Chapter Six: Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning Systems

1) What do you mean by HVAC systems? What is the scope of air conditioning? Give
examples.
2) What are the key variables plotted on a psychometric chart, and how do these variables
relate to the thermal comfort of building occupants?
3) What are some common applications of psychometric charts in the field of HVAC, such
as calculating heating and cooling loads and selecting air handling equipment?
4) Write short notes on the followings : a) Absolute humidity b) Relative humidity c) Dry
bulb temperature (DBT) d) Wet bulb temperature (WBT) e) Sensible Cooling f) Sensible
Heating g) Cooling and Dehumidification h) Heating and Humidification
5) What are the main types of air conditioning systems used in residential and commercial
settings? What are the advantages and disadvantages of each?
6) What are some common components of air conditioning systems, such as compressors,
evaporators, and condensers, and how do these components work together to cool and
circulate air?
7) What factors should be considered when choosing an air conditioning system for a given
space, such as room size, climate, occupancy, and intended use?
8) What do you mean by thermal comfort based on ASHRAE standard? Explain the factors
that indicates thermal comfort.
9) What are some common components of air distribution systems? How do these
components affect the flow and distribution of air throughout a building?
10) What do you understand by ventilation? Describe its types and principles.
11) What are some common strategies for incorporating natural ventilation into building
design and operation?
12) What is cross ventilation and how can it be achieved in buildings? Give examples.
13) What is the role of humidity control in HVAC systems? Why is it important to maintain
appropriate levels of moisture in the air?
14) An air-conditioning plant is to be designed for a small office of 50 seating capacity for
winter conditions:
Outdoor conditions 10°C DBT and 8°C WBT
Required indoor conditions 20 °C DBT and 60% RH
Amount of air circulation 0.3m3/min/person
The required condition is achieve first by heating and then by adiabatic humidifying. Find
the following:
a) Heating capacity of the coil in kW
 b) The capacity of the humidifier
15) An office is to be air-conditioned for 50 staff when the outdoor conditions are 30°C DBT
and 75% RH. If the quantity of air supplied is 0.4m3/min/person. Find the following:
i) Capacity of the cooling coil in tonnes of refrigeration.
ii) Capacity of the heating coil in kW
iii) Amount of water vapour removed per hour
Assume that required air inlet conditions are 20°C DBT and 60% R.H. Air is conditioned first by
cooling and dehumidifying and then by heating.
 Chapter Six: Climate Change and Building Efficiency

1. What is climate change and how is it different from weather?

2. What are the main causes of climate change? Give examples. What are the impacts of
climate change on the environment and human societies?

3. What is the history of climate change, and how has it affected the planet in the past?

4. What are the main components of the climate system, and how do they interact with each
other? Show in diagram.

5. What are the role of the atmosphere and oceans in the climate system? How do land
surfaces and ice sheets influence the climate system?

6. What are greenhouse gases, and how do they influence the climate system?

7. What are the primary human activities that contribute to climate change, and how do they
impact the climate system?

8. What are the key indicators that scientists use to track global climate change, such as
changes in temperature, precipitation, sea level, and ice cover?

9. What are the key impacts of climate change on building design, and how are architects
and engineers adapting to these changes?

10. What are some examples of innovative building designs that are being developed to
address the challenges of climate change, such as green roofs, rainwater harvesting
systems, and passive cooling systems?

11. What are the key adaptation and mitigation strategies that are being developed and
implemented in response to climate change? Also explain briefly on the sector of such as
agriculture, transportation, and energy production.

12. What are climate change models, and how are they used to predict future climate patterns
and impacts? What are some of the most commonly used climate change models?

13. What are some effective strategies for reducing building energy use and improving
efficiency?

14. What are the key factors that contribute to high building energy consumption, and how
can they be addressed?

15. How do building codes and standards impact energy efficiency in buildings, and what are
some of the most effective measures for achieving compliance?
16. What role do renewable energy technologies such as solar, wind, and geothermal play in
reducing building energy use, and how can they be effectively integrated into building
design?

17. What are the key factors that influence thermal comfort in buildings, and how can
energy-efficient building technologies be used to improve occupant comfort while
minimizing energy consumption?

18. How can passive design strategies such as natural ventilation, daylighting, and shading be
used to improve energy performance and thermal comfort in buildings?

19. What are the key factors that architects and engineers consider when designing energy-
efficient buildings, and how do these factors impact the building design process?

20. How can building orientation and placement be optimized to maximize energy efficiency,
and what are some effective strategies for achieving this goal?
6 Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning commonly known as HVAC refer to the technology
used in buildings to control the temperature, humidity, and air quality for the comfort of
occupants or as required by the objects in the buildings. HVAC systems are designed to provide
thermal comfort and acceptable indoor air quality/condition in a controlled environment,
typically in commercial or residential buildings, hospitals, schools, and other facilities. These
systems can include various components such as heaters, air conditioners, ventilation fans,
ductwork, filters, and thermostats to regulate and maintain the desired temperature and air
quality.
6.1 Air conditioning fundamentals
The fundamental of air conditioning involves controlling the temperature, humidity, and air
quality of indoor spaces. This is achieved by:
1. Removing heat from the air inside the building through the process of refrigeration.
2. Controlling the moisture content of the air.
3. Filtering the air to remove pollutants and improve air quality.
4. Circulating and distributing the conditioned air to maintain a comfortable environment.
Removing or adding heat inside the room or space is achieved by a refrigeration cycle. The
working mechanism of a refrigeration cycle is explained later on.
6.2 Scope of air conditioning
The scope of air conditioning refers to the various applications and areas where air conditioning
is used to provide thermal comfort and improved indoor air quality. Some of the most common
areas where air conditioning is used include:
1. Residential buildings: Air conditioning is widely used in homes to provide thermal
comfort to the occupants.
2. Commercial buildings: Air conditioning is used in office buildings, shopping malls,
hotels, and other commercial buildings to provide a comfortable environment for
employees and customers.
3. Automobiles: Air conditioning is a common feature in modern cars, providing thermal
comfort to the occupants in hot weather.
4. Data centers: Air conditioning is critical in data centers to maintain a controlled
environment and prevent equipment failure.
5. Medical facilities: Air conditioning is used in hospitals, clinics, and other medical
facilities to maintain a controlled environment and prevent the spread of infections.

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 6. Industrial facilities: Air conditioning is used in factories, warehouses, and other industrial
facilities to provide a comfortable working environment for employees and to prevent
equipment failure.
7. Agriculture: Air conditioning is used in greenhouses to regulate the temperature and
humidity levels, improving crop growth and yield.
6.3 Refrigeration Cycle
The most common refrigeration cycle which is used not a days is Vapor Compression Cycle. It is
the most widely used method for air-conditioning of large public buildings, private residences,
hotels, hospitals, theaters, restaurants and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and
commercial refrigerators, large-scale warehouses for storage of foods and meats, refrigerated
trucks and railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services.

The four basic components of the vapour compression refrigeration system are Compressor,
Condenser coil (Heat exchanger), Expansion Valve, Evaporator Coil (Heat exchanger). All
components are joined by series of tube and inside the tube flows the refrigerant. Some common
refrigerants are R-22 and R-134a. The detail working mechanism of vapor compression
refrigeration cycle is explained below.
1. Compressor - The compressor is driven by electricity and it increases the pressure of
refrigerant vapor coming from evaporator. The vapor coming from evaporator has low-
pressure, low-temperature. The refrigerant vapor leaving the compressor has high pressure
and high temperature.
2. Condenser – Because of high pressure, the vapor refrigerant cannot remain in vapor form
and changes its phase to liquid phase (Recall that boiling point of a substance changes as the
pressure changes) The high pressure, high temperature refrigerant vapor, while entering the
condenser, has heat removed (latent heat of vaporization) from it to the surrounding and as
results it is condensed back into a liquid phase. Since latent of heat of vaporization is
released to surrounding, heating effect (heating a room in the winter season) is obtained from
condenser.

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3. Throttle valve - The high pressure liquid from the condensers then enters to the expansion
valve where it is expanded through a narrow opening, allowing its pressure to drop.
4. Evaporator – When the low pressure refrigerant coming from throttle valve enters the
evaporator coil, the liquid refrigerant evaporates (boils) under reduced pressure and in doing
so absorbs latent heat of vaporization from surroundings and cools the surroundings. The
evaporator is at the lowest temperature in the system and heat flows to it. This heat is used to
vaporize the refrigerant. The temperature at which this occurs is a function of the pressure on
the refrigerant. The refrigerant coming out of the evaporator is a low pressure vapor
refrigerant which is again sent to compressor and cycle continues.
6.4 Psychrometric chart and its applications
One of the fundamentals of HVAC is controlling moisture content of the air. So we need to know
some terms relate to the moisture in the air.
Psychrometry: It is the study of the properties of moist air. It is used in the design and analysis
of HVAC systems to calculate and analyze the properties of air and its moisture content.
Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor present in air,
expressed in grams per cubic meter (g/m³)
Relative humidity: Relative humidity is a measure of the amount of moisture in the air,
expressed as a percentage of the maximum amount of moisture the air can hold at a given
temperature. Relative humidity is an important metric in HVAC, as it affects how air feels to the
human body. When the relative humidity is high, air feels more humid and sticky, whereas low
relative humidity can lead to dry skin and respiratory problems. In general, the ideal range for
relative humidity in indoor spaces is between 30 and 60 percent. Relative humidity can change as
a result of changes in temperature, pressure, or the amount of moisture in the air. For example, if
the temperature decreases, the air can hold less moisture, which can lead to an increase in
relative humidity. Conversely, if the temperature increases, the air can hold more moisture,
which can lead to a decrease in relative humidity.
Dry bulb temperature (DBT): The dry bulb temperature is a measure of the temperature of air,
expressed in degrees Celsius (°C) or degrees Fahrenheit (°F). It is called the "dry bulb"
temperature because it represents the temperature of air as measured by an ordinary
thermometer, known as a dry bulb thermometer, that is not affected by the presence of moisture
in the air.
Wet bulb temperature (WBT): The wet bulb temperature is a measure of the lowest
temperature that can be achieved by evaporating water into air. It is measured by using a
thermometer with its bulb wrapped in a wet wick, and then exposing the wet bulb to moving air.
The evaporation of water from the wet bulb causes heat to be removed from the thermometer,
which lowers the temperature reading.

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 Hygrometer
The wet bulb temperature is therefore a measure of the amount of moisture in the air and the rate
at which moisture is being removed from it. The wet bulb temperature is an important parameter
in HVAC, as it is used in conjunction with the dry bulb temperature and relative humidity to
determine the properties of moist air. For example, the difference between the dry bulb
temperature and the wet bulb temperature is used to calculate relative humidity, and the
combination of the two temperatures can be used to determine the dew point temperature, which
is the temperature at which air will reach 100% relative humidity.

Psychrometric Chart
Psychrometric chart: A psychrometric chart is a graphical representation of the thermodynamic
properties of air-water vapor mixtures. It provides a convenient way to visualize the relationships
between relative humidity, dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, and other
thermodynamic properties of air-water vapor mixtures.

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6.4.1 Applications of psychrometric chart in HVAC include:
1. HVAC design: Psychrometric charts are widely used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning (HVAC) design to determine the required conditions for cooling, heating,
and dehumidification processes.
2. Indoor air quality: Psychrometric charts can be used to evaluate the indoor air quality in
buildings, including the relative humidity, temperature, and other properties that affect
human comfort.
3. Energy analysis: Psychrometric charts are used in energy analysis to evaluate the energy
consumption of HVAC systems and to identify opportunities for energy savings.
These are some of the most common applications of psychrometric charts, but they are also used
in many other industries and applications where air-water vapor mixtures are involved.
6.4.2 Psychometric process
There are various psychrometric processes an out of those only followings are discussed as per
the scope of the course.
Sensible Cooling
During this process, the moisture content of air remains constant but its temperature decreases.
For which the air is passed over a cooling coil.
Sensible Heating
In sensible heating, air is heated without any change in its specific humidity. During this process,
the moisture content of air remains constant and its temperature increases. For this the air is
passed over a heating coil.
Cooling and Dehumidification
When moist air is cooled below its dew-point by bringing it in contact with a cold surface, some
of the water vapor in the air condenses and leaves the air stream as a liquid, as a result, both the
temperature and humidity ratio of air decreases. This is actual process air undergoes when an air
is cooled with air conditioning system (summer season).
Heating and Humidification
During winter it is essential to heat and humidity the room air for comfort. This is normally done
by first sensible heating the air and then adding water vapor to the air stream through steam
nozzles. It is also common to place a water vessel in front of heater (electric) to humidify the air
during winter season.
6.5 Air conditioning systems and types
Classification of Air Conditioning System
6.5.1 According to major functions
1. Human Comfort air conditioning

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Comfort air conditioning is such type of air conditioning whose objective is to produce
comfortable and healthy conditions for occupants by controlling the conditions of temperature,
humidity, air cleanliness and distribution in conditioned space. It includes the air conditioning of
spaces, places and surroundings which is occupied by human beings. Comfort air conditionings
are used in residences, hospitals, departmental stores, public buildings including theatres, cinema
halls, restaurants, dancing halls, night clubs etc. The comfort feeling of the people in an air-
conditioned space depends upon following factors
 Supply of oxygen and removal of carbon-dioxide
The human body requires adequate supply of oxygen to sustain combustion. Each person
requires nearly 0.65 cu m of oxygen per hour and produces 0.2 cu m of CO2 under normal
condition. Continuous consumption of O2 increases the concentration of CO2. When the
percentage of CO2 in air exceeds above 2% the breathing becomes difficult. Extreme
discomfort exists when the percentage of CO2 reaches 6% and unconsciousness occurs at
10% of CO2. The quality of air-supply to an air conditioned space should be maintained in
such a way that the percentage of CO2 should not exceed than minimum.
 Removal of body heat dissipated by the occupants
The human body can be considered as an engine which converts thermal energy due to
metabolic activity into mechanical work with a thermal efficiency of 20% and remaining
amount of work is dissipated to the atmosphere. The atmosphere surrounding the person must
be capable to absorb the heat dissipated by the person otherwise discomfort exists.
 Removal of body moisture dissipated by occupants
The body ability to dispose of heat by evaporation to atmosphere decreases as the air
humidity increases. High humidity of air reduces the apparent freshness of air in an enclosed
space in addition of disposing of body heat. The ventilation system should be capable of must
be capable to maintain humidity to desired level.
 Sufficient air movement and air distribution in occupied space
The effect of increased velocity is to increase the body heat loss. Suitable air velocity reduces
the feeling of discomfort when ambient air temperature is lower than body temperature.
 Air purity by removing odour or dust
The quality of air in regard to odour, dust, toxic gases and bacteria is considered for defining
the purity of air.
2. Industrial air conditioning
Industrial air conditioning is defined as the process of simultaneously controlling temperature,
relative humidity, ventilation, cleaning and movement of air within an enclosure intended to
manufacture, inspection and measurement of a product which is atmospheric conditions. It
covers a large number of industries requiring controlled air-conditions for their efficient and

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accurate manufacture as well as healthy and comfortable environments for the workers. Air –
conditioning is essential for the manufacture of rayon and various plastics, paper, colour printing,
in tobacco industries, in precision manufacturing and measurement works, textiles, leather,
electric equipment, photographic materials etc
6.5.2 According to arrangement of equipment
1. Winter air conditioning system: These systems when properly designed and installed,
maintain indoor atmospheric conditions for winter comfort. Winter heating is accomplished
by distributing heated air to spaces by ductwork or by distributing heat in the space by fin
tube radiation or fan coils. Heat is supplied by furnaces or boilers fired with gas, oil or coal
or by electric resistance heaters.
2. Summer air conditioning system: Cooling is accomplished by mechanical refrigeration.
Removal of moisture is accomplished as condensation of water vapour in the air occurs on
cold coil surfaces.
3. Year round air conditioning system: This type of system is combination of both winter and
summer air conditioning.
6.5.3 According to arrangement of equipment
1. Central station air conditioning
In a central station air-conditioning system, all the components of the system are grouped
together in one central room and conditioned air is distributed from the central room to the
required places through ducts. Central air conditioning is situated usually at basement from
where conditioned air is led through sheet metal ducts to various rooms or space of building.
There are return ducts for carrying air from these rooms back to the central place where it is
dehumidified, cooled and recharged with fresh air. The circulation of air is achieved either
naturally or by a fan or blower. This type of air conditioning is best suited for big installations,
factories and industrial concerns.
The central plants require following component and all the components are assembled on the site
 Cooling, heating and dehumidifying coils
 Blower with motor
 Air cleaning equipment
 Control device
Advantages
 The capital cost and running cost are less per unit of refrigeration.
 It can be located away from the air conditioned places which is useful and less costly.
 Noise and vibration troubles are less to the people living in air-conditioned places as the
air conditioned plant is far away from air-conditioned places
 Better accessibility for maintenance

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Disadvantages
 Absence of any adjustment of individual room temperature
 Costly ducting systems
 Mixing of odours, smoke and bacteria present in the return air from infected rooms and
redistributing them to healthy rooms
Details of central air conditioning is discussed in section 6.7
2. Unitary air conditioning system
In this system, factory assembled air conditioners are installed in or adjacent to the space to be
conditioned.
Advantages
 The installation and assembly labour charges are less.
 Extensive duct work is eliminated.
 Individual room temperature control is specific feature of this system.
 The units are kept running where the cooling is required. The other units can be stopped
where no cooling is required.
There are two types of unitary systems
2.1 Split type air conditioning systems
A split type air conditioning system is one where the two main components of the unit are split
between two physical locations. Although the initial installation cost is generally higher for a
split type air conditioner, they tend to be more energy efficient in the long run. This savings is
energy will quickly recoup the installation cost. There is a big noise reduction as the compressor
is located in the outside unit. Split type air conditioners are suggested in places where there is a
space problem.
The air handling unit is on the inside. This consists of the evaporator section and the duct work
that circulates and delivers the air. The fan motor is also located inside along with the filters. The
evaporator coil is located inside also. The evaporator coil is where the refrigerant actually
vaporizes and the heat adsorption takes place. The thermostat which controls the system is
located indoors also, of course, but usually at a more central location where a temperature
measurement can be more effectively made.
The split unit is often referred to as having a cold side and a hot side. The cold side is the indoor
unit where cooling actually takes place.

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The hot side is the outdoor unit where heat is given up from the refrigerant. The hot side unit has
a fan assembly to aid in the removal of heat from the condenser coils. It also has its own control
logic. Split type air conditioners are used in homes as well as business buildings. Many office
buildings and retail establishments use split types due to the larger size of the condenser units.
The larger size condensers can be located more easily outdoors behind the buildings, A split-
system air conditioner splits the hot side from the cold side of the system as in figure.
2.2 Window type air conditioning
A window air conditioner unit implements a complete air conditioner in a small space. The units
are made small enough to fit into a standard window frame.

They are self contained units of small capacity and are mounted in a window or through a wall.
These units are designed for comfort cooling and to provide delivery of conditioned air to a room
either without ducts or with very short ducts. They include a prime source of refrigeration,
dehumidification, means for circulating and cleaning air, and may also include means for

9
ventilating, and/or exhausting and heating. They are employed to condition the air of one room
only. If the room is bigger in size, two or more units are installed.
6.6 Thermal comfort
American Society of Hating Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) defines
thermal comfort as “that condition of mind that expresses satisfaction with the thermal
environment” and defined the six factor indicating thermal comfort as
6.6.1 Six factors indicating thermal comfort
 Air temperature
 Radiant temperature
 Air movement and speed
 Humidity
 Clothing and PPE insulation
 Work rate and metabolic heat
Air temperature
The temperature of the air surrounding the body is usually given in degrees Celsius (°C). It can
be measured using thermometers but, on its own, this will not give an indication of thermal
comfort. Generally the comfort temperature ranges from 20°C to 26°C, however, it largely
depends on individual choices,
Radiant temperature
Thermal radiation is the heat that radiates from warm objects like the Sun, heaters, ovens and so
on. Radiant temperature will have a greater influence than air temperature on how hot the
workplace will feel.
Air movement and speed
The speed of air moving in the room/space makes the occupant feel if the air is cooler than the
environment. This is an important factor in thermal comfort, for example:
 still or stagnant air in artificially heated indoor environments may cause people to feel
stuffy. It may also lead to a build-up in odour
 moving air in warm or humid conditions can increase heat loss through convection
without any change in air temperature
 physical activity also increases air movement, so it can be corrected to account for a
person's work
 small air movements in cool or cold environments may be perceived as a draught as
people are particularly sensitive to these movements

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Humidity
Humidity in indoor environments can vary greatly. High-humidity environments have a lot of
vapour in the air, which prevents sweat evaporating. In hot environments, humidity is important
because less sweat evaporates when humidity is high (over 80%). Sweat evaporating is the main
method of heat reduction.
Clothing/PPE insulation
A comfortable working temperature very much depends on the insulating effect of clothing.
Wearing too much clothing or PPE may be a primary cause of heat stress even if the
environment is not considered warm or hot. In cold conditions, if clothing does not provide
enough insulation, the wearer may be at risk from cold stress and suffer injuries such as frostbite
or hypothermia.
Work rate and metabolic heat
The impact of work rate on thermal comfort is critical because physical activity creates more
body heat. So the thermal comfort in the room also depends on the physical activity of occupants
in the room. Factors such as size and weight, age and fitness level can all have an impact on how
they feel, even if other factors such as air temperature, humidity and rate of air movement are all
constant.

Comfort zone in psychrometric chart

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6.7 Air distribution system and components
In this section, distribution of conditioned air in central air conditioning system is discussed in
details.
6.7.1 All-air system
In an all-air system, air is blown across the cold evaporator coil and then delivered by ducts to
the rooms that require cooling. The great advantage of all-air systems is that complete control
over air quality is possible. The main disadvantages are that all-air systems are very bulky and a
significant part of the building volume must be devoted to the delivery of air. They are also less
efficient because moving large quantities of air requires a great deal of power.

Schematic diagram of all-air system

Supply and return duct in all-air system

6.7.2 All-Water Systems
In an all-water system, the water is chilled by the evaporator coil and then delivered to fan-coil
units (FCU) in each space. Although the piping in the building takes up very little space, the
FCUs in each room do require some space.

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 Schematic diagram of all-water system
Fan-coil-unit (FCU) consists of a heating or cooling coil, a fan, and a filter. The coil is connected
to a chilled or hot water source, which circulates the cooling or heating medium through the coil
to either cool or warm the air passing through it. The fan then blows the treated air into the
space. Fan-coil units can also be placed above a dropped ceiling or in a small closet. There can
be condensation on the cooling coils while cooling which must be collected in a pan and drained
away.

Typical FCU

FCU placement
6.7.3 Combined Air-water system
An air-water system is a combination of the above-mentioned air and water systems (Fig.
16.12e). The bulk of the cooling is handled by fan-coil units and air-handling-units (AHU),

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 Schematic diagram of air-water system

Schematic diagram of air-water system in a multi-storied building

Air Handling Unit (AHU)
It is typically a large metal box (large than FCU) that contains a blower, heating and/or cooling
coils, filters, and other components. The AHU is responsible for regulating the temperature and
air quality of a space by taking air to be conditioned and faction of outside fresh air. It then
conditions it and then distributes it through a network of ducts to the various rooms or spaces.
The blower in an AHU draws in air from a return duct, which is filtered to remove impurities
such as dust and allergens. The air then passes through the coil (heating or cooling) and finally,
the conditioned air is distributed through the ducts to the spaces.

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6.7.4 Air distribution duct
Air is usually supplied to rooms by means of round, rectangular, or oval ducts. Although round
ducts are preferable for a number of reasons, they require clearances that are not always
available. Consequently, rectangular ducts are very popular. However, the ratio of short to long
sides, the aspect ratio, should not exceed 1:5 because the resulting high airflow friction requires
the ducts to have excessively large areas and perimeters.

Different cross-section of duct

6.8 Ventilating
Ventilating is the process of changing or replacing air in any space to control temperature or
remove moisture, odors, smoke, heat, dust and airborne bacteria. Ventilation includes both the
exchange of air to the outside as well as circulation of air within the building. Ventilation is used

15
to remove unpleasant smells and excessive moisture, introduce outside air, and to keep interior
building air circulating, to prevent stagnation of the interior air.
Ventilation air is that air used for providing acceptable indoor air quality. When people or
animals are present in buildings, ventilation air is necessary to dilute odours and limit the
concentration of carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants such as dust, smoke and volatile organic
compounds (VOCs). Ventilation air is often delivered to spaces by mechanical systems which
may also heat, cool, humidify and dehumidify the space. Buildings normally have sufficient air
leakage to prevent dangerous levels of carbon dioxide. Inadequate ventilation in a densely
occupied room can cause the level of carbon dioxide to increase leading to sleepiness and
reduced efficiency at work In certain applications, such as submarines, pressurized aircraft, and
spacecraft, ventilation air is also needed to provide oxygen, and to dilute carbon dioxide for
survival.
The ventilation rate is normally expressed by the volumetric flow rate of outside air being
introduced to the building. The typical units used are cubic feet per minute (CFM) or liters per
second (L/s). The ventilation rate can also be expressed on a volume flow per person or per unit
floor area basis, such as CFM/p or CFM/ft², or as air changes per hour.
6.8.1 Purposes of ventilation
Maintaining human comfort and health are two key reasons for providing ventilation in
buildings. To achieve these purposes, a ventilation system should be able to meet the following
criteria:
 provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for the physiological needs of human beings
(minimum of normally 10.4 l/s/person) and/or livestock;
 provide sufficient supply of air/oxygen for industrial, agricultural and other processes (for
example, provision of oxygen for burning and combustion processes);
 remove the products of respiration and bodily odor (including those from smoking) of
human and/or animal occupants;
 remove contaminants or harmful chemicals generated by processes or from building
materials;
 remove heat generated by people, lighting and equipment inside the occupied space;
 create some degree of air movement which is essential for feelings of freshness and
comfort (usually a velocity of 0.1 to 0.3 m/s is required)
 air cleanliness achieved by filtration of fresh air intake and recirculated room air
6.9 Types of ventilation
1. Mechanical or forced ventilation
"Mechanical" or "forced" ventilation is used to control indoor air quality when natural ventilation
is insufficient. It uses fans, blower and other mechanical system for air movement. Kitchens and
bathrooms typically have mechanical exhaust to control odors and sometimes humidity. Factors

16
in the design of such systems include the flow rate (which is a function of the fan speed and
exhaust vent size) and noise level. Ceiling fans and table/floor fans circulate air within a room
for the purpose of reducing the perceived temperature because of evaporation of perspiration on
the skin of the occupants.
2. Natural ventilation
Natural ventilation is the ventilation of a building with outside air without the use of a fan or
other mechanical system. It can be achieved with operable windows when the spaces to ventilate
are small and the architecture permits. In more complex systems warm air in the building can be
allowed to rise and flow out upper openings to the outside (stack effect) thus forcing cool outside
air to be drawn into the building naturally through openings in the lower areas. These systems
use very little energy but care must be taken to ensure the occupants' comfort. In warm or humid
months, in many climates, maintaining thermal comfort via solely natural ventilation may not be
possible so conventional air conditioning systems are used as backups.
6.9.1 Principles of Natural Ventilation
For air to move into and out of a building, a pressure difference between the inside and outside
of the building is required. The resistance to flow of air through the building will affect the actual
air flow rate. In general, controlled natural ventilation and infiltration are driven by pressure
difference across the building envelope. The pressure difference is caused by:
Wind effect
When air flow is due to wind, air enters through openings in the windward walls, and leaves
through openings in the leeward walls. The pressure distribution patterns due to wind in a
number of cases are illustrated in figures.

Air flow around the building (Plan view)

Air flow around the building (Elevation)

17
Wind pressures are generally high/positive on the windward side of a building and low/negative
on the leeward side. The occurrence and change of wind pressures on building surfaces depend
on:
 wind speed and wind direction relative to the building;
 the location and surrounding environment of the building; and
 shape of the building.
For a building with numerous partitions and openings, it is under various pressures depending on
the relative sizes of the openings and the wind direction. With large openings on the windward
face, the building tends to be under positive pressure. The reverse is true if the openings are
smaller than those downstream.
Stack effect
When air movement is due to temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor, the flow of
air is in the vertical direction and is along the path of least resistance. The temperature difference
causes density differentials, and therefore pressure differences, that drive the air to move. During
the winter season, the following stack effect occurs:
 indoor temperature is higher than outdoor temperature;
 the warmer air in building then rises up;
 the upward air movement produces negative indoor pressure at the bottom;
 positive indoor pressure is created on the top;
 warmer air flows out of the building near the top; and
 the air is replaces by colder outside air that enters the building near its base.

Stack effect
During the summer season, the reverse occurs when indoor temperature is lower than outdoor
temperature. Stack effect that may occur in different forms of buildings, including a building
with no internal partition, a building with airtight separation of each storey, and an ideal building

18
with vertical shafts and horizontal openings. When thermal force is acting alone, a neutral
pressure level (NPL) exists, where the interior and exterior pressures are equal. At all other
levels, the pressure difference between the interior and exterior depends on the distance from the
neutral pressure level and the difference between the densities of inside and outside air.
Combined effect of wind and temperature difference
In most cases, natural ventilation depends on a combined force of wind and stack effects. The
pressure patterns for actual buildings continually change with the relative magnitude of thermal
and wind forces. The pressures due to each effect are added together to determine the total
pressure difference across the building envelope. The relative importance of the wind and stack
pressures in a building depends on building height, internal resistance to vertical air flow,
location and flow resistance characteristics of envelope openings, local terrain, and the
immediate shielding of the building structure.
Combination of natural and mechanical systems
1. Natural inlet and outlet
 Utilizing openable windows, door-ways, chimneys, doorways, air bricks
 Upto about 3 air changes per hour may be provided
 Air change per hour depends upon wind direction and strength, stack effects of rising
warm air currents and adventitious openings around doors and windows
2. Natural inlet, mechanical outlet
 Used where air is to be discharged away from the occupied space owning to its
contamination with heat, fumes, smoke, water vapor or odor
 Mechanical extract fans in windows or roofs and ducted system
 A slight reduction in air static pressure is caused within the building and external air
flows inwards
 Particularly used for toilet or kitchen extraction, smoke removal from public rooms and
heat or fume removal from industrial premises
3. Mechanical inlet, natural outlet
 Air is blown into the building through a fan convector or ducted system to pressurize the
internal atmosphere slightly with a heated air supply
 Air leaks out of building through adventitious openings, and permanent air bricks or
louvers
 Can be used for offices, factories, large public halls or underground boiler plant rooms
4. Mechanical inlet and outlet
 Used where natural ventilations openings would become unable to cope with large air
flow rates without disturbing the architecture or causing uncontrollable draughts
 Full mechanical control of air movement is assumed

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6.10 Cross ventilation
Cross ventilation occurs where there are pressure differences between one side of a building and
the other. Typically, this is a wind-driven effect in which air is drawn into the building on the
high pressure windward side and is drawn out of the building on the low pressure leeward side.
Cross ventilation is most suited for buildings that are:
 Narrow.
 On exposed sites.
 Perpendicular to the prevailing wind.
 Free from internal barriers to air flow.
 Provided with a regular distribution of openings.

Cross ventilation in a building

6.11 Heating and cooling load calculations

Following section highlights the factors that need to be considered while calculating heating and
cooling load of a building.
In HVAC, the size of the plant in often expressed in Tons of Refrigeration (TR or ToR). It refers
to the amount of heat that has to be removed from 1 ton of water at 0°C to make it 1 ton of ice at
0°C in 24 hours. In imperial unit system 1 ton = 2000 lb and heat of fusion = 144 BTU/lb
So,

In SI system, 1 ton (short ton is different from Metric Ton) = 907.18 kg and heat of fusion = 334
kJ/kg
So,

20
6.11.1 Heating load estimation
An estimate of the heating load is made on the basis of the maximum probable heat loss of the
room or space to be heated. Thus the plant for heating system is to be designed that it has a
capacity just sufficient to meet the heating load requirement which develops when most severe
weather condition occur. Followings are the factors on which heating load depends
 Transmission heat loss
 Cooling load is usually high at the morning time so there will not be solar radiation load
 Internal heat gain from occupants, light source and appliances
6.11.2 Cooling load estimation
Cooling load estimation of a room depends on the following factors
 Transmission heat gain through external wall, partition wall, floor, roofs etc
 Solar radiation and transmission heat gain through glass
 Heat gain through infiltration of air through door gaps
 Internal heat gain from occupants, light source, appliances,
 Time of the days
 Orientation of the wall

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7 Climate Change and Building Efficiency
7.1 Introduction to climate change
In general usage, "Weather" and "climate" are not defined properly. The “weather” is the
fluctuating state of the atmosphere around us, characterised by the temperature, wind,
precipitation, clouds and other weather elements. Weather has only limited predictability.
Beyond a week or two individual weather systems are unpredictable. “Climate” refers to the
average weather in terms of the mean and its variability over a certain time-span and a certain
area. Climate varies from place to place, depending on latitude, distance to the sea, vegetation,
presence or absence of mountains or other geographical factors. Climate varies also in time; from
season to season, year to year, decade to decade or on much longer time-scales, such as the Ice
Ages. Statistically significant variations of the mean state of the climate or of its variability,
typically persisting for decades or longer, are referred to as “climate change”.
Climate change refers to a long-term shift in global weather patterns and temperatures,
particularly due to human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agricultural
practices. The increased concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly
carbon dioxide, is causing the planet to warm up at a rate that is faster than natural processes.
According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), the global average
temperature has increased by about 1.1°C above pre-industrial levels, and it is projected to
continue rising if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the current rate. This warming trend has
far-reaching consequences, including melting glaciers, rising sea levels, more frequent and
severe weather events such as droughts, floods, and hurricanes, as well as changes in plant and
animal populations and ecosystems. The impacts of climate change are already being felt across
the world and without urgent action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, the effects are expected
to become even more severe in the coming decades, with implications for human health, food
security, and the economy.
7.2 Climate system
The climate system is the complex, interactive system that drives Earth's climate. The primary
components of the climate system include:

1. Atmosphere: The atmosphere is the layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. It plays a crucial
role in regulating the Earth's temperature, absorbing and reflecting solar radiation, and
distributing heat around the planet. The Earth’s atmosphere is composed mainly of nitrogen
(N2, 78.1% volume), oxygen (O2, 20.9% volume) and argon (Ar, 0.93%). These gases have
only limited interaction with the incoming solar radiation and they do not interact with the
infrared radiation emitted by the Earth. However there are a number of trace gases, such as
carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3), which do absorb
and emit infrared radiation. These so called greenhouse gases, with less than 0.1% by

1
 volume, play an essential role in the Earth’s energy budget. Earth atmosphere contains water
vapour (H2O), which is also a natural greenhouse gas. Because these greenhouse gases
absorb the infrared radiation emitted by the Earth and emit infrared radiation up- and
downward, they tend to raise the temperature near the Earth’s surface.

2. Hydrosphere: The hydrosphere includes all of the Earth's water, including oceans, lakes,
rivers, and groundwater. The hydrosphere plays a vital role in the Earth's climate by storing
and redistributing heat and influencing atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns.
3. Cryosphere: The cryosphere includes all the frozen water on Earth, such as glaciers, ice
caps, and sea ice. The cryosphere influences the Earth's climate by reflecting solar radiation,
regulating the Earth's temperature, and influencing ocean circulation patterns.
4. Land surface: The land surface includes all of the Earth's landmasses, including forests,
grasslands, deserts, and urban areas. The land surface influences the Earth's climate by
absorbing and reflecting solar radiation, exchanging heat and moisture with the atmosphere,
and influencing atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns.
5. Biosphere: The biosphere includes all living organisms on Earth, including plants, animals,
and microorganisms. The biosphere plays a crucial role in the Earth's climate by exchanging
gases and moisture with the atmosphere, influencing the Earth's albedo, and storing carbon.

2
7.3 Green house effect
The natural greenhouse effect is a process by which green house gases in the Earth's atmosphere
trap some of the heat that radiates from the Earth's surface and prevent it from escaping into
space. This process is necessary to maintain the Earth's temperature at a level that is suitable for
life to exist on the planet. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the Earth's surface would be
much colder, making it uninhabitable for most life forms.

The increased concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere resulting from human activities has led
to an increase in the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere, which is called as enhanced
green house effect. This causing the Earth's temperature to rise, leading to global warming and
climate change.
7.4 Causes of climate change
The primary causes of climate change include:
1. Human activities: The primary cause of climate change is the increased concentration of
greenhouse gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere, primarily carbon dioxide, resulting from human
activities such as burning fossil fuels for energy, deforestation, and land-use changes. These
activities have led to an enhanced greenhouse effect, which is causing the Earth's temperature
to rise.
2. Natural factors: Natural factors, such as changes in solar radiation, volcanic eruptions, and
variations in the Earth's orbit, can also contribute to climate change. These factors can cause
variations in the Earth's climate over long time periods.
3. Land use changes: Changes in land use, such as deforestation, urbanization, and agriculture,
can also contribute to climate change by altering the amount of carbon dioxide in the

3
 atmosphere, changing the Earth's albedo, and altering atmospheric and oceanic circulation
patterns.
4. Industrial processes: Industrial processes, such as cement production, also contribute to
climate change by releasing significant amounts of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
5. Population growth: The world's population has grown significantly in the past few decades,
and this growth has led to an increase in greenhouse gas emissions as more energy is
consumed, more land is used for agriculture and development, and more waste is generated.
7.5 Consequences of climate change
Some of the consequences of climate changes are as follow
1. Extreme weather events: Climate change has caused an increase in the frequency and
intensity of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, droughts, floods, hurricanes, and
wildfires.
2. Rising sea levels: As global temperatures continue to rise, melting glaciers and ice caps lead
to a rise in sea levels, causing coastal flooding and erosion.
3. Loss of biodiversity: Climate change has a significant impact on the natural world, leading to
habitat loss and changes in ecosystems, resulting in the extinction of many plant and animal
species.
4. Public health impacts: Climate change is linked to several public health impacts such as heat
stress, respiratory and cardiovascular disease, and increased transmission of vector-borne
diseases like malaria and dengue fever.
5. Food and water scarcity: Climate change leads to changes in precipitation patterns and water
availability, which affect agriculture and food security. It also leads to water scarcity,
reducing the availability of clean water for drinking and other uses.
6. Economic impacts: Climate change has significant economic impacts, such as property
damage from extreme weather events, loss of productivity, and increased healthcare costs.
7.6 Key indicators of global climate change
Some of the key indicators of global climate change that are widely used by scientists and
policymakers to monitor and assess the impacts of climate change. These indicators include:
1. Global surface temperature: Global surface temperature is one of the most widely used
indicators of climate change. Since the late 1800s, the average global temperature has
increased by about 1°C, with the majority of this warming occurring in the past few decades.
As per the Paris Agreement, which is a global agreement adopted in 2015 under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the global warming target is
to limit the increase in global average temperature to well below 2°C above pre-industrial
levels and pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5°C.
2. Sea level rise: Global sea levels have risen by about 20 cm since the late 1800s, with most of
this rise occurring in the past few decades. Rising sea levels are a result of the thermal
expansion of seawater and the melting of glaciers and ice caps.

4
3. Arctic sea ice extent: Arctic sea ice extent has been declining rapidly since the 1980s. The
Arctic has lost about 40% of its sea ice extent in the past few decades, with the rate of loss
accelerating in recent years.
4. Ocean acidity: The acidity of the world's oceans has increased by about 30% since the
Industrial Revolution, primarily due to the absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
7.7 Climate change impacts on building design
Buildings are responsible for a significant portion of global energy consumption, accounting for
around 40% of total energy consumption globally, according to the International Energy Agency
(IEA). The energy consumption of a building depends on various factors such as the building's
design, size, location, and the behavior of occupants. The major sources of energy consumption
in buildings are heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, lighting, and
appliances. Climate change and efficient building design are closely related as buildings are
responsible for a significant amount of greenhouse gas emissions. According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), buildings account for approximately 28% of global greenhouse gas
emissions. Therefore, improving building efficiency is critical to reducing carbon emissions and
mitigating the impacts of climate change. Climate change has a significant impact on building
design as it affects the way buildings are constructed, operated, and maintained. Followings are
the factors of climate change that can directly impact on how the buildings will be designed in
future.
 Increased temperatures: As global temperatures rise, buildings need to be designed to
maintain comfortable indoor temperatures without relying heavily on energy-intensive air
conditioning. For instance, buildings need to be designed to provide adequate ventilation and
cooling to ensure the comfort of occupants. Similarly building orientation and insulation can
also be the way to combat the increased temperature.
 Extreme weather events: Climate change is also leading to more frequent and severe extreme
weather events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires. Buildings in areas prone to these
events need to be designed to withstand them, with features such as reinforced roofs, impact-
resistant windows, and waterproofing.
 Rising sea levels: With sea levels rising due to climate change, buildings located in coastal
areas need to be designed to protect against flooding and storm surges. This may involve
elevating the building, using flood-resistant materials, and incorporating drainage systems.
 Energy efficiency: Climate change is leading to a greater focus on energy efficiency in
building design. This includes using materials that have a lower carbon footprint, designing
buildings to maximize natural light and ventilation, and incorporating renewable energy
systems such as solar panels and wind turbines, using energy efficient appliances.
 Water conservation: Climate change is also leading to water scarcity in some regions, making
it important to design buildings that are water-efficient. This includes using low-flow

5
 plumbing fixtures, harvesting rainwater, and using graywater systems to reuse the water from
shower, sinks and washing machine for non potable use.
7.8 Climate change adaption and mitigation
Climate change mitigation means avoiding and reducing emissions of heat-trapping greenhouse
gases into the atmosphere to prevent the planet from warming to more extreme temperatures.
Climate change adaptation means altering our behavior, systems, and—in some cases—ways of
life to protect our families, our economies, and the environment in which we live from the
impacts of climate change. The more we reduce emissions right now, the easier it will be to
adapt to the changes we can no longer avoid. Mitigation actions will take decades to affect rising
temperatures, so we must adapt now to the change that is already upon us—and will continue to
affect us in the foreseeable future. Adaptation strategies can be implemented at different scales,
from individual households to entire regions or countries.
7.9 Climate change model
A climate change model is a computer program that uses mathematical equations to simulate and
predict the Earth's climate system. These models take into account a wide range of factors,
including atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns, greenhouse gas concentrations, solar
radiation, and land surface characteristics. Climate change models use data from observations of
the past and present to make predictions about the future. They can be used to assess the impacts
of human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, on the climate system, and to
evaluate the effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation strategies. There are many different
climate change models, ranging from simple models that focus on a specific aspect of the climate
system to complex global climate models that simulate the entire Earth system. These models are
continually refined and updated as new data becomes available and as scientists gain a better
understanding of the complex interactions that drive the Earth's climate.
A very very simple climate change model can be as follow

6
Around the world, different teams of scientists have built and run models to project future
climate conditions under various scenarios for the next century. So the groups can make a fair
comparison of their results, they run the same experiment. Because each climate model is
slightly different, the results show a a range of projections. Though yearly values projected for
temperature and precipitation differ among the models, the trend and magnitude of change is
fairly consistent. Global climate model results from groups around the world project that global
temperature will continue to increase. They also show that human decisions and behavior we
choose today will determine how dramatically climate will change in the future.
7.10 Climate change scenario
A climate change scenario is a projection of how the Earth's climate might change in the future
based on different assumptions about future greenhouse gas emissions, economic and population
growth, and technological development. Climate change scenarios typically use climate models
to simulate the response of the Earth's climate to different levels of greenhouse gas emissions
and other factors. Climate change scenarios are usually presented in the form of a range of
possible outcomes, rather than a single prediction, because there is uncertainty about how the
climate will respond to future emissions. According to IPCC, there are 4 scenarios: business-as-
usual, low-emissions, control policies scenario and accelerated policies scenario. Climate

7
change scenarios are used to inform decision-making and planning in a range of sectors,
including energy, agriculture, water management, and infrastructure. By exploring different
scenarios, decision-makers can better understand the risks and opportunities associated with
different pathways of greenhouse gas emissions and develop strategies to mitigate or adapt to the
impacts of climate change.
 Scenario A (Business-as-Usual) assumes that few or no steps are taken to limit greenhouse
gas emissions. Energy use and clearing of tropical forests continue and fossil fuels, in
particular coal, remain the worid's primary energy source. A business-as-usual scenario of
climate change refers to the projection of future climate change based on the assumption that
the world will continue with its current greenhouse gas emissions trajectory without any
significant efforts to reduce emissions or mitigate their impacts. This scenario assumes that
there will be no significant changes in government policies, technological advancements, or
public awareness and behavior related to climate change. Under a business-as-usual scenario,
global greenhouse gas emissions would continue to rise, leading to an increase in global
temperatures and other climate-related impacts. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) has projected that under a business-as-usual scenario, global temperatures
could rise by 2.6°C to 4.8°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of the century.
 Scenario В (Low Emissions Scenario:) This scenario is referred to as the "middle-of-the-
road" scenario and assumes that some efforts will be made to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions such that the energy supply mix of fossil fuels shifts towards natural gas, large
efficiency increases are achieved, deforestation is reversed and emissions of CFCs are
reduced by 50% from their 1986 levels. But it will not be sufficient to limit global warming
to below 2°C above pre-industrial levels. Under this scenario, global greenhouse gas
emissions peak around 2040 and decline thereafter. By the end of the century, global
emissions are projected to be about 50% lower than their peak. This scenario assumes that
there will be some technological advancements, moderate changes in government policies,
and some changes in public awareness and behavior related to climate change. The IPCC
projects that under Scenario B, global temperatures would rise by 2.6°C to 3.8°C above pre-
industrial levels by the end of the century.
 Scenario С (Control Policies Scenario): This scenario assumes that there will be a
significant shift towards low-carbon technologies, policies, and behaviors, leading to a rapid
and sustained decline in greenhouse gas emissions. It also assumes that a shift towards
renewable energies and safe nuclear energy takes place in the latter part of the next century,
CFC gases are phased out and agricultural emissions (methane and nitrous oxide) are limited;
an equivalent doubling of pre-industrial carbon dioxide will occur in about 2050. Under
scenario C, global greenhouse gas emissions peak around 2020 and decline rapidly thereafter,
reaching net zero emissions by around 2070. This scenario assumes that there will be
significant technological advancements, strong government policies, and widespread changes

8
 in public awareness and behavior related to climate change. The IPCC projects that under
Scenario C, global temperatures would rise by 1.5°C to 2.5°C above pre-industrial levels by
the end of the century. This scenario would still have significant impacts on the planet, but
they would be less severe than under Scenario B or business-as-usual scenarios.
 Scenario D (Accelerated Policies Scenario): This scenario assumes that there will be a rapid
and comprehensive shift towards low-carbon technologies, policies, and behaviors, leading to
a sustained decline in greenhouse gas emissions. There will be a rapid shift to renewable
energies and safe nuclear energy takes place early in the next century, stringent emission
controls in industrial countries and moderate growth of emissions in developing countries.
This scenario, which assumes carbon dioxide emissions are reduced to 50% of 1985 levels,
stabilizes equivalent carbon dioxide concentrations at about twice the pre-industrial levels
towards the end of the next century. Under Scenario D, global greenhouse gas emissions
peak around 2015 and decline rapidly thereafter, reaching net zero emissions by around
2050. This scenario assumes that there will be significant technological advancements, very
strong government policies, and widespread changes in public awareness and behavior
related to climate change. The IPCC projects that under Scenario D, global temperatures
would rise by 1.3°C to 1.9°C above pre-industrial levels by the end of the century. This
scenario would have less severe impacts on the planet than the other scenarios

9
7.11 Building energy use
More than 90% of the time we spend is indoors, either at home or at work. Residential and
commercial building energy use makes up a sizeable portion of a nation's overall energy
consumption. Water heating and refrigeration contribute for majority of building energy use
since they are in constant use. On the other hand, cooking and other appliances such as
computers and TVs generally account for only small percentages of building energy
consumption, owing to their intermittent use. The amount of energy we use is significantly
influenced by the level of electrification, urbanization, building area per person, climate, and
national and municipal regulations that support efficiency. In many countries, buildings consume
more energy than transport and industry. The International Energy Agency (IEA) statistics
estimate that globally, the building sector is responsible for more electricity consumption than
any other sector, 42 %. In general, industrialized nations have higher building energy
consumption. As a result, development has a significant impact on the energy demand from the
building sector, suggesting that as nations become more prosperous, building efficiency becomes
more important.
7.12 Energy efficiency of a building
The energy efficiency of a building is the extent to which the energy consumption per square
metre of floor area of the building measures up to established energy consumption benchmarks
for that particular type of building under defined climatic conditions. An energy-efficient
building uses less energy to provide the same level of comfort and functionality as a less efficient

10
building. Building energy consumption benchmarks are representative values for common
building types against which a building’s actual performance can be compared. The benchmarks
are derived by analyzing data on different building types within a given country. The main
benefit from measures to improve energy efficiency buildings is lower energy costs but there are
usually other benefits to be considered too. Energy efficiency measures are meant to reduce the
amount of energy consumed while maintaining or improving the quality of services provided in
the building. Among the benefits likely to arise from energy efficiency investments in buildings
are:
 Reducing energy use for space heating and/or cooling and water heating;
 Reduced electricity use for lighting, office machinery and domestic type appliances;
 Lower maintenance requirements;
 Improved comfort;
 Enhanced property value.
In developing countries where electricity is intermittent and power rationing is frequent, there is
a large demand for diesel or renewable energy-based backup/ stand-by power generation from
end-users. Reducing power and energy requirements in buildings reduces the capital outlay
required and the running costs of these stand-by systems.

7.13 Energy conservation potential

7.14 Energy performance and thermal comfort

The quantity of energy used annually by a building is referred to as its energy performance. It
gives the indication of how efficiently a building uses energy to meet its heating, cooling,
lighting, and other energy-related needs. It changes depending on the building, which uses more
or less energy, as well as its mode of operation and energy-related equipment. A building's
energy performance can be evaluated through energy consumption, energy cost, and energy
intensity, and so on. One common way to evaluate a building's energy performance is to
calculate its energy use intensity (EUI), which is the amount of energy used per unit of floor
area. EUI is typically expressed in units of energy per square foot (or meter) per year. By
comparing a building's EUI to that of similar buildings, it is possible to assess whether the
building is more or less energy-efficient than others. Improving a building's energy performance
can lead to a variety of benefits, including lower energy bills, reduced greenhouse gas emissions,
and improved indoor comfort.

11
7.15 Energy efficient building technologies
Energy efficient building technology is a set of techniques and materials used in the design and
construction of buildings to reduce energy consumption and minimize environmental impact.
Here are some areas in which there are lots of innovations for energy efficient building
technologies:
 Insulation: Proper insulation of walls, floors, and roofs can help prevent heat loss in the
winter and heat gain in the summer, reducing the need for heating and cooling.
 High-performance windows: Windows with multiple panes, low-emissivity coatings, and
insulated frames can help reduce heat transfer, keeping the building more comfortable
and reducing energy consumption.
 Energy-efficient lighting: LED lighting uses up to 75% less energy than traditional
incandescent lighting, and it can last up to 25 times longer.
 Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems: High-efficiency HVAC
systems can reduce energy consumption by up to 50%, while also improving indoor air
quality.
 Renewable energy systems: Solar panels, wind turbines, and other renewable energy
sources can be used to generate electricity on-site, reducing dependence on fossil fuels.
 Passive design: Building design can be optimized to take advantage of natural light,
ventilation, and thermal mass to reduce energy consumption without relying on
mechanical systems.
 Smart controls: Automated controls for lighting, HVAC systems, and other building
systems can optimize energy use and improve comfort levels.
By incorporating these and other energy-efficient building technologies, buildings can reduce
their energy consumption, lower their environmental impact, and save money on energy costs
over time.

7.16 Energy efficient building design principles,

Some of the energy efficient building design principles are
7.16.1 Passive building design
Passive building design is an approach to building design that aims to reduce the building's
energy consumption by optimizing its design and taking advantage of natural heating, cooling,
and ventilation systems. The goal of passive building design is to create a comfortable, healthy,
and energy-efficient building without relying on active mechanical systems. Here are some key
features of passive building design:
 Orientation: The building is oriented to take advantage of natural sunlight and shading.
South-facing windows are maximized to allow for passive solar heating, while shading
devices are used to block unwanted solar gain in warmer months.

12
 Insulation: High levels of insulation are used in the building envelope, including the walls,
roof, and foundation, to reduce heat loss and gain.
 Air sealing: The building envelope is designed to be airtight to reduce the amount of air
leakage, which can lead to energy loss and uncomfortable drafts.
 High-performance windows: Windows with high-performance glazing, frames, and seals are
used to reduce heat loss and gain and improve overall energy efficiency.
 Ventilation: Natural ventilation is utilized through carefully placed windows and vents, as
well as mechanical ventilation systems that use heat recovery to reduce energy consumption.
 Thermal mass: Materials with high thermal mass, such as concrete or masonry, are used to
help regulate the building's temperature and reduce the need for heating and cooling. The
thermal mass provide the delayed benefits in heating and cooling.
7.16.2 Efficient building envelope
The building envelope refers to the physical barrier between the interior and exterior of a
building, which includes the walls, roof, windows, doors, and foundation. The building envelope
plays a crucial role in maintaining the building's thermal performance, protecting against
moisture and air infiltration, and providing a comfortable and healthy indoor environment for
occupants. Some key components of the building envelope are
 Walls: The walls of the building envelope can be made from various materials, such as wood,
masonry, or concrete. High levels of insulation and air sealing are important in reducing
energy loss and improving energy efficiency.
 Roof: The roof of the building envelope is typically designed to protect the interior from rain,
snow, and other weather elements. Insulation and ventilation are important components of a
well-designed roof system.
 Windows and doors: Windows and doors are critical components of the building envelope, as
they provide access to natural light and ventilation while also contributing to heat gain and
loss. Energy-efficient windows and doors with high-performance glazing and frames can
reduce energy consumption and improve comfort.
 Foundation: The foundation of the building envelope provides structural support and also
helps protect against moisture and air infiltration. Proper drainage and insulation are
important for maintaining a healthy indoor environment.
 Air sealing: Air sealing refers to the process of sealing gaps and cracks in the building
envelope to reduce air leakage, which can lead to energy loss and uncomfortable drafts.

13
MITIGATION AND ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

When it comes to tackling climate change to prevent

the impacts it causes in the different systems of the
planet, the human being applies two types of
measures: mitigation and adaptation.

Mitigation measures are those actions that are taken

to reduce and curb greenhouse gas emissions,
while adaptation measures are based on reducing
vulnerability to the effects of climate change.

Mitigation, therefore, attends to the causes of climate

change, while adaptation addresses its impacts.
 How to mitigate climate change?
These are some of the mitigation measures that
can be taken to avoid the increase of pollutant
emissions:
• Practice Energy efficiency
• Greater use of renewable energy
• Electrification of industrial processes
• Efficient means of transport implementation:
electric public transport, bicycle, shared cars ...
• Carbon tax and emissions markets
 Adaptation to climate change
In terms of adaptation measures, there are
several actions that help reducing vulnerability to
the consequences of climate change:
• More secure facility locations and infrastructures
• Landscape restoration (natural landscape) and
reforestation
• Flexible and diverse cultivation to be prepared for
natural catastrophes
• Research and development on possible
catastrophes, temperature behavior, etc.
• Preventive and precautionary measures
(evacuation plans, health issues, etc.)
Various Elements of Energy-Efficient Buildings