best item
arrangement. The following suggestions provide guidance for this purpose.
 The items should be arranged so that all items of the same type are grouped
together.
 The items should be arranged in the order of increasing difficulty.
 It may be desirable to group together items which measure the same learning
outcomes or the same subject matter content.
Providing Directions
Directions constitute an inseparable part of a test. Directions should contain
information concerning each of the following: (1) purpose of the test (2) time allowed
completing the test (3) how to record the answers (4) whether to guess when in doubt
about the answer (5) marks allotted for each question as also for each section of the
test.
Preparation of Scoring Key and Marking Scheme
It is necessary to prepare a scoring key for objective type questions and
marking scheme for supply-type questions, such as short answer and essay type
questions for scoring the test objectively.

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Scoring key and marking scheme
Scoring key refers to the prepared list of answers to a given set of objective
questions. The examiner compares the answers given by the students with those in the
scoring key and thus arrives at the marks to be awarded to the students.
In the preparation of marking scheme in mathematics it is desirable to analyze
the solution into important stages and to distribute marks. The mark for each stage
may be divided into two components: marks for the method and those for accuracy. A
marking scheme is essential because it indicates:
 The number of steps or learning points expected in the answer
 The outline of each point or step expected in the answer
 The weightage to each point or each step
 The level of accuracy expected of each step
Administering and Scoring the Test
At this step, it is important to make sure that all students know exactly what is
expected of them and to provide them with the most favorable conditions for taking
the test. After the administration of the test, the scoring can be done with the help of
the scoring key and marking scheme. An illustration for the scoring key and marking
schemes are given in tables.
ILLUSTRATIONS FOR THE FORMAT OF MARKING SCHEME
Marks allotted
Q.No Value point Expected Answer Total marks
for each step
1. 1 mark
For writing the definition of the Key
correctly
1 mark
For writing at least one example for
3
For writing the Set in the :
(i) the key
½ mark
(ii) form of the key
½ mark

Evaluating the test

Evaluating the test helps the teacher to ascertain the following:
 Was the test very easy or very difficult?
 Was the test too long or too short?

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  Were the directions clear and specific?
 Was the test practicable and feasible?
 Did the items measure the intended objectives?
 Did the difficulty level of the questions match the level of the students?
 Were the items clear and unambiguous?
 Were the distracters effective?
 Do the items discriminate among the different levels of achievers?
 What are the misconceptions formed by the student?
 How effective were the learning experiences provided during the instruction?
Evaluation can be done at two levels:
i) Question-wise analysis
ii) Item analysis
Question-wise Analysis
Question-wise analysis is done by analyzing each question according to
objective, specification, content, question, type, estimated difficulty level and time
required. Format for the question-wise analysis is given in table. This helps the
teacher in assessing the effectiveness of the test item with reference to the objectives
and other requirements in the blueprint. This also gives an insight into the difficulties
encountered by students in taking the test.
FORMAT FOR QUESTION-WISE ANALYSIS
Form of Marks Time in Difficulty
Q.No Objective Specification Unit
Question allotted Minutes Level
Objective
1. Knowledge Recalls Word 1 1 E*
(MC)
Objective
2. Understanding Identifies Excel 1 1 A*
(MC)
3. Application Selects Objective PowerPoint 1 1 D*
* E = Easy; *A = Average *D = Difficulty
Item analysis
Item analysis is the process by which the test maker evaluates the
effectiveness of the test item in terms of (i) the difficulty level of the test items
(ii) discriminating power of test items and (iii) the effectiveness of the distracters. For
item analysis the teacher arranges the test papers in the ascending order of marks and

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analysis is done for 27% of the students on the high and low end of the scales and
making sure that there are an equal number of students in both the groups. Students'
responses to each item is analyzed for the students in upper and lower groups. Other
than the purposes mentioned above, item analysis has several other benefits too.
 It provides useful information for class discussion of the test
 It provides data for helping the students to improve their learning.
 It provides insight and skill which lead to the preparation of better tests on
future occasions.
7.6.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ACHIEVEMENT TEST
The following are the qualities of a good achievement test.
 Reliability: Reliability of a test is its trustworthiness or its consistency. It is
defined as “the consistency with which a test measures what it intends to
measure”.
 Validity: Validity means purposiveness. Validity of a test is the “accuracy with
which a test measures what it intends to measure”.
 Objectivity: A test is said to be highly objective if the score assigned by
different, but equally competent scores are not affected by the Judgement,
personal opinion or bias of the scorers.
 Feasibility: In assessing the value of a test usability or practicability is an
important criterion. Ease of administration, ease of scoring, ease of
interpretation etc, are factors contributing to the practicability of any test.

7.6.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it
with given answers at the end of the unit.
11. Any test that measures the attainments or accomplishments of an
individual after a period of training or learning is called an -------
12-----------------test--helps in determining the relative position of a student in a
particular subject or area of learning.
13-------------test- Motivates the students before a new assignment is taken up.

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7.7 COMPUTER-AIDED ASSESSMENT

Computer-aided assessment (e-assessment) ranges from automated multiple-

choice tests to more sophisticated systems. With some systems, feedback can be
geared towards a student's specific mistakes or the computer can navigate the student
through a series of questions adapting to what the student appears to have learned or
not learned. Formative assessment shifts out the incorrect answers, and these
questions are then explained by the teacher. The learner then practices with slight
variations of the sifted out questions. The process is completed by summative
assessment using a new set of questions that only cover the topics previously taught.
7.7.1 ONLINE EXAMINATIONS
Online Examination helps the students for appearing the exam by online. Its
mission is to offer a quick and easy way to appear the exam and it also provide the
result immediately after the exam. Through partnerships with agencies\boards which
are conducting the multiple choice type examination, it can provide special
advantages to the applicants/students that can't be found anywhere else. The working
of the project is as follows. The first page provides several links. The Home link
contains several information about online examination; it provides a link to the login
page. In the Login link a user have to login before entering for the exam. An already
registered user can simply type in his\her valid username and password, and then click
the "Login" button. Already registered user can only register a new user as a teacher.
But those visitors who are not registered have to go to the registration page for
registering only as a student before they login. In that page user have to enter Name,
Address, Phone number, Role id and password; and also the user have to update the
photo.
About Link contains some information regarding Online Examination and its
developers.
After registration, if the user registered as a teacher can create the question and
can conducting the exam can also publishing the results and reports. Otherwise the
user registered as a student and he/she can answer the exam. The Login page contains
several links according to whether the user is student or teacher.
If the user is a teacher, then he/she can create question paper. This is provided by
Create Question Paper Link. In that page user have to enter Exam ID, No: of Series,
No: of questions, No: of Options, Total time (in min), Marks per Question, Negative

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mark, Examination Password, Option type. Then go to the question paper page. In
that page user have to enter the questions and options and the right answer. The Link
Question Paper Preview shows already created question paper. If the user is a student,
can answer the exam. This is provided by the Link Examination. The Link Rules and
Regulations show some rules and regulations that should be followed by the user.
Delivery system/System requirements
 The server requirements is an NT server or above.
 The system runs on the Web (browser).
 Client requires any browser on any operating system.
7.7.2 CREATING DATA BANKS AND TESTS WITH THE ON LINE
EXAMINATION SYSTEM
 Online examination questions can be categorized according to topic, types,
etc. (libraries)
 The online examination system makes provision for difficulty levels of items.
 A test can be compiled with questions from different topics/libraries.
 A “serial number” is provided for each question according to topic, etc.
 The “serial number” can be used to search for and select questions.
 Questions can be converted to the databank from existing databanks.
 Questions can be converted from word processing files.
 Tests can be created on a random basis per student.
 Specific questions can be flagged to be included/excluded in a test.
 The online examination system is suitable for surveys.
 The online examination system can automatically add the marks allocated in
each question to determine the total mark for the test.
 A printed paper and a memorandum can be compiled.
 Different papers (shuffle code) and memoranda can be compiled.\
 Export question papers and memoranda to .txt or .doc file
7.7.3 CONTROL MECHANISMS IN THE TEST
 A time limit can be set for the test.
 The sequence of questions can be randomized.
 Online Examination System allows jumping to specific questions based on the
previous answer.
 The distracters/options per question can be randomized.

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  The online examination system limits the number of times a student can write
a test.
 Students can navigate within a test (i.e. backwards and forwards). Can be set.
Navigation tools/buttons can be selected for a test, and these buttons can be
switched.
 on/off per question/test, e.g. backward/forward buttons.
 Students can be forced to go through all the questions at least once, before
exiting the test.
 Students can be allowed to exit the test before completing all the questions.
 After exiting a test, students can continue the test from the last question they
answered.
 A specific date for a test to be active can be set.
7.7.4 ONLINE EXAMINATION SYSTEM FEEDBACK
 Feedback on test results can be set on/off.
 Feedback per question can be set on/off.
 Customized feedback per question/test.
 The event of feedback can be set, e.g. after all the questions/after each
question/ after a section or library/not at all.
 The examination system indicates what the student answered as well as the
correct answer.
 Extra time can be set for students to work through the feedback after test
completion.
 Score per question can be displayed in the feedback.
7.7.5 QUESTION TYPES OF THE ONLINE EXAMINATION SYSTEM
 The following question types are essential:
o Multiple Choices
This question type allows the user to select ONE correct answer
- Options can be randomized
- More than one option can be correct but the user can only select ONE option
- Score can be set per option
- No limitation on number of options
- If there are a number of Options, these can be presented in a column(s).

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o Multiple Responses
This question type allows the user to select more than ONE correct
answer
- Options can be randomized.
- Score can be set per option.
- No limitation on number of options.
- If there are a number of Options, these can be presented in a column(s).
- The number of responses students enter can be limited.
o Information page
This screen provides information but does not contain a question
- No limitation on the amount of text (scroll bar).
o Fill-in the blanks
This question type gives the user the opportunity to type in short text
answers
- More than one blank space can be specified to be filled in by the student.
- System caters for multiple spelling variations.
- System caters for multiple possible answers.
- Boolean operators can be used for marking.
- Score can be set per answer.
o Hot-Spot
This question type gives the user the opportunity to identify an area on
the screen (graphic/text)
- Score can be set per hot spot area.
o Matching
This question type gives the user the opportunity to match data in
columns
- The options in the selection box can be matched to more than one option in
the column.
- Score can be set per match.
- The options in the selection box as well as options in the column can be
randomised.
- No limitation on the number of options in the column or selection box.

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 o Numeric
This question type gives the user the opportunity to type in a numeric
answer
- Ranges can be set.
- The number of decimal places can be limited.
- The number of decimal places can be set.
- Score can be set per answer.
- No text answers can be typed.
o Calculated (questions are randomly created according to set parameters).
This question type gives the user the opportunity to type in a numeric
answer
- Ranges can be set per parameter.
o Free format
This question type gives the user the opportunity to type an open ended
answer
- The field shouldn't be limited.
- Complete answers can be printed out to be marked by the lecturer.
- Export answers to .txt or .doc format
7.7.6 OTHER ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS OF THE ONLINE EXAMINATION
SYSTEM
- Graphic(s) can be included as part of a question.
- Sound can be included as part of a question.
- Video can be included as part of a question.
- Animations can be included as part of a question.
- Scoring per option should be possible.
- Negative marking should be possible in all the question types.
- Preview of a question is available while setting up questions.
Programme requirements
 Text can be formatted easily, e.g. bold, italics, underline.
 Text can be formatted easily within a question, e.g. bold, italics, and underline.
 Templates can be used to set the format of a test.
 Style sheets can be used.
 Graphics and videos can be moved around the screen.
 There is a zoom facility for graphics and videos.

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  If there are a number of options, these can be presented in a column.
 The online examination system can handle/insert the greek alphabet,
subscripts and superscripts.
 The online examination system can handle/insert "special characters" such as
arrows, etc.
 While setting up a test a student preview should be available.
 Completed papers of individuals can be exported to .txt or .doc format.
 The question number can be displayed.
 The number of questions answered can be displayed.
 Remaining time can be displayed. (Can student switch on/off?)
7.7.7 OTHER FEATURES OF THE ONLINE EXAMINATION SYSTEM
 Students can access tests they have completed.
 Both essay type questions and memorandums can be saved in databanks.
 A paper-based test paper can be generated from the databank.
 A test can be saved in text format.
Stability and Speed of the Online Examination System:
 The online examination system is stable while setting up a test.
 The online examination system is stable while students complete a test (at
least 160 students per session).
 Answers can be saved in real time (if a power failure occurs the answers must
be saved up to that point).
 The speed of delivery of test from the server to work station is acceptable.
 The speed for presenting each question per work station is acceptable.
 The speed for presenting videos and graphics per work station is acceptable.
Security
 Only registered students are able to access a test.
 The test can be made available on specific dates.
 The test can be made available at specific times.
 The number of times students access tests can be set.
 The login time per student is available.
 Logoff time per student is available.
 The online examination system can limit logins to a specific subnet.
 Text files with students details (i.e. names and student numbers) can be used
to give students access to tests.

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Reporting
 The following results on student performance can be obtained:
o Student number, name and mark in Excel, Word and txt format.
o Results per topic per student
o Average of group
o Average time used by the students
o Date and time of test taken
o Time taken for each individual student to complete the test.
 Full report per question is available, and includes:
o The difficulty value of a question
o Discrimination index
o Standard deviation
o Graphical presentation of results
o Number of times a distractor has been selected
 Answers can be saved in real time (if a power failure occurs the answers must
be saved up to that point).
 Papers can be remarked after editing a test, e.g if a question is deleted.
 Results must be presented according to the original question/id numbers.
 Report of each individual's answers
Support and training
 Technical support is available in South Africa.
 Extensive training is available to enable clients to use the online examination
system to its full capacity.
 There is a quick response time in the event of technical problems.
 There is a service level agreement.
7.7.8 EVALUATING THE ONLINE EXAMINATION SYSTEM
 The client can have the complete online examination system on their network
for a trial period.
 Clients have permission to use the online examination system in a “live” test
situation for a specified period of time.
 All roleplayers (Telemetric department, lecturers, IT) can be involved in
evaluating the online examination system.
 The online examination system can be evaluated by various people.

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 7.7.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it
with given answers at the end of the unit
14. The------------examination is to offer a quick and easy way to appear the
exam and it also provides the result immediately after the exam.
15. The ------------ examination system allows jumping to specific questions
based on the previous answer.
16. The----------examination system limits the number of times a student can
write a test.

7.8. DIAGNOSTIC TEST

There are tests which have been designed to provide information about the
specific nature of the pupil's difficulties in given subject area. These tests are called
diagnostic tests. Any test can be used as a diagnostic test in a limited way by
examining students' performance in the individual items which make up the test
rather than on the test as a whole. Thus diagnostic tests measure somewhat narrower
aspects of achievement than survey tests. In other words, diagnostic tests yield
measures of highly related abilities underlying achievement in a subject.
7.8.1 EDUCATIONAL DIAGNOSIS
As is obvious, the term diagnosis has been borrowed from the medical
profession where it implies “identification of disease by means of patients'
symptoms”. The word diagnosis is used more or less in the same sense in education.
The only difference perhaps is that in medical diagnosis it is physical or an organ
breakdown that is examined, while in educational diagnosis it is the failure of the
process of education or learning that is located and attended to be remedied. We may
say that educational diagnosis is “the determination of the nature of learning
difficulties and deficiencies”. Of course, it cannot stop only at the identification of
weakness in learning but has to go a little deeper to locate their causes and also
suggest remedies for getting rid of them.
7.8.2 NEED FOR DIAGNOSTIC TEST
Most standardized and teacher-made achievement tests are designed to give an
indication of how far the student has progressed towards the accomplishment of
specific objectives measured by the test. These objectives however are grouped in

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broad categories. They cover a broad area and result in a total score which reflects
overall achievement in the area tested. Thus the teachers can say that a pupil is doing
well in arithmetic or poorly in arithmetic, but they do not know why, not do they
know what the concepts are causing difficulty. Such survey (achievement) tools serve
a useful function, but in order to help the student with a disability, the teacher will
need to analyze the nature of the difficulty and the causes for the trouble. There are
tests which have been devised to provide information about the specific nature of
pupil's difficulties in given subject areas. These tests are called diagnostic tests. Any
test can be used as a diagnostic test in a limited way by examining students'
performance in the individual items which make up the test rather than on the test as a
whole. Thus diagnostic tests measure somewhat narrower aspects of achievement
than survey tests In other words, diagnostic tests yield measures of highly related
abilities underlying achievement in a subject. They are designed to identify particular
strengths and weaknesses on the part of the individual child and within reasonable
limits to reveal the underlying causes.
7.8.3 LEVELS OF DIAGNOSIS
Good diagnosis moves hand in hand with good teaching and a teacher should
be as much concerned with it as with the later. Ross and Stanley have identified five
levels of diagnosis, which are, (1) who are the pupils having trouble? (2) Where are
the errors located? (3) Why did the errors occur? (4) What remedies are suggested?
And (5) how can that errors be prevented? The first four are grouped as corrective
diagnosis and the last is known as preventive diagnosis. Most of the diagnosis
resorted to by teachers will be corrective in Diagnostic Tests sub-skills. Such
measures can help the teacher locate the sources of difficulty using which constructive
action can be taken.
7.8.4 STEPS CONSTRUCTING DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
Diagnostic tests may be standardized or teacher-made, but teacher-made
diagnostic tests will be more effective and economical than standardized tests. The
norms which constitute a strong point with standardized tests are not called for in
diagnosis as the purpose is to discover the weaknesses of individual students rather
than compare their achievements.
The step in the construction of a diagnostic test can be summarized as follows.
- Identification of problem areas
- Detailed content analysis

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- Listing all the learning points in the logical sequence
- Writing test items (preferably two or three items of free response type) for each
learning point
- Clubbing the items around the learning points.
- Providing clear instructions
- Preparing a scoring key and a marking scheme.
- Providing the time limit as required by individual students.
- Administration of the test.
After administering the test, the following procedure may be followed for
analyzing the performance and identifying the weaknesses.
- Item-wise analysis of the performance of each student.
- Qualitative and quantitative analysis for identifying the strengths and
weaknesses.
- Identification of the causes for learning difficulties.
- Preparation of a diagnostic chart for each student.
- Planning and implementing highly individualized remedial programmes.
- Evaluating the effectiveness of the programme.
7.8.5 USES OF DIAGNOSTIC TESTS
The following are the uses of diagnostic test.
The diagnostic tests
- Point out inadequacies in specific skills
- Locate areas in which individual instruction is required
- Finish continuous information in order that learning activities may be most
productive of desirable outcomes.
Serves as a basis for improving instructional methods, instuctional
materials and learning procedures.

7.8.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with
given answers at the end of the unit.
17. The -------- tests indicate how far the student has progressed towards the
attainment of the instructional objectives'
18. There are tests which have been designed to provide information about the
specific nature of the pupil's difficulties in given subject area are called

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7.9. E-ASSESSMENT

In its broadest sense, e-assessment is the use of information technology for

any assessment-related activity. This definition embraces a wide range of student
activity ranging from the use of a word processor to on-screen testing. Due to its
obvious similarity to e-learning, the term e-assessment is becoming widely used as a
generic term to describe the use of computers within the assessment process. Specific
types of e-assessment include computerized adaptive testing and computerized
classification testing. E-assessment can also refer to e-marking.
E-assessment can be used not only to assess cognitive and practical abilities
but anxiety disorders, such as social anxiety disorder. Cognitive abilities are assessed
using e-testing software, while practical abilities are assessed using e-portfolios or
simulation software.
7.9.1 COMPONENTS
An e-testing system designed to focus on lower level associations comprises
two components: (1) an assessment engine; and (2) an item bank. An assessment
engine comprises the hardware and software required to create and deliver a test.
Most e-testing engines run on standard hardware so the key characteristic is the
software's functionality. There is a wide range of software packages. The software
does not include the questions themselves; these are provided by an item bank. Once
created, the engine uses the item bank to generate a test. Traditional paper-and-pencil
testing is similar, but the test is pulled from the bank at only one time, when it is sent
to publishing.
The creation of the item bank is more costly and time consuming than the
installation and configuration of the assessment engine. This is due to the fact that
assessment engines can be bought "off the shelf," whereas an item bank must be
developed for each specific application.
An e-assessment system designed to focus on more sophisticated forms of
knowledge requires some sort of interactive activity and a system for inviting students
to reason or solve problems around that activity. One influential program of research
is known as Evidence Centered Design, or ECD. ECD involves the use of Bayesian
Inference Nets to create a sophisticated model of student cognition and a set of
activities or problems that students work on that allow the system to estimate the
individuals understanding of the particular domain.

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7.9.2 TYPES OF E-ASSESSMENT
The best examples of E-assessment follow a Formative Assessment structure
and are called "Online Formative Assessment". This involves making an initial
formative assessment by sifting out the incorrect answers. The author/teacher will
then explain what the pupil should have done with each question. It will then give the
pupil at least one practice at each slight variation of sifted out questions. This is the
formative learning stage. The next stage is to make a Summative Assessment by a
new set of questions only covering the topics previously taught.
Formative Assessment In Elearning
A formative assessment in eLearning is designed to monitor a learner's
development and provide them with feedback they can use to achieve their goals.
The primary purpose of a formative assessment in eLearning is to offer your
learners feedback they can use to improve their eLearning experience. Rather than
simply giving them a grade, you are able to identify areas that may need improvement
and pinpoint their strengths DURING the eLearning course, in contrast to summative
assessment, which is used to determine whether or not a learner achieved the learning
objectives and reached the desired level of proficiency at the end of an eLearning
course. This constructive criticism and insight can be used to create an action plan
moving forward, so that they are able to modify learning behaviors and achieve their
learning goals.
Types of Formative Assessment
Goal checks.
Learners are provided with a goal or objective at the beginning of the
eLearning lesson. Upon completion they are given an assessment to determine
whether they achieved the goal and how far they've progressed. Additional
“milestone” goals can also be set for the rest of the lesson or eLearning course.
One-on-one discussion.
The instructor meets with a learner to discuss expectations and assess their
current knowledge base and skill sets. Typically, the facilitator will ask each learner a
pre-determined set of questions to identify areas of improvement. This can be carried
out face-to-face or via an online chat.
Instructor observation.
The instructor observes learners as they are completing online activities and
assesses the proficiency and skill level of each individual. This usually involves note-

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taking, and possibly a follow-up online face-to-face meeting between the instructor
and learner.
Personal online learning logs.
Learners are asked to create a personal online learning log or journal that
details what they are learning, their thoughts and feelings about the topic, and the core
ideas or concepts of the online lesson. The instructor can then use this log to track the
learner's progress.
Group presentations.
Learners work together or independently to create an online presentation that
must be presented to their peers. The learners are provided with criteria beforehand,
which clarify expectations and specify which skills and information must be used
throughout the eLearning project.
Self-assessment.
Learners are encouraged to reflect upon their own eLearning experience and
determine their level of proficiency or knowledge mastery. They may also be
evaluated by their peers, who give them feedback and insight into their work. This
form of online assessment is usually paired with another eLearning activity, such as
personal online learning logs.
Summative Assessment In E-learning
Summative assessment in eLearning is used to determine whether or not a
learner achieved the learning objectives and reached the desired level of proficiency.
Typically, a summative assessment is administered at the end of an eLearning course,
and provides learners with a final grade, in contrast to formative assessment, which
identify areas that may need improvement and pinpoint their strengths 5 Types Of
Summative Assessment
Online multiple choice exams.
Students must choose from a specific set of answers. No written responses are
required, and the answers are typically presented at random.
Online Presentations.
Learners create an online presentation that delves into a particular topic, which
they must then share with their peers or in a public forum. The online presentation
shows their mastery of the subject, and determines whether they have learned the key
concepts and ideas.

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Creating a website or blog.
This is a modern twist on online presentation assessments, wherein learners
are asked to create a site or blog that covers all aspects of the topic in question. They
must put the information they find using their own words and create a design for the
site, which also tests their communication and technology skills.
Learners' online portfolios.
Throughout the eLearning course, learners are asked to place important online
assignments and eLearning activities into an online portfolio, which is then assessed
at the end of the term by the facilitator of the eLearning course. They can also create
an online portfolio comprised entirely of new work that is used to determine their
final grade.
Online group projects.
Learners work with their peers to complete an online group project that
showcases their comprehension and skill mastery. For example, they might create a
slideshow that highlights the key takeaways from the eLearning course.
7.9.3 ADVANTAGES
E-assessment is becoming widely used. It has many advantages over
traditional (paper-based) assessment. The advantages include:
1. lower long-term costs
2. instant feedback to students
3. greater flexibility with respect to location and timing
4. improved reliability (machine marking is much more reliable than human
marking)
5. improved impartiality (machine marking does not 'know' the students so
does not favour nor make allowances for minor errors)
6. greater storage efficiency - tens of thousands of answer scripts can be
stored on a server compared to the physical space required for paper
scripts
7. enhanced question styles which incorporate interactivity and multimedia.
7.9.4 DISADVANTAGES
There are also disadvantages. E-assessment systems are expensive to establish
and not suitable for every type of assessment (such as extended response questions).
The main expense is not technical; it is the cost of producing high quality assessment
items - although that cost is identical when using paper-based assessment.

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It has also been noted that in regards to university level work, providing electronic
feedback can be more time-consuming than traditional assessments, and therefore
more expensive.
7.9.5 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Note: Write your answers in the space given below and compare it with
given answers at the end of the unit.
19. Cognitive abilities are assessed using e-testing software, while practical
abilities are assessed using----------software
20. A formative assessment in eLearning is designed to monitor a learner's
development and provide them with ----- they can use to achieve their
goals.
21. Summative assessment in eLearning is used to determine whether or not a
learner achieved the---------------.

7.10 LET US SUM UP

Implementation of information and communication technologies, as well as

emersion of new user interfaces and web 2.0 technologies changes the way of
education system, the way of living and business transactions in general. The way we
communicate, operate, produce and live is changing. In accordance with it, the
systems of education change from traditional to modern. The following changes
occur: from content delivery to knowledge production, from transfer of knowledge
from teacher to student towards encouragement of development and construction of
knowledge, from courses and programs changing to the adaptation of the study
environment, from the faculty professionalism to the quality of teaching and student
learning and the early involvement of students in research work and projects. These
occurring changes also affect the student and professor mobility. Here the word
“mobility” represents more than the student exchange programs and the easier
transitions from one's home university to a foreign one, but also the way professors
conduct their classes.
With the development of certain software, a student's class attendance no
longer represents an important factor, as they can now learn from distance using the
mentioned software, taking the learning process one step further.

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 In order for said changes to occur, the use of e-learning and the development
of new tools are almost mandatory.
7.11 UNIT- END ACTIVITIES
1. Describe the steps for constructing an achievement test in Computer Science
2. What are differences between Formative and Summative Evaluation?
3. Describe any five tools of evaluation?
4. Describe continuous and Comprehensive evaluation
5. Describe the steps for ON-line Examination
6. Describe the question types used for On=line examination
7. Describe the type of e-assessment in Computer Science.
8. Describe the steps for preparing diagnostic test?
9. What are the merits and demerits of e-assessment?

7.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Instruction 12.Achievement
2. Curriculum 13.Achievement
3.Formmative Evaluation 14.ON-LINE
4.Summative Evaluation 15.ON-LINE
5. CCE 16.ON-LINE
6. MMPI 17.Diagnostic
7. Calfornia Personality Test 18.Diagnostic
Test 8.Allport-Vernon 19.e-testing
9. Rating Scale 20.Feed-back
10. Social Behaviour 21.Learning Objectives
11.achievement Test

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7.13 SUGGESTED READINGS
Mohanty, L. (2006). ICT strategies for schools. New Delhi: Sage Publication.
Sambath, K., Paneerselvam, A., & Santhanam, S. (2006). Introduction of educational
technology. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited.
Sidhu, K. S. (2006). Teaching of mathematics. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private
Ltd.
Vanaja, M. (2006). Educational technology. Hyderabad: Neelkamal Publications Pvt.
Ltd.
Goel, H. K. ( 2005). Teaching of Computer Science. New Delhi: R.Lall Book Depot.
Krishnamurthy, R. C. (2003). Educational technology: Expanding our vision. Delhi:
Authors Press.
Srinivasan, T. M. (2002). Use of computers and multimedia in education. Jaipur:
Aavisakar Publication.
Alexis, M. L. (2001). Computer for every one. Leon: Vikas Publishing house Ltd:
New Delhi.
Norton, P. (1998). Introduction to computers. New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Co
Ltd.

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REFERENCES

Agarwal J. C (2006). Essential of educational technology. Teaching and Learning.

New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
Balaguruswamy. E & Sharma, K.D (1983). Computer in education and Training, New
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Chauhan, S. S (1985). Innovations in teaching learning process. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House Ltd.
Garrett, H.E. (1979). Statistics in psychology and education. Bombay: Vakils, Feffer
and Simons Ltd.
Goel, H.K (2005). Teaching of Computer Science. New Delhi: R. Lall Book Depot.
Kochhar, S.K. (1992). Methods and techniques of teaching. New Delhi: Sterling
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Krishnamurthy, R.C (2003). Educational technology: Expanding our vision. Delhi:
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Mangal S.K., Uma Mangal, (2009) Essentials of Educational Technology, PHI
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Majur Gehlawat (2012). Information Technology in Education, New Delhi: Dorling
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Mohanty, L (2006). ICT strategies for schools, New Delhi: Sage Publication.
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Passi, B.K (1976). Becoming a better teacher: Micro teaching approach. Ahmedabad:
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Sharma, R.N (2008). Principles and Techniques of Education. Delhi: Surjeet
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Krishnan, N,(2001), “Computer Fundamentals and Windows with Internet
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Lalini Varanasi, V.Sudhakar, Mrunalini,(2005), “Computer Education”, Neelkamal
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Mujibul Hasan Siddiqui, 2004, “Technology in Higher Education”, APH Publishing
Corporation, 5 Ansari Road, Darya Ganj, New Delhi.
Peter Bauer, (2005), “Photoshop CS2 for Dummies”, Wiley Publications Inc., USA.
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Techniques”, Tata- Mcgraw Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
Sampanth, K, A Pannir Selvam, S Santhanam, “Introduction to Educational
Technology”, New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Private Limited, 1984.
Sue Jenkins and Rechard Wagner, (2009),“Dreamweaver CS4 – All – in –one for
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Venkataiah, N, “Educational Technology”, New Delhi : APH publishing corporation,
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