JEE/NEET

Wave Optics
 WAVE OPTICS

Wavefront
The locus of all particles vibrating in the same phase is called a wavefront. For a point source of light, the
wavefront is spherical in shape with source lying at its centre. When the source of light is linear, then the
wavefront takes the cylindrical shape. For a parallel beam of light wave front is plane.
Huygen’s Principle : It provides a geometrical method of finding the successive positions of the wavefront
as follows:
(a) Every point on the wavefront acts as a fresh source of light giving out secondary wavelets. These
secondary wavelets travel out in all directions with the same speed as that of light.
(b) The envelope of these wavelets in forward direction gives the position of the new wavefront at any
subsequent time.
Interference of light
When two light waves of same frequency with zero initial phase difference or constant phase difference
superimpose over each other, then the resultant amplitude (or intensity) in the region of superimposition is
different from the amplitude (or intensity) of individual waves. This modification in intensity in the region of
superposition is called interference.
1. When resultant intensity is greater than the sum of two individual wave intensities [I > (I1 + I2)], then the
interference is said to be constructive.
2. When the resultant intensity is less than the sum of two individual wave intensities [I < (I1 + I2)] then the
interference is said to be destructive.
3. To obtain the stationary interference pattern, the following conditions must be fulfilled:
(a) The two sources should be coherent, i.e., they should vibrate in the same phase or there should be a
constant phase difference between them.
(b) The two sources must emit continuously waves of same wavelength and frequency.
(c) The separation between two coherent sources should be small.
(d) The distance of the screen from the two sources should be large.
(e) For good contrast between maxima and minima, the amplitudes of the two interfering waves should
be as nearly equal as possible and the background should be dark.
(f) For a large number of fringes in the field of view, the sources should be narrow and monochromatic.
Superposition of light waves of equal frequency and of constant phase difference
1. When two light waves having same frequency, different amplitudes a1 and a2 with a constant phase
difference superimpose each other, then the amplitude of the resultant wave can be expressed as:

a  a 12  a 22  2 a 1a 2 cos 

Amplitude is max. (a) If  = 0, 2, 4,…….2n, and amax. = a1 + a2.

Amplitude is min. (b) If  = , 3, 5,…….(2n – 1), and amin. = a1 - a2.
2. The intensity of the resultant wave is: I  I1  I 2  2 I1I 2 cos 

Intensity is max. (a) When  = 2n, and I max .  ( I1  I 2 ) 2

Intensity is min. (b) When  = (2n - 1) , and I min .  ( I1  I 2 ) 2

3. If amplitudes of the two waves are equal, a1 = a2 = a0 then resultant amplitude

a 2a 02 cos φ  2a 0 cos(φ / 2)

and the resultant intensity I = 4I0 cos2 (/2)

Also, in this case, amax. = 2a0, Imax. = 4I0
And amin. = 0, Imin. = 0
 2
4. If phase difference is  and path difference is x , then   x
λ
5. Condition of maxima in terms of path difference: x  nλ (n = 0,1,2,…)
λ
6. Condition of minima: x  (2n  1) (n = 1,2,…)
2
Young's interference (Double slit) experiment
1. Location of fringes on the screen w.r.t. centre:
nD
(a) The location of nth bright fringe from center is: xn  (n = 0,1, 2,...)
d
Dλ
(b) The location of nth dark fringe from center is: x n  (2n  1) (n = 1,2,...)
2d
2. Fringe width: In Young's double slit experiment, fringes of equal widths are formed. Fringe width of any
Dλ
bright or dark fringe is given by: β 
d
β λ
3. Angular width of the fringe: It is given by α  
D d
4. Although the intensity at maximum is 4I0 (i.e., double of that expected on the basis of average value 2I0)
and the intensity at minimum is zero, but (Imax. + Imin.)/2 = Iaverage = 2I0. This shows that energy is simply
redistributed in interference. Some energy is transferred from the destructive interference region to the
constructive interference region.

5. If the entire arrangement of Young's double slit experiment is immersed in water, then fringe width
λ water D λ
decreases. In water, β water  and λ water  a air
d μw

6. If a monochromatic light source is replaced by a white light source in Young's interference experiment,
then the central fringe is white and some coloured fringes are formed around the central white fringe.

7. If a thin glass plate or mica sheet is placed in front of one of the slits, then the central fringe shifts
towards the slit in front of which the glass plate is placed. If t is the thickness of glass or mica sheet and 
is the refractive index of the material of sheet, then extra path difference introduced by the sheet is ( -
(μ  1) tD
1)t and the whole pattern is shifted from center is y 
d

Diffraction of light
When light waves fall on a small aperture or a small sized obstacle whose linear dimension d is comparable
to the wavelength , of the wave, then there is a departure from straight line propagation and wave energy
flares out into the region of geometrical shadow of the obstacle or aperture. The spreading of wave energy
beyond the limits prescribed by the straight line propagation of the rays is called diffraction.

1. Diffraction effects become more prominent when (/d) increases.

2. As sound > light , diffraction is more easily observed in sound as compared to light.

3. Interference takes place when there is superposition of two separate wavefronts originating from two
separate coherent sources. Diffraction takes place due to superposition of secondary wavelets starting
from different points of the same wavefront.
4. Condition of minima in terms of path difference: x  dSin  nλ (n = 1,2,…)
λ
5. Condition of maxima: x  dSin  (2n  1) (n = 1,2,…)
2
Dλ 2Dλ
6. Width of maxima or minima β , Width of central maxima β
d d
β λ 2λ
7. Angular width of maxima or minima α  , Angular width of central maxima α 
D d d
Polrisation

1. A light wave in which vibrations of electric component are present in all directions, perpendicular to the
propagation of wave is called as unpolarised light

2. The phenomenon of restricting the oscillations of light wave (electric vector) to only one plane
perpendicular to direction of wave motion is called polarization of light and light so obtained is called
plane polarized light.

3. The crystal, which polarises the light, is called polariser and the one which analysis the polarized light is
called analyser. The same type of crystal may act as polariser as well as analyser

4. The plane within which the vibrations of the polarized beam are confined is called the plane of vibration
and a plane normal to this is called plane of polarization

5. Polarisation confirms that light is a transverse wave because only transverse waves can be polarized.

Law of Malus : According to this law, when a beam of completely polarized light is incident on an analyzer,
the resulatant intensity of light (I) transmitted from analyzer varies directly as cosine of angle () between
plane of transmission of panalyser and polariser. i.e. I  cos² 

Polarisation by Reflection : When unpolarised light is reflected from a surface, the reflected light may be
unpolarised, partially polarized or completely polarized depending on the angle of incidence. The angle at
which light is compeletly polarized is called polarizing angle or Brewster angle (Ip).

Brewster Law : According to this law, when unpolarised light is incident on an interface separating air from
medium of refractive index  then the reflected light is fully polarized provided  = tan ip. The reflected and
refracted rays shall be perpendicular to each other if  = tan ip and vice-versa. i.e. when a beam of light falls
at the polarizing angle, the reflected and refracted beams are at right angle to each other.

Polarisation by Scattering : When a beam of white light is passed through a medium containing particles
whose size is of the order of wavelength of light, then the beam gets scattered. When this scattered light is
seen from a direction perpendicular to direction of incidence. It is found to be polarized. This phenomenon is
called scattering of light.

Polaroids : A polaroid is a material which polarizes light. Tourmaline is a natural polarizing material. A small
needle shaped crystal of quinine idosulphate has the property of polarizing the light. A number of these
crystals with their axes parallel to one another are packed in between two sheets of plastic. Such a sheet
serves as polariser.