ISC 2024 - 2025

SUBJECT: PSYCHOLOGY Class: XI

CHAPTER 1. THE SUBJECT PSYCHOLOGY

CHAPTER OUTLINE:

(i) Definition of Psychology; schools of thought- Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism,

Psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology, Psychology and other disciplines.

Definition of Psychology, meaning of the terms: behaviour, stimulus and response. The eclectic approach of
modern Psychology- biological, behavioural, psychoanalytic, cognitive and socio-cultural approaches. Main
features of the schools of Structuralism, Functionalism and Behaviourism, Psychoanalysis, Gestalt psychology
(two Psychologists of each approach and their relevant concepts).

Psychology and other Disciplines: Relationship between Psychology and Economics, Political Science, Law
and Criminology, Sociology, Computer Science, Mass Communication and Music & Fine Arts.

(ii) Fields of Psychology – clinical, counselling, developmental, educational, organizational and social.

The general importance and aims of studying Psychology and its special benefits. Applications - different
branches and the kind of work done in special fields - clinical, counselling, developmental, educational,
organizational and social (in brief).

(iii) Heredity and Environment – meaning of the term ‘heredity’; basic principles and mechanism of
heredity (genetic). Meaning of the term ‘environment’; importance of both heredity and environment
in behaviour.

The definition and role of chromosomes and genes (dominant and recessive). Significance of environment:
physical and social. Heredity related diseases: Mental Impairment and Huntington’s disease. How both
heredity and environment interact to produce behaviour (Twin studies- identical and fraternal twins, Separated
Twin Study).

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INTRODUCTION
Psychology is the offspring of Philosophy. The gradual process of Psychology from Philosophy to Science is
based on the change in its meaning and concept over a period of time.

A. DEFINITION AND NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY (Mangal: Pg. no.1-3)

I. EVOLUTION OF DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

1. In terms of the study of the “soul”.

The word Psychology comes from the Greek word “Psyche”, which means “soul” and “Logos” meaning
“knowledge or study”.
But some people believed in the soul, and some didn’t and hence no universal conclusion came out of it.

2. In terms of the study of the “mind”.

As the soul cannot be studied, viewed, touched, or felt and hence ancient philosophers tried to define
psychology via mind as it is not explained as soul.
But the questions remain unanswered as to what is mind and how can it be studied?

3. In terms of the study of “consciousness”.

Theories pertaining to soul and mind couldn’t define Psychology as both the terms were confusing.
William Wundt and Edward Bradford tried to define Psychology as the science of consciousness.

It was also not accepted because-

● Limited approach and doesn’t take the subconscious and unconscious state of mind into consideration.
● The process of study of conscious activities of the mind proved a one-sided and unscientific approach.
● The approach was limited only to humans and didn’t take the consciousness of animals into
consideration.

II. DEFINITIONS: (Baron: Pg.2; Morgan: Pg. 4; Mangal: Pg 3)

● Morgan and King: Psychology is “the study of the behaviour of humans and animals and how to
apply this to specific human problems.”
● Baron: Psychology is “the scientific study of behaviour and cognitive processes.”

“Psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes of all living organisms.”

o Scientific study: by observation; being objective; being unbiased and following a method.
o Behaviour: it includes all our outward or overt actions and reactions such as talking, facial expressions,
and movements.
o Mental processes: these refer to all the internal, covert activities of our mind such as thinking, feeling,
and remembering.
o Living organisms: it is employed to include all living creatures inhabiting the earth irrespective of
species, caste, colour, age, sex, and mental or physical state. Thus, the normal, the abnormal, the young
and the old belonging to different stock, spheres and walks of human life are all studied by this science.
It also encompasses the behaviour of animals, insects, birds and even plants.

III. MEANING OF THE TERM BEHAVIOUR (Mangal: Pg. no.3)

The term “behaviour” is taken in its totality, connoting a wide and comprehensive meaning. “Any
manifestation of life activity,” says Woodworth (1948), and behaviour is a collective name for these
activities. Therefore, the term “behaviour” includes all the motor or conative activities like walking,
swimming, dancing etc.; cognitive activities, e.g., thinking, reasoning, imagining etc., and affective
activities like feeling happy, sad, angry etc.

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This includes not only the conscious behaviour and activities of the human mind but also the subconscious
and unconscious and hence covers not only the overt but also the covert behaviour involving all inner
experiences and mental processes.
It is not limited to the study of human behaviour. The behaviour of animals, insects, birds and even plants
also come within the purview of Psychology. Therefore, when we talk about the study of behaviour in
Psychology, it means the study of behaviour of all living organisms.
In a nutshell then, the term behaviour refers to the entire life activities and experiences of all living
organisms.

IV. STIMULUS AND RESPONSE

A stimulus is felt by an organism’s senses which are sensitive parts of his/her physiology. When any part
of an organism or sensory organs is stimulated, a reaction or a response will result.
A response is a behaviour that is manifested by a living organism which is the result of an external or
internal stimulus.

V. NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGY: (Morgan: Pgs. 4-5; Baron: Pgs. 14-16)

AS A SCIENCE
A science is a body of systematised knowledge that is gathered by carefully observing and
measuring events.

1. Psychologists do experiments and make observations that others can repeat; they obtain data, often
in the form of quantitative measurements, which can be verified. This scientific approach is very
different from forming opinions based on individual experience or arguing from premises that no one
can test. Thus, experiments and observations are the core of scientific psychology.

2. As a science, psychology is systematic. Data from experiments and observations are essential, but for
them to make some sense in helping us understand events, they must be organised in some way.
Scientific theories are important tools for the organisation of observed facts. Theory has quite a
different meaning in science. Scientific theories are general principles which summarise many
observations and predict what can be expected to happen in new situations. As summaries and
predictors of events, scientific theories should not be thought of as “right” or “wrong” but merely as
more or less useful in helping summarise what has been observed and in making predictions about
what is to be expected when new observations or experiments are done. As new data are obtained,
theories are subject to modification, or old theories may eventually be scrapped in favour of new ones
which do a better job of summarising and predicting than the old theories. Many of the arguments
scientists have with each other are over the modification and scrapping of theories as new data are
gathered.

3. Another important part of most sciences- psychology included- is measurement, defined as the
assignment of numbers to objects or events according to certain rules. Measurement in psychology
is often more difficult than it is in sciences such as physics and chemistry because many of the things
psychologists study cannot be measured directly by physical scales. Example: What is the yardstick of
happiness or friendship?

4. Psychologists follow scientific methods of which values and standards are the essential
components. They are:
● Accuracy: A commitment to gathering and evaluating information about the world in as careful,
precise, and error-free a manner as possible.
● Objectivity: A commitment to obtaining and evaluating such information in a manner as free from
bias as humanly possible.
● Scepticism: A commitment to accepting findings as accurate only after they have been verified
repeatedly, preferably by many different scientists.

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 ● Open-mindedness: A commitment to changing one’s views- even that is strongly held- in the face
of evidence that these views are inaccurate.

5. Role Of Scientific Method: The Scientific Method follows the following steps:
● Perceiving the Question
● Forming the Hypothesis
● Testing the Hypothesis
● Drawing Conclusions
● Report your results

B. “SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT” IN PSYCHOLOGY. (Morgan: Pgs. 24-26; Baron: Pgs. 3-5;

Mangal: 38-46)

1. STRUCTURALISM:

Proponents: Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.

Introduction: Structuralism was the first school of psychology. Wilhelm Wundt founded the first
laboratory in Psychology in Germany in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. It focuses on analysing the
contents of consciousness in order to determine its basic elements and the relationship between them.
Concept: Propagated by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920): emphasis on the analysis of the components of
consciousness i.e., the structure of the mind through introspection. Structuralism was coined by one of
his students, Edward Titchener. Wundt’s purpose was to systematically study the mind. He proposed that
psychology should focus on analysing the contents of consciousness into basic elements. Structuralists
viewed that human conscious experience could be understood by breaking it down into components:
physical sensations (light and sounds), emotions and feelings, and Images.
Method: Introspection- a method in which trained individuals report in detail about their conscious
experiences as objectively as possible in response to specific stimuli (e.g. sounds, optical illusions, other
visual stimuli) that are presented to them under carefully controlled situations.
Merits: Structuralism put Psychology on a firm scientific footing. We get a great deal of information about
the kinds of sensations people have.
Demerits: Critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behaviour, which is not directly
observable and cannot be accurately measured. They challenged the idea that the mind could be understood
by finding its elements and the rules for combining them.

2. FUNCTIONALISM:

Proponents: William James, John Dewy and Harvey Carr

Introduction: Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the structuralist school of thought and
was heavily influenced by the work of William James. Instead of focusing on the structure of
consciousness/ mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead interested in the
function/role that these processes play.
Concept: Strongly influenced by Darwin’s theory of natural selection; and initiated by William James
(1842-1910) it argued that since consciousness is a uniquely human characteristic, it must serve important
functions for us- otherwise it would never have evolved. Functionalists focused on understanding the
functions of consciousness- how it helps human beings cope with challenges and change the world around
them.
The focus of functionalism was on how behaviour actually works to help people live in their environment.
Functionalists utilised methods such as direct observation. While both early schools of thought emphasised
human consciousness, their conceptions of it were significantly different. While structuralists sought to
break down mental processes into their smallest parts, the functionalists believed that consciousness
existed as a more continuous and changing process. While functionalism is no longer a separate school of
thought, it would go on to influence later psychologists and theories of human thought and behaviour. E.g.,
our minds are always making associations and adapting to the environment accordingly.
Method: Direct observation and Interaction with the environment.

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Merits: Functionalism gave a practical slant to the research conducted. Topics like child development and
educational practices were dealt with.

3. BEHAVIOURISM:

Proponents: John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov, and B.F. Skinner.

Introduction: behaviourism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. Psychology should
focus not on consciousness or experience but focus on observable behaviour.
Concept: behaviourism suggests that all behaviour can be explained by environmental causes rather than
by internal forces. Propagated by John B. Watson it focused his attention totally on the overt or observable
behaviour for its objective observation. He rejected the idea of mind and consciousness as subject matters
of psychology as it was not observable. Introspection is subjective because it cannot be verified by another
observer. The central idea was that the study of psychology should be restricted to the ‘observable’ study
of the behaviour of people and animals. He defined psychology as a study of behaviour or responses (to
stimuli) which can be measured and studied objectively. It also said that the building blocks of behaviour
are conditioned responses and preferred to emphasize learned rather than unlearned behaviour. Early
theories of behaviourism were the result of experiments that focused on animal behaviour. The
behaviourism of Watson was further developed by many influential psychologists who are known as
behaviourists--- the most prominent among them was B.F. Skinner emphasised only overt behaviour and
ignored internal states.
Method: Observation
Merits: Theories of learning including classical conditioning and operant conditioning were the focus of
a great deal of research.

4. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY:

Proponents: Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, Wolfgang Kohler

Introduction: Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based on the idea that we experience things
as a unified whole. This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century
in response to the molecular approach of structuralism.
Concept: Instead of breaking down thoughts and behaviour into their smallest elements, gestalt
psychologists believe that you must look at the whole of experience. According to Gestalt thinkers, the
whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Kurt Koffka et al. emphasise the role of form or configuration
or organisation in the perceptual field and highlight the importance of insight and understanding in learning
or problem-solving. Gestalt means ‘configuration’ or ‘form’. This school of thought believes that all
mental processes depend upon the ‘collection of the whole’ pattern of elements. We perceive things as a
WHOLE and NOT as a mere collection of their constituents/elements. The meaning of
sensation/perception is always related to the total situation. Perceiving situations collectively e.g.,
cognitive, social and cultural processes promote a holistic viewpoint.
E.g., In a triangle what do we see? We see a single large triangle rather than 3 small angles. Therefore,
what we see is related to the background against which an object appears. Therefore, the WHOLE is
greater than the SUM of its PARTS.
The three steps in the behavioural process are:
● Perception of the situation as a whole.
● Seeing and judging the relationship between various factors in the situation.
● Taking an immediate decision and behaviour accordingly.
Method: Perception
Merits: This theory had applications in perception-centred interpretations of learning, memory and
problem-solving (cognitive).

5. PSYCHOANALYSIS:

Proponents: Sigmund Freud, Anna Freud, Eric Erikson, Alfred Adler, Carl Jung.

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 Introduction: This school of thought emphasises the influence of the unconscious mind on behaviour.
Concept: It is based on the theory that behaviour is determined by powerful inner forces most of which
are buried in the unconscious. According to Freud, the mind has 3 parts: conscious, unconscious, and
preconscious. Conscious: Thoughts and perceptions; preconscious: available to consciousness, e.g.,
memories and stored knowledge; and unconscious: wishes and desires formed in childhood, biological
urges that are repressed because they are unacceptable to them/society. It is an expression of our
unconscious drives which determine most of our behaviour. Propagated by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
emphasised the ideas of the unconscious and subconscious mind, the defence mechanisms, psycho-sexual
development, and sex as an urge responsible for all types of behaviour.
Freud believed that the human personality was composed of three elements: the id, the ego and the
superego. The id is composed of primal urges, while the ego is the component of personality charged with
dealing with reality. The superego is the part of our personality that holds all the ideals and values we
internalise from our parents and culture. Freud believed that the interaction of these three elements was
what led to all of the complex human behaviours.
Method: Dream Analysis, Free Association
Merits: Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated a great deal of
controversy. This controversy existed not only in his time but also in modern discussions of Freud's
theories.
Demerits: Individual Psychology of Alfred Adler and the Analytical Psychology of Carl Jung was born
as a reaction to an overemphasis on sex by Freud.

C. ECLECTIC APPROACH OF MODERN PSYCHOLOGY (Morgan p.g,; 26-30)

Psychological perspectives are different ways of thinking about and explaining human behavior. Psychologists
utilize a variety of perspectives when studying how people think, feel, and behave. Some researchers focus
more on one specific school of thought, such as the biological perspective, while others take a more eclectic
approach that incorporates multiple points of view. No single perspective is "better" than another. Instead,
each simply emphasizes different aspects of human behavior.

1. Biological perspective:
Psychologists with this perspective try to relate behaviour to functions of the body - the nervous system
and glandular system in particular. extensive research on various psychological constructs have led to
the uncovering of intriguing links between physiological mechanisms of the body and behaviour. The
biological approach focuses on the functioning of genes, endocrine glands and the structure and
function of the nervous system, along with the five sensory organs.

2. Behavioural perspective:
Behavioural perspective, or behaviourism, as discussed earlier, is one of the early schools of thought
that holds its ground in recent times too. This perspective tries to describe how behaviour is learned
and modified by environmental factors. The environmental factors that can affect the behaviour is
termed as stimulus, while the observable behaviour that is elicited as a result of this stimulus is called
response. Behavioural perspective proposes two main methods by which people learn from the
environment, namely classical conditioning and operant conditioning. The former involves learning
by association, while the latter involves learning as a consequence of behaviour. Thus, learning
influences behaviour.

3. Psychoanalytic perspective:
The psychoanalytic perspective is part of the broader perspective called the psychodynamic
perspective - it is a perspective that focuses on the role of feelings and impulses which are thought to
be unconscious. According to this perspective, behaviour is determined by the unconscious mind and
childhood experience. Freud compared the human mind with an iceberg, with only a small portion of
it being visible. Freud devised three techniques to assess the unconscious mind - free association,
dream analysis and slips of tongue. According to him, the id and the superego are constantly in conflict
with each other while the ego tries to resolve the discord. A key psychoanalytic idea is that, when these

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 impulses are unacceptable, or when they make us anxious, we use a defence mechanism. The
psychoanalytic perspective digs beneath the surface of behaviour looking for hidden processes and
hidden impulses.

4. Cognitive perspective:
The word cognition refers to perception of the world around us, some aspects of learning, memory,
thinking, and comprehension of our social environment. Another way to consider cognition is to say
that it refers to the processing of information that we receive through the senses. Such processing is
the basis of the experience we have which we call mind. Differences in the way we process information
may lead to differences in behaviour.

5. Socio-cultural perspective:
Socio-cultural psychology is a fairly new perspective that has grown significantly in the last twenty
years. Psychologists and researchers in this school of thought look at human behavior across different
cultures and different social structures. By looking at these differences, we can learn more about how
culture as well as society influences our thinking and behavior. For example, researchers have looked
at how social behaviours differ in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. This perspective requires
performing research from participants of different backgrounds to fully understand the potential
cultural variations. Many aspects of human thought and behavior are universal, but cultural
psychologists and social psychologists understand that culture and society differences can have an
impact. Essentially, this perspective looks at how individuals interact with their social and cultural
groups, as well as how these groups influence an individual’s behavior.

D. PSYCHOLOGY AND OTHER DISCIPLINES

Any discipline, which deals with people, would recognise the relevance of the knowledge of psychology.
Similarly, psychologists also acknowledge the relevance of other disciplines in understanding human
behaviour. This trend has led to the emergence of an interdisciplinary approach in the field of psychology.
Researchers and scholars in science, social science and humanities have felt the significance of psychology as
a discipline. In studying the brain and behaviour, psychology shares its knowledge with neurology,
physiology, biology, medicine, and computer science. In studying human behaviour (its meaning, growth, and
development) in a socio-cultural context, psychology shares its knowledge with anthropology, sociology,
social work, political science and economics. In studying mental activities involved in the creation of literary
texts, music and drama, psychology shares its knowledge with literature, art and music. Some of the major
disciplines linked to the field of psychology are discussed below:

1. Economics, Political Science and Sociology: As sister social science disciplines, these three have drawn
considerably from psychology and have enriched it as well. Psychology has contributed a great deal to the
study of micro-level economic behaviour, particularly in understanding consumer behaviour, savings
behaviour and in decision-making. American economists have used data on consumer sentiments to predict
economic growth. Three scholars who have worked on such problems have received the Nobel Prize in
Economics, namely H. Simon, D. Kahneman and T. Schelling. Like economics, political science too draws
considerably from psychology, particularly, in understanding issues related to the exercise of power and
authority, the nature of political conflicts and their resolutions, and voting behaviour. Sociology and
psychology come together to explain and understand the behaviour of individuals within different socio-
cultural contexts. Issues related to socialization, group and collective behaviour, and intergroup conflicts gain
from both these disciplines.

2. Computer Science: From the very beginning, the effort of computer science has been in mimicking the
human mind. One can see it in terms of how a ‘computer’ is structured, its memory organized, sequential and
simultaneous (read parallel) processing of information. Computer scientists and engineers are seeking to make
computers not only more and more intelligent but also machines which can sense and feel. Developments in
both these disciplines have brought about a significant advancement in the field of cognitive sciences.

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3. Law and Criminology: A skilled lawyer and a criminologist requires knowledge of psychology in
answering such questions as- How well a witness remembers an accident, a street fight, or a murder? How
well can s/he report such facts when taking the witness stand in the court? What factors influence the decision
which is taken by the jury? What are the dependable signs of guilt and falsehood? What factors are held
important in holding a culprit responsible for her/his action? What degree of punishment is considered just for
a criminal act? Psychologists seek to answer these questions. Currently, several psychologists are involved in
research on such issues, the answers to which would help the legal system of the country in the future.

4. Mass Communication: Print and electronic media have entered our lives in a very big way. They have a
major influence on our thinking, attitudes, and our emotions. If they have brought us closer together, they have
also reduced cultural diversities. The impact of media on the formation of attitudes of children and their
behaviour is a domain where both these disciplines come together. Psychology also helps in developing
strategies for better and more effective communication. A journalist in reporting news must know the reader’s
interest in the story. Since most stories deal with human events, knowledge of their motives and emotions is
very important. A story will have more impact if it is based on a background of psychological knowledge and
insight.

5. Music and Fine Arts: Music and psychology have converged in many areas. Scientists have made use of
music in raising work performance. Music and emotions is another area in which a number of studies have
been carried out. Musicians in India have recently started experimenting with what they call ‘Music Therapy’.
In this, they use different ‘Ragas’ for curing certain physical ailments. The efficacy of music therapy remains
to be proven.

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 E. FIELDS OF PSYCHOLOGY
a. Aims:
● To develop an understanding of human behaviour: the nature of individuals and of members of social
groups.
● To develop an understanding of the methods of research and study employed in Psychology.
● To develop an appreciation of the practical value of Psychology and its applications in daily life.

b. Goals of Psychology:
1. Description: it involves observing a behaviour and noting everything about it: What is
happening? Where it happens, and under what circumstances it seems to happen. It Tries to
describe HOW people think, feel and act in a given situation
2. Explanation: it gives the reasons for a behaviour: Why is it happening? It tries to understand
WHY people think, feel and act the way they do.
3. Prediction: determining what will happen in the future: When will it happen? It tries to estimate
when, where and under what circumstances this behaviour will occur.
4. Control: it helps to bring about a change: How can it be changed? It tries to influence
behaviour/change.
5. Application: It helps to apply the principles to the different areas of life. Which areas can it be
applied to?

c. Benefits of Psychology

1. Psychology can help you better understand yourself.

It helps with your own personal development. It can help you understand the motives of other people and
your own motives better which can result in personal growth and development. When you study
psychology you’ll learn to understand the flaws in your own thinking – such as those that come from
cognitive biases – and you’ll learn to better help yourself overcome various forms of anxiety disorder/bad
habits etc. As you learn more about how development occurs, how personality forms, and how factors
like society and culture impact on behaviour, you might find yourself gaining a deeper understanding of
the many influences that have impacted on your own life.

2. Business is all about psychology.

Psychology affects everything in our everyday lives but it especially affects business. Business is really
about relationships – it’s about being able to sell to other people, to persuade other people and to work
well with them. If you study psychology and understand how other people’s minds work, then you will
be able to get your point across and ensure that your colleagues, clients and business partners respect you.
You’ll be able to make people more likely to buy a product and generally you’ll find you have the skills
you need to really excel in business. Studying psychology can give you a better understanding of the
people around you. The next time someone behaves in a certain way, you might be better able to
understand the influences and motivations behind their actions.

3. Psychology can help you become a better communicator.

Studying subjects such as emotion, language, and body language can help you improve your interpersonal
communication skills. By learning more about these things, you can gain a greater understanding of
people and what they are trying to communicate verbally as well as non-verbally.

4. Studying psychology can make you more effective in the workplace.

Industrial-Organisational Psychology focuses on understanding human dynamics in the workplace. A
knowledge of human behaviour is one of the ‘selling points’ for psychology graduates when it comes to
the job markets and a knowledge of basic psychology makes you a more effective supervisor or manager
of teams.

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 5. Psychology promotes the understanding of wellbeing.
Although studying psychology doesn’t necessarily make you psychologically healthier (any more than
studying medicine makes you physically healthy), psychology graduates do have this knowledge at their
fingertips and should be more aware of the fact that good interpersonal and family relationships require
attention and work. They will also know where people – family, friends, co-workers – to go when they
need counselling, psychotherapy or any psychological intervention.
While some students may branch off into the and become a psychotherapist, studying psychology can
help you better understand how psychological conditions are diagnosed and treated. You can also
discover how mental wellness can be enhanced, how to reduce stress, how to boost memory, and how to
live a happier, healthier life.

6. A psychology degree will improve your employability.

It may not be the first thing you would think of, but psychology is a very good, general degree for careers
in various fields – law, social services, education, business, and many other of today’s occupations in the
start-up techie world. The key is knowing how to get across the relevance of your psychology degree and
background to a potential employer which is fairly the same issue for most graduates. However, clued-in
bosses (and savvy job applicants) know that an understanding of human behaviour is essential for success
in teams and this needs to be highlighted as an important, and employable competency for those who
don’t get this.

7. Psychology gives you a strong grasp of research methods.

Psychology teaches you to understand basic scientific principles. Psychology as a social science relies on
the scientific method. Having a basic understanding of psychological research methods can help you rate
some of the many claims that you’ll encounter in books, magazines, television shows, and movies.
Becoming a better-informed consumer of psychology means that you will be equipped to sort out the
truth from the fiction surrounding many pop psychology myths. Psychology graduates say that research
methods and ability to interpret statistical results are the biggest contributors to their career success,
regardless of whether they pursued a career in psychology or elsewhere.

8. Psychology promotes critical thinking skills.

A great deal of psychological material and the methods taught and used by psychology departments focus
on how to think critically. Critical thinking is considered an essential skill to become an educated graduate
and it is more commonly now a general education requirement in universities. Psychology courses
develop the student’s critical thinking skills that are important in business, law, and all other professions.

d. Importance of Psychology (Morgan: Pg. 5)

1. Importance of Psychology can be seen through its applied side- that is, it is often used to solve
“real life” problems.
The application of knowledge to practical problems is an art; it is a skill, or a knack for doing things,
which is acquired by study, practice, and special experience. Psychologists have learned through
special training, the artistry, or knack, of applying psychology.
2. Along with Psychology, other branches of knowledge like- Anthropology, sociology, economics,
political science, geography, and history also study various aspects of behaviour. Together with
Psychology, these fields make up the group of knowledge areas known collectively as the behavioural
sciences. What sets psychology apart from other behavioural sciences is partly its exclusive
interest in behaviour, partly its focus on individuals, and partly the wide range of behaviours it
covers.

e. FIELDS : (Morgan: Pgs. 17-22; Baron: Pgs. 12; Mangal: 7-8)

1. Clinical Psychology
It is a field of psychology that studies the diagnosis, causes, and treatment of mental disorders.
Clinical psychologists come closer to many people’s ideas of what a psychologist is. They are “doctors”
who diagnose psychological disorders and treat them by means of psychotherapy.

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Many people are confused about the difference between a clinical psychologist and a psychiatrist. The
clearest distinction between them is that a clinical psychologist normally holds a PhD or M.A. degree (or
a relatively new degree called the Psy.D., for “Doctor of Psychology”); a psychiatrist holds an M.D.
degree. A clinical psychologist who does not have medical training, cannot prescribe drugs to treat
behaviour disorders, whereas a psychiatrist can.
Many clinical psychologists practise in state mental hospitals, veterans’ hospitals, community mental
health centres, and similar agencies. An increased number are in private practice. In the institutions and
clinics where many clinical psychologists practice, while psychiatrists often are available for prescribing
medical treatment when needed, psychologists do a large part of the professional work of diagnosis and
treatment, as well as holding important administrative jobs and doing much of the research.

2. Counselling Psychology
It is a field of psychology that assists individuals in dealing with many personal problems that do
not involve psychological disorders.
Counselling psychologists work with people who have milder emotional and personal Problems. They
may use psychotherapy in an attempt to help with these problems. Counselling psychologists are often
consulted by people with specific questions, such as a choice of career or educational program. In their
practice, counselling psychologists may make extensive use of tests to measure aptitudes, interests, and
personality characteristics. A number of counselling psychologists try to help people who are having
problems with family living; these are the marriage and family counsellors.

3. Developmental Psychology
It is a field of psychology that studies how people change physically, cognitively, and socially over
their entire life span.
Developmental Psychologists try to understand complex behaviour by studying their beginnings and
orderly ways in which they change with time. If we can trace the origin and developmental sequence of a
certain behaviour, we will have a better understanding of it. Since changes in behaviour occur rapidly in
the early years of life, child psychology, the study of children’s behaviour, comprises a large part of
developmental psychology. But developmental changes also occur in adolescence, adulthood, and old age;
and so the study of these changes is also part of developmental psychology.
Developmental psychology has both research and applied aspects. For instance, a great deal of research
has been done on the development of thinking in children. Do progressive and systematic changes take
place in thinking during the first few years of life? They do. On the applied side, developmental
psychologists are often concerned with children who have behaviour problems or psychological disorders.
The kind of behaviour found in disturbed children is frequently quite different from the behaviours found
in disturbed adults, and different methods are used to treat them.

4. Educational Psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how people learn, including teaching methods, instructional
processes, and individual differences in learning. It explores the cognitive, behavioral, emotional,
and social influences on the learning process.
Educational Psychology studies how people of all ages learn. Educational psychologists primarily help
develop instructional methods and materials used to train people in both educational and work settings.
They are also concerned with research on issues of relevance for education, counselling and learning
problems. A related field, school psychology, focuses on designing programmes that promote intellectual,
social, and emotional development of children, including those with special needs. They try to apply
knowledge of psychology in a school setting.
Educational Psychology may include school psychology, but educational psychologists, as such, are
usually involved with more general, less immediate problems than most school psychologists or school
counsellors. Educational psychologists are especially concerned with increasing the efficiency of learning
in school by applying their psychological knowledge about learning and motivation to the curriculum.

5. Organisational Psychology
It is a field of psychology that studies all aspects of behaviour in work settings.

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 Industrial and Organisational Psychologists use modern versions of intelligence and aptitude tests in their
hiring and placement programs. Industrial and Organisational Psychologists apply Psychology to problems
in management and employee training, to the supervision of personnel, to improving communication
within the organisation, to counselling employees, and to alleviating industrial strife.
Many Industrial and Organisational Psychologists work as members of consulting firms which sell their
services to companies. They set up employee-selection programs; recommend changes in training
programs; analyse problems of interpersonal relationships and run programs to train company management
and employees in human-relations skills; and do research on consumer attitudes towards the company’s
products.
This then, is a subfield of psychology in which psychological principles are applied to practical problems
of work and commerce. Even the research which is done is aimed at the solution of particular practical
problems.

6. Social Psychology
It is a field of psychology that studies all aspects of social behaviour and social thought-how we think
about and interact with others.
The primary focus of social psychology is on understanding how individuals are affected by other people.
This focus covers a wide range of possible interests. For example, it includes the study of the ways in
which we perceive other people and how those perceptions affect our behaviour towards them. Similarly,
it involves concerted efforts to understand the determinants of interpersonal influences and of attitude
change. Thus social psychologists might study how perceptual stereotypes affect interactions or how the
decisions of a committee member are3 influenced by what others on the committee do or say. Sometimes
the interest is on the mutual influence exerted by individuals in close relationships, such as marriage.

F. HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT (Baron: Pgs. 63-64; Mangal: 123-131)

1.HEREDITY: Biologically determined characteristics passed from parents to their offspring.
● CHROMOSOMES: Every cell of your body contains a set of biological blueprints that enable it to
perform its essential functions. This information is contained in chromosomes.
Chromosomes are Threadlike structures containing the genetic material, found in nearly every cell of
the body. Chromosomes are composed of a substance known as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) DNA, in
turn, is made up of several simpler components arranged in the form of a double helix- something like
the twisting water slides found by the sides of large swimming pools. Chromosomes contain thousands
of genes- segments of DNA that serve as basic units of heredity. Our genes, working in complex
combinations and together with forces in the environment, ultimately determine many aspects of our
biological makeup.
Most cells in the human body contain forty-six chromosomes, existing in pairs. When such cells divide,
the chromosome pairs split; then after the cells have separated, each chromosome replicates itself so that
the full number is restored. This kind of cell division is known as mitosis. In contrast, sperm, and ova-
the male and female sex cells, or gametes- contain only twenty-three chromosomes (Due to cell division
through meiosis). Thus, when they join to form a fertilised ovum from which a new human being will
develop, the full number (forty-six) is attained. For each of us, then, half of our genetic material comes
from our mother and half from our father.
These basic mechanisms explain why persons who are related resemble one another more than persons
who are totally unrelated, and why the closer the familial ties between individuals, the more similar they
tend to be physically. The closer such links, the greater the proportion of chromosomes and genes family
members share. And because genes determine many aspects of physical appearance, similarity increases
with the closeness of the relationship. Thus siblings (children of the same parents) tend to be more alike
than cousins (the children of siblings). In the case of identical twins, or monozygotic twins, a single
fertilised egg splits in two and forms two embryos; in contrast, non-identical or fraternal twins grow
from two eggs fertilised by two different sperm. Identical twins sharing all of their genes are usually
remarkably similar in appearance. They are surprisingly similar in other respects as well, including-
amazingly-their religious beliefs, their television-viewing preferences, and even their grief responses.

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 ● Role of Genes
Like chromosomes, genes also occur in pairs. Each of the pairs is donated by one of the parents. An
offspring thus may be found to derive a gene pair in one of the following forms:
1. A dominant gene from one of the parents and a recessive gene from the other.
2. Dominant genes from both the parents.
3. Recessive genes from both of the parents.

In simple meaning a dominant gene must exhibit its dominance over the recessive ones. For example, if
one parent gives a dominant gene for brown eyes and the other provides a recessive gene for blue (a
recessive gene), the offspring will have brown eyes (characteristics of the dominant gene).
However, the fact that a particular trait is recessive in one generation in no way rules out the possibility of
its occurrence in the future. To be precise, in the above example of mutation between brown and blue
genes resulting in brown eyes, the recessive blue gene may lie in wait. If that offspring copulates with
another gene in someone else for blue eyes, their offspring, the third generation, might have blue eyes.
The idea behind the role of genes, specified above, may thus provide us solid support for explaining the
variations and dissimilarities in height, weight, intelligence, blood type, eye colour, and the colour and
texture of the skin and hair and similarly other important characteristics found in the parents and their
offspring as well as among the offspring of the same parents.
Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He
deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent. Mendel tracked
the segregation of parental genes and their appearance in the offspring as dominant or recessive traits.
He recognized the mathematical patterns of inheritance from one generation to the next.

2. ENVIRONMENT: External factors to which an individual is exposed from conception to death.

Borning, Langfield and Weld (1961): “The environment is everything that affects the individual except
his genes.”
Woodworth and Marquis (1948): “Environment covers all the outside factors that have acted on the
individual since he began life.”
Before birth, the mother’s womb is the place where these forces play their part. The foetus gets its
nourishment from the bloodstream of its mother. The physiological and psychological states of the mother
during pregnancy, her habits and interest, all influences the development of the foetus. After birth, the
child is exposed to numerous environmental forces that are purely external.
● Physical environments. Food, water, climate, physical atmosphere of the home, school, village or
city, the natural resources available are included in the physical forces. E.g., second-hand smoking and
prenatal nutrition.
● Social environments. The parents, members of the family, friends and classmates, neighbours,
teachers, the members of the community and society, the means of communication and recreation,
religious places, clubs, libraries etc. are included in social forces. E.g., the media and peer pressure
Also, environmental factors vary in their immediacy to the individual; they involve multiple layers of
forces, ranging from most immediate (e.g., families, friends, and neighbourhoods) to larger contexts (e.g.,
school systems and local governments) to macro factors (e.g., international politics and global warming).

3.Importance of both, Heredity and Environment, in behaviour.

i. HEREDITY:
1. Heredity determines the sex of the child.
Out of the 23 chromosomes in the sperms and ovum, the first 22 pair of chromosomes are called autosomes.
The autosomes are responsible for deciding and determining the growth and development of most of the
characteristics and structural composition of our body. The remaining 23rd pair is the sex chromosome.
Whether the baby to be born should be a boy or a girl and what sex- linked characteristics should it possess,
are decided by the mechanism of sex chromosomes of the father and the mother.
2. Heredity contributes significantly towards the physical constitution.
Most of the attributes related to our body make-up, its constitution and functioning are well decided and
guided by heredity. The difference in the colour of the eyes, skin, and hair; height; facial outlook and
appearances, blood types; fingerprints etc. are brought about by genetic differences.
3. Contribution of heredity towards the birth of twins and the related individual difference.

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 Normally at the time of fertilisation, a single ovum is fertilised by the sperm of the male. It results in the
birth of a single offspring at one time. But sometimes this normal function is disturbed when two or more
ova get fertilised resulting in the birth of two or more offspring at a time. There are two distinctly different
types of twins namely Identical and Fraternal twins.

ii. ENVIRONMENT:
1. Influence of internal environment after conception
A foetus gets its nourishment in the womb indirectly through the mother. Therefore, whatever the mother
eats or drinks has an impact on the growth and development of the child. Not only the quality of her diet
but also the environment available to her during pregnancy is quite important for the baby. If the mother
remains tense, worried, anxious and emotionally upset or mentally perturbed then it may eventually have
an adverse effect on the growth and development of the baby.
2. Influence of external environment during birth.
At the time of delivery also, the environment available to the mother and child affects the well-being,
growth and development of the child. Here the individual differences may be caused by situations like
premature or mature delivery, normal delivery or caesarian delivery, hygiene or unhygienic conditions,
and the general atmosphere at the time of delivery.
3. Influence of external environment after birth.
After birth, all things related to the external environment- Physical, Sociological, Cultural, and
Psychological- influence and affect each and every aspect of the growth and development of the child. The
environment at home, in school and in society affects the growth and development of the child.

4.Heredity related disease:

● Mental Retardation: (Baron: Pg. 361-362, Morgan: Pgs. 535-539: Mangal: Pgs. 436-444)
The term Mental Retardation refers to intellectual functioning that is considerably below average
combined with varying degrees of difficulties in meeting the demands of everyday life (Aiken, 1991).
Persons with mental retardation are typically described according to four broad categories of retardation:
mild, moderate, severe, and profound (American Psychiatric Association, 1994).
Individuals’ level of retardation is determined by at least two factors: their test scores and their success in
carrying out activities of daily living expected of persons their age. Persons whose retardation is in the
“mild” category can usually learn to function quite well.
▪ Intellectual disability (ID) also known as mental retardation (MR) is a generalised
neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by significantly impaired intellectual and adaptive
functioning.
▪ It is defined by an IQ under 70 in addition to deficits in two or more adaptive behaviours that affect
the everyday general living.
▪ There often are no physical signs of mild forms of ID, although there may be characteristic physical
traits when it is associated with a genetic disorder (e.g., Down syndrome).

The level of impairment ranges in severity for each person. Some of the early signs can include:
▪ Delays in reaching or failure to achieve milestones in motor skills development (sitting, crawling,
walking).
▪ Slowness in learning to talk or continued difficulties with speech and language skills after starting to
talk.
▪ Difficulty with self-help and self-care skills (e.g., getting dressed, washing, and feeding themselves)
▪ Poor planning or problem-solving abilities.
▪ Behavioural and social problems.
▪ Failure to grow intellectually or continued infant-like behaviour.
▪ Problems keeping up in school.
▪ Failure to adapt or adjust to new situations.
▪ Difficulty understanding and following social rules.

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 Mild MR (I.Q. 50 – 69) 1. Not identified until children begin school.
2. Even when poor academic performance is recognized, it
may take expert assessment to distinguish mild intellectual
disability from specific learning disability or
emotional/behavioural disorders.
3. People with mild ID are capable of learning reading and
mathematics skills to approximately the level of a typical
child aged nine to twelve.
4. They can learn self-care and practical skills, such as cooking
or using the local mass transit system.
5. As individuals with intellectual disability reach adulthood,
many learn to live independently and maintain gainful
employment.

Moderate MR (I.Q. 35 – 1. Apparent within the first years of life.

49) 2. Speech delays are particularly common signs of moderate
ID.
3. People with moderate intellectual disability need
considerable support in school, at home, and in the
community in order to fully participate.
4. While their academic potential is limited, they can learn
simple health and safety skills and to participate in simple
activities. As adults, they may live with their parents.
Severe MR (I.Q. 20 – 34) 1. Need more intensive support and supervision their entire
and lives.
Profound MR (I.Q. 19 or 2. Individuals are unable to independently care for themselves
below) without ongoing significant assistance from a caregiver
throughout adulthood.
3. Individuals with profound ID are completely dependent on
others to maintain their physical health and safety.

Causes of Mental Retardation

In some cases, it can be traced to genetic abnormalities such as Down syndrome, which is caused by the
presence of extra chromosomes; people with Down syndrome usually have IQs below 50. Mental
retardation can also result from environmental factors, such as inadequate nutrition or use of drugs or
alcohol by expectant mothers, infections, toxic agents, and traumas resulting from a lack of oxygen during
birth. Most cases of mental retardation, however, cannot readily be traced to specific causes.

● Huntington’s Disease (Baron: Pg.64-65)

A genetically based fatal neuromuscular disorder characterised by the gradual onset of jerky,
uncontrollable movements.
Unfortunately, there is at present no cure for this disease. Children of an affected person have a 50 percent
chance of inheriting the gene that causes the disorder. Ironically, the onset of symptoms usually appears
after age forty- long after many parents have their children, and therefore too late for them to reconsider
their decision to start a family. Although scientists are not yet sure how the gene actually causes the disease.
It is now possible to detect its presence before the onset of symptoms and, more importantly, in time to let
parents avoid passing the lethal gene to their children.
▪ Huntington disease is a progressive brain disorder that causes uncontrolled movements, emotional
problems, and loss of thinking ability (cognition).
▪ Adult-onset Huntington disease, the most common form of this disorder, usually appears in a person's
thirties or forties.

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 ▪ Early signs and symptoms can include irritability, depression, small involuntary movements, poor
coordination, and trouble learning new information or making decisions.
▪ As the disease progresses, these movements become more pronounced.
▪ Affected individuals may have trouble walking, speaking, and swallowing.
▪ People with this disorder also experience changes in personality and a decline in thinking and reasoning
abilities.
▪ Individuals with the adult-onset form of Huntington’s disease usually live about 15 to 20 years after
signs and symptoms begin.
▪ A less common form of Huntington’s disease known as the juvenile form begins in childhood or
adolescence.
▪ It also involves movement problems and mental and emotional changes. Additional signs of the
juvenile form include slow movements, clumsiness, frequent falling, rigidity, slurred speech, and
drooling.
▪ School performance declines as thinking and reasoning abilities become impaired. Seizures occur in
30 per cent to 50 per cent of children with this condition.
▪ Juvenile Huntington’s disease tends to progress more quickly than the adult-onset form; affected
individuals usually live 10 to 15 years after signs and symptoms appear.

5.HOW BOTH HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT INTERACT TO PRODUCE BEHAVIOUR:

(NATURE – NURTURE) (Baron: Pg. 65-66; Mangal Pg. 129)

To what extent are various aspects of our behaviour shaped by genetic inheritance, and to what extent are
they learned? This is usually known as the nature-nurture question. The answer to such a question is not
one suggesting that either experience or heredity dominates; rather many aspects of behaviour seem to
represent the result of the complex interaction between these factors.

How do Heredity and Environment affect behaviour?

● Both nature and nurture (heredity and environment) have important roles to play in the development
of human beings.
● Heredity is more important in determining physical traits like height and weight, colours and texture
of hair, and body strength although the effect of environment cannot be ruled out.
● Environment has the upper hand in the development of personality traits like sociability, honesty,
dominance, submission, introversion- extroversion, interests and other socially desirable, undesirable
traits. Hence neither nature nor nurture alone can explain one’s personality development.
● In the development of various personality traits, heredity and environment interact and heredity
imposes the maximum level of aptitude or skill, or performance one can achieve. On the other hand,
the environment makes contributions to individual variability by having its effect on what is already
gifted by heredity.
● Thus, variations among individuals are a function of the interaction of heredity and environmental
factors and the effect of one may be insignificant without the other.
● Certain traits are gifted by heredity, but unless the environment is conducive such traits cannot be
developed. The scope is provided by the environment. For example, an individual may be gifted
hereditarily with genius intelligence, but if the right education and environment isn't provided, the
individual’s intelligence would not fully develop.
● For instance, the following examples illustrate the interwoven relationship between hereditary and
environment:
1. Training can remove to a great extent hereditary handicap. The examples are special education for
subnormal children and special training to the deaf and dumb.
2. Enriched environment has tremendous effects on the growing personality of the child. Lack of
education of parents and faulty child rearing practices produce maladjusted personality.
● Heredity and environment cooperate and coordinate in the growth and development of human
behaviour and personality. The different factors of heredity and environment are so much interwoven
and their influences are so much interrelated that it is practically impossible to segregate them and
study their effect on human behaviour.

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 ● In conclusion, human behaviour and personality are therefore undoubtedly the result of interaction
between genetically determined traits and environmentally determined qualities.

6.Twin studies and adoption studies. (Baron Pg 65,66; Ciccarelli- Pg. 513-515)
1. Twin studies are helpful in disentangling the relative roles of genetic and environmental factors in a
given form of behaviour. Identical twins share all the same genes, while fraternal twins do not. Under
normal conditions, however, both kinds of twins are raised in environments that, if not identical, are at
least very similar. After all, twins generally are raised in the same home, attend the same schools, and
so on. Thus, if a given aspect of behaviour is strongly influenced by genetic factors, we’d expect
identical twins to resemble each other more closely in this respect than fraternal twins. If aspects of
behaviour are not influenced by genetic factors, however, we would not anticipate such differences.
A major problem with such twin studies, however, is obvious: the environments in which twins are
raised are often not precisely identical. This is especially true for fraternal twins, who may differ in
gender, and so experience quite different treatment by parents and other persons. For this reason, twin
studies, while suggestive, cannot provide conclusive evidence on the relative role of genetic and
environmental factors. Actually, no single type of study can provide such evidence.

2. In 1979, Thomas Bouchard conducted what is perhaps the most fascinating twin study yet. Then
director of the Minnesota Center for Twin and Family Research, Bouchard looked at identical and
fraternal twins separated in infancy and reared apart. He found that identical twins who had different
upbringings often had remarkably similar personalities, interests and attitudes. In one of the most
famous examples, Bouchard came across twins who had been separated from birth and reunited at the
age of 39. The results of the Minnesota twin study have revealed that identical twins are more similar
than fraternal twins or unrelated people in intelligence, leadership abilities, the tendency to follow
rules, and the tendency to uphold traditional cultural expectations, nurturance, empathy, assertiveness,
and aggressiveness. This similarity holds even if the twins are raised in separate environments. Twin
studies have shown: Genetic influences account for a great deal of personality development, regardless
of shared or nonshared environments.

Conclusion: Since we all have inherited different stocks, at the time of starting our journey of life and have
got different environmental backing and opportunities, variations, and differences among us are bound to exist.
Neither heredity nor environmental influences can be exclusively declared as the sole factor causing individual
differences.
Therefore, it is always safe to conclude that one’s heredity, environment, and the interaction between
these two are the true determinants of individual differences. This conclusion holds good for all types
of variations and differences among human beings.

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QUESTION BANK:

1.Wolfgang Kohler is one of the proponents of which of the following school of thought?
a. Structuralism
b. Functionalism
c. Gestalt
d. Behaviourism

2. Introspection is a method for ____________ school of thought:

a. Functionalism
b. Psychoanalysis
c. Behaviourism
d. Structuralism

3. ____________ is a field of psychology that studies all aspects of behaviour in work settings.
a. Social Psychology
b. Organizational Psychology
c. Clinical Psychology
d. Educational Psychology

4. The IQ range for Mild MR is __________

a. 19 or below
b. 35 - 49
c. 20 - 34
d. 50 - 69

5. ___________ is a perspective that focuses on the role of feelings and impulses which are thought to be
unconscious.
a. Cognitive
b. Behavioural
c. Psychoanalytic
d. Biological

6. What are the Minnesota Twin Studies? Why were they conducted, and what did the results help us
understand?

7. Mr. Karl is a 38 year old, who works for an IT firm. He’s enjoyed a healthy childhood and currently has a
loving family. He is married and has two children. Over the past few months, Karl notices some changes in
his mood. He finds himself more irritable than usual, and has started experiencing low moods frequently.
There have been times he has struggled to process information and make decisions clearly of things that he
was able to attend without any difficulties before. His family has observed that Karl’s movements aren’t that
smooth as they were before and sometimes his hands would show uncontrollable movements. He loses his
balance and has started experiencing difficulty in walking.

a. What is the disease that Karl is likely to be suffering with? Define the condition.
b. Elaborate the symptoms of this disease.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
● Baron, R. Misra, G. (2002) Psychology Indian Subcontinent Edition, 5th Edition, Dorling Kindersley
(India).
● Morgan, C. King, R. (2015) Introduction to Psychology, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill Education (India)
Private Limited.
● Mangal, S.K. (2012), Advanced Educational Psychology, 2nd Edition, PHI Learning Private Limited,
New Delhi.
● Myers, D. (2013), Psychology, Macmillan Publishers India Ltd. New Delhi.
● Mohanty, G. (2005), Psychology, Kalyani Publishers, Ludhiana.

HOW TO PREPARE FOR THE CHAPTER

1. You are required to refer to your three textbooks (Morgan and King, Baron and Mangal) while
preparing for this chapter, in order to gain a deeper understanding and prepare for your examination.
2. These notes are guidelines and are by no means ‘ideal answers’. You must supplement your answers
with relevant examples wherever required as per the marks allotted in the question paper.

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