MATHEMATICS

Collection : Puissance

MATHEMATICS
EMATICS
FSG
MATHEMATICS

Secondary Education 1st year

New Edition 2015
 Authors

K. ATTIEH N. BADR
C. MERHEB M. EL ASMAR
H. NASSAR A. MOARBES
G. KARROUM

Editors

AL-AHLIA

Composition,
set up and press

AL-AHLIA

Distribution

Zouk Mikaël - Haret El Mir - Lebanon

Tel : 00 961 9 214144 - 5 - Cell : 00 961 71 315959
Fax : 00 961 9 213499 - P.O.Box : 369 Zouk Mikaël
www.ahliame.com - Email : [email protected]
 Forward

This book treats the new program of teaching the first secondary with a new
spirit : the individual construction of notions, the training of the student to the
communication and to critical reasoning, the preservation of the bond between the
mathematics and the daily life situations.

Each chapter is formed of many parts.

 A little history. It offers the student another look on mathematics, permitting
also getting a clear idea on the development of each notion studied through the
centuries.
 The preliminary activities. It is important of not neglecting this part. It is
required to be short and accessible, permitting the introduction of a new notion
or sometimes to a part of a lesson.
 The course. It is required to be clear, simple and concise, respecting also the
spirit of the new program. Some essential results are sometimes put in relief, in
a way or another, for permitting the student to refer to it.
 The exercises and the problems. We have proposed a good number of
exercises, chosen in terms of interest form, and presented in three columns.
– For testing the knowledge. This part consists of the most accessible
exercises, permitting of verifying if the student gets the minimal acquisitions.
– For seeking. It consists of exercises which demand a supplementary effort of
reflection.
– To go further. This part includes synthesis problems allowing the student to
deepen his knowledge.

It is to be noticed that a great number of problems are chosen from real life,
studying real situations, familiar and not strange to students. This is done with a start
well determined. This is to consolidate the tight bond which exists between the daily
life and the mathematics.
We are looking upon formulating two wishes. The first is to respect the time
expected for each chapter and which figures in the table of contents. The second is of
using and of profiting to the maximum of the calculator, chiefly that we should bare it
in the new program.
We wish that this work will be useful for students of the 1st secondary and will
contribute to improve the level of teaching mathematics.
We will be happy and thankful of collecting any suggestion, critical or advice.

The authors
TABLE
OF CONTENTS

1. Sets and cartesian product ........................... 5

2. Absolute value and intervals ........................ 23
3. Powers and radicals ...................................... 33
4. Order on  - Framing and approximation .. 45
5. Addition of vectors ........................................ 63
6. Multiplication of a vector by a real
number ........................................................... 75
7. The polynomials ............................................ 89
8. Projection in the plane .................................. 103
9. Coordinate system ......................................... 113
10. Trigonometric circle - Oriented arc ............ 131
11. Trigonometric lines ....................................... 141
12. Scalar product in a plane ............................. 161
13. First degree equations and inequalities in
one unknown ................................................. 179
14. Mapping - bijection ....................................... 199
15. Generalities about functions ........................ 207
16. Equations of straight lines ........................... 231
17. Linear systems ............................................... 257
18. Statistics ......................................................... 277
19. Counting ......................................................... 309
20. Cavalier perspective ..................................... 323
21. Straight lines and planes .............................. 333
22. Parallel straight lines and planes ................ 353
23. Study of functions ......................................... 371
1
SETS AND
CARTESIAN PRODUCT
A brief history
The set theory appears as the basis of building mathematics where it
constitutes the language.
In 1875 the set theory is announced for the first time by the deutch
mathematician Georg Cantor (1845-1918) in collaboration with
Dedekind.
The algebra of Georges Boole (1815-1864), an english mathematician
who is considered as the true founder of the contemporary logic,
supplies an important contribution of the base conception (binary) of
numerical calculators.
The english mathematician John Venn (1834-1923) published in 1894
works treating symbolic logic.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

A The sets B Cartesian product

1. Sets 1. Couple
2. Subset. Inclusion 2. Cartesian product
3. Complement of a subset 3. Representation
4. Intersection
5. Union
6. Parts of a set
7. Set of numbers
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

“There is no other foundation of the power than the illusion of

the miserable.
G. Bernanos

5
 P RELIMINARY ACTIVITY
SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

In the following

A 2 4 6 9

8 12
3

7 5

We have circled in red the multiples of 2 that we call set A. 8, for example, is an element of A.

1° Circle in blue the multiples of 3. Let B be this set.

2° Since 7 is not a multiple of 2 and of 3, then 7 is neither an element of A, nor an element of B;

7 does not belong to A or to B.
Is it the same for 5 ?

3° What are the common elements of A and B ?

4° Circle in green set C containing 5, 7, 8 and 12.

What are the common elements of A and C? of B and C ?

5º Consider again set A.

Let D be the set containing 2 and 4.
The elements 6, 8 and 12 form a set called the complement of D in A. A D
What is the complement in A of set E, formed by the numbers 6 and 8?

•2 •4
•6
•8 • 12

6
 A The sets

1 SETS

We are used to statements of the form: The set of students of a class of first secondary, the set of
children of a family, the set of points of a given segment...

We can talk of a set when we are able to list all its elements, or when we are able to recognize if
an object belongs to it or not. Every object of a set is called an element of this set.

Writing of a set
A set is usually denoted by a capital letter A , B , C , ... , E , F , ...

When the elements of a given set E are listed, for example: : 1 , 2 , 3 and 6, we write E = {1 , 2
, 3 , 6} . We say that E is defined by extension . The order of the elements in a set does not matter.
For example, {1 , 2 , 6 , 3} , {6 , 3 , 2 , 1} , {2 , 3 , 6 , 1} ... represent the same set. When writing
a set in extension, the element should only be written once.

A set E can also be defined by a property (p) common to all of its elements. We say that E is
defined by comprehension and we write E = {x / x (p)} that is read : The set of elements x where
x has the given property (p). For example : A = {x / x is an even digit}. This set in extension is
A = {0 , 2 , 4 , 6 , 8}.

If a is an element of a set E , we write a ∈ E which is read : a belongs to E .

If b is not an element of a set E , we write b ∉ E which is read : b does not belong to E .

For example : 4 ∈ A and 7 ∉ A .

Finite set - Infinite set

A set is finite if the number of its elements can be counted. Otherwise, it is infinite .
The finite number of elements of a finite set E is called the cardinal of E which is denoted by
Card (E) .

7
 EXAMPLES

1. If E = {1 , 7 , 9 , 11} then E is a finite set and Card (E) = 4 .

2. The set of students of a school is finite.
3. The set of points of a straight line or of a segment is infinite.

Representation of a set
A set can be represented by a closed domain in which the elements are listed. It is called the Venn
diagram .
•1 •3
•a •e •i •o
E •2 V
•6 •u •y

Empty set - Singleton - Pair

The set that does not contain elements is called empty . There is only one empty set which is
represented by ∅ . For example, the set of men whose height is more than 4 meters is empty.
A singleton set is made up of only one element. For example A = {3} .
A pair set is made up of two elements. For example B = {a ; b} .

2 SUBSET. INCLUSION

A set A is a subset of E, or part of E, when all of its elements belong

to E.

We write : A ⊂ E and is read : A is included in E. A

E
EXAMPLES

1. If E = {1, 2, 3} and A = {1, 2} , then A ⊂ E .

2. The set V of vowels is included in the set A of the alphabet : V ⊂ A .

8
Remarks
• Every set is included in itself. : A ⊂ A .
• The empty set is included in any set : Ø ⊂ E , for every E .
• We should not confound between included, which is a relation between two sets, and belonging,
which is a relation between an element and a set .
For example : {1} ⊂ {1, 2, 3, 4} and 1 ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
• If A is not included in E, we write : A ⊄ E.
{0, 5} ⊄ {1, 2, 3, 4} and {3, 9} ⊄ {1, 2, 3, 4}.
• To show that a set A is not included in a set E , it is enough to find an element of A that is not an
element of E .

Equal sets
Two sets E and F are equal if they contain the same elements. That is, all the elements of E are in
F and all the elements of F are in E . We write E = F .

E = F is equivalent to E  F et F  E
EXAMPLE
The two sets E = {x / x is a digit}
and F = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} are equal.

3 COMPLEMENT OF A SUBSET

Let A be a subset of E. The set of elements of E that do not belong to A, is

called the complement of A in E and is denoted by :
⎯
CAE or A . E is called the reference set.
A
⎯
A
EXAMPLES E

 = CAE = {2, 3, 4} .
E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , A = {1, 5} , A ⊂ E . A
⎯ ⎯
  E = {1, 5} = A .
A
A = C

Remarks
• A
 = A .

 = CEE =  and  = C
•E E =E.

9
 4 INTERSECTION

Let A and B be two sets. The set of elements

that belong to A and to B, is called the B
A∩B
intersection of A and B and is denoted by : A
A ∩ B (read : A intersection B).
If A ∩ B = Ø then A and B are disjoint.

EXAMPLES

1. If A = {a, b, c, d, e} and B = {b, e, d, f, h} , then A ∩ B = {e, b, d}.

2. A is the only point of intersection (D)
of the two straight lines (D) and (D′),
so : (D) ∩ (D′′) = {A}.
3. If V and C are the sets of the vowels A
and of the consonants, then : (D′)
V ∩ C = Ø.

Remarks

f • A ∩ B = B ∩ A (intersection is commutative).
• A ∩ A = A and A ∩ Ø = Ø.
• (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C) = A ∩ B ∩ C (intersection is associative).
•AA =.

5 UNION

Let A and B be two sets. The set of elements that belongs

B
to one of them at least, that is to A, to B, or to both , is A
called the union of A and B and is denoted by : A∪B
A ∪ B (read : A union B).

EXAMPLE

If A = {1, 2, 3, a, b} and B = {2, a, 5, f} , then A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 5, a, b, f}.

10
 Remarks

f • A ∪ B = B ∪ A (union is commutative).
• A ∪ A = A and A ∪ Ø = A.
• (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) = A ∪ B ∪ C (union is associative).
•AA
=E.

6 PARTS OF A SET

Let E be a non empty set. The subsets of E form a set called parts of E and
is denoted by P (E).

P (E) = X / X  E X  E is equivalent to X  P (E)

 Ø  E . Ø is called the empty part of E and Ø  P (E).

 E  E . E is called the full part of E and E  P (E).

 XE, X  Ø and X  E : X is called a proper subset of E and X  P (E).

Finding the elements of P (E)

Find the set P (E) of E = {a , b , c}

Ø is a subset of any set , so of E.

The singletons {a} , {b} and {c} are parts of E .

The pairs {a, b} , {b, c} and {c, a} are parts of E .

The set E = {a , b , c} is a part of E .

So P (E) = Ø ; {a} ; {b} ; {c} ; {a , b} ; {b , c} ; {c , a} ; {a , b , c} .

We notice : Card E = 3

and Card P (E) = 8 = 23 .

We admit if Card E = n , then Card P (E) = 2n

11
 Remark
We can find the set of parts of a set E by using a tree.
We denote :
yes x is an element of the subset
x
no x is not an element of the subset.

The parts of E = {a , b , c} are given by the following tree :

yes {a , b , c}
yes c
b no {a , b}

s no yes {a , c}
ye
c
no {a}
a
yes {b , c}
v yes c
b no {b}
no yes {c}
c
v Ø

So : P (E) =  Ø ; {a} ; {b} ; {c} ; {a,b} ; {a,c} ; {b,c} ; {a,b,c}  .

7 SET OF NUMBERS

Natural numbers
Since the dawn of time, man has needed to count. For this, he used to say : 3 sheep, 5 horses, ...
where 3 and 5 did not make sense for him.
Later they noticed that you could add an object to a collection and obtain a new number that is
more by one than the preceding.
This means that the sequence of natural numbers that starts with zero is infinite. This sequence
makes up a set, denoted by  , and is called the set of natural numbers.
 = {0, 1, 2, 3, ... }.

* is the set of the non zero natural numbers.

12
Integers

The equation x + 3 = 0 has no solution in  , from where the need to enlarge this set by including
the opposites of its elements.

So, x + 3 = 0 has the opposite of 3 for solution, denoted by –3.

The new set obtained by uniting the elements of  with their opposites is called the set of
integers, denoted by .
 = {..., –2, –1, 0, 1, 2, ...}.
We notice that :    .
* is the set of the non zero integers.
EXAMPLE

The integer –5 which belongs to  is the solution of the equation x + 5 = 0.

The Rationals
The equation 2x – 1 = 0 has no solution in  , from where the need to enlarge this set by taking
a
the ratio  of two elements a and b of  with b ≠ 0.
b
So, 2x – 1 = 0 has for solution x = 1 .
2
a
The new set obtained by uniting the elements of  and the ratio  where b ≠ 0, is called
b
the set of rational numbers and is denoted by  .

 
a
 = x / x =  where a ∈  et b ∈ * .
b

We notice that :   
* is the set of non zero rationals.
EXAMPLE

3
–  that belongs to  is the solution of the equation 2x + 3 = 0.
2

Remarks
17
• Any decimal number is a rational. For example 0.17 =  ∈  .
100
• Any periodic number is a rational since it can be written as a fraction .
3 12 4
 = 1 +  =  =  ∈  .
For example : 1.333 ... = 1.3
9 9 3

13
 The real numbers
The ancient mathematicians noticed that for some measurements, the rational
numbers were not enough . For example , the calculation of the hypotenuse of the x
1
right triangle.
x is the solution of the equation x2 = 2 . The solution is written x = 2 . 2 is 1

not a rational number.

2 is said to be irrational.

Since the equation x2 = 2 has no solution in  , it is necessary to enlarge this set by uniting the
rational numbers with the irrational numbers as 2 . This new set, denoted by  , is called the
set of real numbers.
We notice that  ⊂  and  ⊂  ⊂  ⊂  .
The set of non zero real numbers is denoted by *.

EXAMPLES

1. The real numbers +3 and –3 are the solutions of the equation x2 – 9 = 0.

2 2
2. The real numbers  and –  are the solutions of the equation 9x2 – 4 = 0.
3 3

3. The real numbers 7

 and – 7
 are the solutions of the equation x2 – 7 = 0.

Remark
l
There are some irrational numbers that cannot be expressed by the use of radicals,
like π.
O
l
Since ancient times, the ratio  has been evaluated , were l is the length of the d
d
circumference of a circle , and d is its diameter , as a constant number π. It’s during

the XVIII century that π was proved to be irrational , and during the XIX century that it isn’t the

solution of an equation having rational coefficients.

14
 B Cartesian product

1 COUPLE

A couple denoted by (x,y), is an ordered pair of two elements x and y. x is the first element and
y is the second element of the couple (x,y).

• If x ≠ y then (x,y) ≠ (y,x) .

• If (x,y) = (a,b) then x = a and y = b .

EXAMPLES

1. (2,3) ≠ (3,2) .
2. If (x,y) = (2,3) then x = 2 and y = 3 .

Remark

The couple (2,3) is different from the pair set {2,3}. Therefore a couple is different from a set.

2 CARTESIAN PRODUCT

Given two sets A and B . The set of couples (x,y) where x ∈ A and y ∈ B is called the Cartesian
Product of A and B, denoted by A × B.
(A×B is read A times B or A cross B).
A × B = {(x,y) / x ∈ A and y ∈ B}.

EXAMPLE

Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}.

A × B = {(1,a) ; (1,b) ; (2,a) ; (2,b) ; (3,a) ; (3,b)}.
B × A = {(a,1) ; (a,2) ; (a,3) ; (b,1) ; (b,2) ; (b,3)}.

15
 Remarks

• A × B ≠ B × A.

• Card (A × B) = Card (A) × Card (B).

In the preceding example : Card (A) = 3 , Card (B) = 2
and Card (A × B) = 6 = 3 × 2.

• Although the terms are similar, it is clear that the cartesian product is other than the products found
in arithmetic and geometry.

• If A and B are equal sets, the cartesian product A × A is denoted by A2 and is called the square
cartesian of A.
For example : A = {red, blue}
A2 = {(red, red) ; (red, blue) ; (blue, blue) ; (blue, red)}.
•  ×  is denoted by  2 ;  ×  is denoted by  2 and  ×  is denoted by  2 .

3 REPRESENTATION OF THE CARTESIAN PRODUCT

Given the two sets A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {a, b}.

A × B = {(1,a) ; (1,b) ; (2,a) ; (2,b) ; (3,a) ; (3,b)}.
This set can be represented in two ways .

1º Cartesian diagram 2º By table

y
B
B a b
A
b 1 (1,a) (1,b)
(1,b) (2,b) (3,b)
a 2 (2,a) (2,b)
(1,a) (2,a) (3,a)
A
3 (3,a) (3,b)
O 1 2 3 x

16
 SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

Exercises and problems

4
Test your knowledge Given the following subsets of
E = {0, 1, 2, 3, ..., 16} :
P = {x / x ∈ E and x is prime}.
1 State whether each set is defined in D = {x / x ∈ E and x is a divisor of 16}.
M = {0, 4, 8, 12, 16}.
extension or in comprehension .
1° Write P and D in extension.
E = {x / x is a digit}, 2° Write M in comprehension.

F = {1, 4, 5, 9, 10}, 3° Complete the following Venn diagram.

G = {Ziad, Walid, Nadia, Nadine} . E

D P
2 Write in extension :
1° Set A made of four lebanese rivers ;
2° B = {x / x is a digit in 12122} ,
3° The set of the four seasons ;
4° The set E of the months of the year having M
less than 27 days. 4° Answer by True or False :
a) 3 ⊂ P ; b) 5 ∉ D ; c) {4, 8, 16} ⊂ M ;
3 Answer by True or False. d) 20 ∈ D ; e) {13, 12} ⊂ M ; f) {7, 9} ⊂ P.

1° Given the •1 E
•5 •7 5 1° Using the diagram , write in
following diagram. •3
•2 •8 comprehension the four sets A, B, C and E.
a) 2 ∉ E.
2° Complete by ∈ , ∉ ,  , ⊄ .
b) E = {x/x is a natural add number where x < 8}.
9 ... E ; {1, 5} ... B ; {2} ... A ; {5, 7, 9} ... E
c) {3, 8}  E.
A ... E ; B ... C .
d) Ø ⊄ E.
e) {2, 8} ⊄ E.
A B
2° P = {x / x is a natural number where x ≤ 9}. •10 •14 •11 •13 E
A = {0, 1, 4, 5}. •8 •5
B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. •12 •6 •2
a) P = B . •4 •7
•3
b) A  B . •1
c) CAB = {2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}.
C •9
d) A ∩ B = A .
e) A ∪ B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}. 3° Determine the complement of B in E .

17
 SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

6 1° Give two examples of empty sets . 9 Let A = {x ; y} and B = {x ; y ; z} .

1° Is A  B ?

2° State the empty sets and justify : 2° Find P (A) and P (B) .

A = {x / x is an inhabitant of the sun}. 3° Verify that P (A)  P (B) .

B = {y / y is a married student in your class}. 4° a) Write the set A × B .
b) Compare Card (A×B) and Card(A)×Card (B) .
C = {x / x is a natural number where 4x = 8}.
D = {x / x is a natural number where x = x + 1}.
10 Complete by ∈ , ∉ , ⊂ , ⊄ .
3 ...  ; –3 ...  ;
2 ...  ; 1,5 ...  ; – 
3° Complete by ∈ , ∉ ,  , ⊄. 5
1
5 ... Ø ; {1, 2} ... Ø ; Ø ... {3} ; { }
0 ...  ∩  ; * ...  ; 1,  ...  ;
3
{1, 2} ... {1, 2, 3}. {0} ...  ∩  ; 2 ...  ; –3,2 ...  ;
2 30
 ...  ;  ...  ; 16 ...  ;
* *
3 5
7 1° State whether the two sets A and B are
9
25
...  ; –2π ... * ; 49 ... * ;
equal . Justify :

–π4 ,+π ...  ; –5 ; 3 ; 0 ... 

1
a) A = {2, a,, l, 5, 8} and B = {,l, a, 8, 5, 2}. * ;
b) A = {x / x is a positive odd integer where
 ∩ * ...  ;  ∪ * ... * ;
x < 7} and B = {1, 3, 5} .
* ∩  ...  ∩  ; (2 ; 1) ... 2 ;
c) A = {0} and B = Ø .
{–1 ; 0} ... 2 .
d) A = {x/x is a whole number where 3x = 5}
and B = Ø.
11 Answer by True or False.
e) A = {x / x is a natural number where 2x = 8}
and B = {4}. 1° a) The equation x + 3 = 0 has a solution
in  .
2
2° Find x in each case so that the two sets A and b)  is a decimal.
3
B are equal. c) 1.44 ∈  .
a) A = {x, 2, a, t} and B = {2, 5, t, a}. 2° a) The equation 2x = –1 has a solution in *.
25
b) A = {2x+3, 4, 8} and B = {8, 2x, 7}. b)  is an irrational number.
2
c) A is the set of letters of the word “mondiale” c) π = 3.1416... is a decimal.
and B = {a, i, e, l, x, m , d, n}. 3° a) The equation 5x2 – 25 = 0 has solutions
in  .
b) 169 is an irrational number.
8 Let E = {1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4} . c) 2.41111... is a decimal number.
1° Give two proper subsets of E. 4° a) The equation 4x2 – 36 = 0 has solutions
in  .
2° Determine the set P (E).
b) 17 is an irrational number.
3° Verify that CardP (E) = 24. c) 1.555... is a rational number.

18
 SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

13
For seeking Find the set represented by the colored
part.

12 In each of the following shade the part

E
that represents the indicated sets.
1°

B
A
E E
1° 2° B
A A C

B
A∩B A∪B
E
2°

E E B
A
3° 4° B
A
C
A


A 
A B


E
3°
E E B
A
5° A B 6° A B

C
C C
A∩B∩C 
AB

C


E
4°
E E
7° A B 8° A B B
A

C C
C
(A∩B)∪C (A∪C)∩B

19
 SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

14 The adjacent diagram represents the sets E, E

A, B and C where E is the universal (reference) A B
set . •1 •3
•2
1° Write in extension : E, A, B and C. C
•5
•6

2° Compare the sets A C
 and A
C
 then the sets •4

A B
 and A
B
. •7
3° Can we find the complement of C in A? Justify. •8

15 Let E be the set of cards of a 32 card-game (all the cards are included except 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2), and
the parts A, P and S of E defined by :
A = {x / x ∈ E and x is a queen},
P = {x / x ∈ E and x is a diamond card},
S = {x / x ∈ E and x is a seven}.

1° Write A, P and S in extension.

2° Determine in comprehension each of the following sets :


a) A 
b) P c) S d) A ∩ P e) P ∩ S
f) S ∩ A g) A ∪ P h) A ∪ S i) A ∩ P ∩ S  ∩ S.
j) P

16 The 34 students of the class know how to play at least one instrument.
14 students play the trumpet (set T),
15 students play the clarinette (set C).

Also,
6 students play the saxophone (set S) and the clarinette ,
5 play the trumpet and the clarinette ,
7 play the saxophone and the trumpet .

Finally, 2 students play the three instruments.

1° Represent these sets by a Venn diagram.

2° How many students can play the saxophone ?

3° How many students play the trumpet only ?

20
 SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

17 This summer, 160 campers and trainers are expected to attend the summer camp. To prepare the
breakfast , the cook studies the results of his survey.
51 persons like pancakes (set C),
94 persons like bacon (set R),
53 persons like eggs (set O).

Also :
33 will eat eggs and bacon,
12 will eat pancakes and bacon,
5 will eat pancakes and eggs.
8 do not want breakfast.
1° Represent these sets by a Venn diagram.
2° How many persons want eggs, pancakes and bacon for breakfast ?

To go further

I Answer by true or false :

1° (–2 ; 1)  2 3°   2 5° (1 ; 2) = (2 ; 1)
2° {–2 ; 1}  2 4° (0 ; 0)  2 6° (1 ; 1) = {1} .

II Choose , with justification , the correct answer .

Questions Answers

A B C

If A and B are two sets such Card (A  B) = Card (B) Card (A)  Card (B) AB=B
1° that A  B , then :

2° 2    = set of

 is a number included in
8 irrational
numbers
3° Given the set A = {1 ; 2 ; 3} {1}  P (A) 1  P (A) {1}  P (A)

4° A = x/x   and x is a 1 2 0
solution of the equation
(x + 3) (x – 3) = 0 ,
then Card (A) =

21
 SETS AND CARTESIAN PRODUCT

III The following questions are independent .

1° a) Write in extension the set of real numbers whose square is 11 .

b) What do you name this set ?

2° Write in comprehension the following sets :

A = {–5 ; 5} ; B = {0 ; 2 ; 4 ; 6 ; 8} .

 is the complement of C in E . Determine the following subsets :

3° C is a subset of a set E and C

a) C  (C  ) b) (C  C)     C)  C
c) (C

d) C  [  (C  C)] e) (C  )  (C  ) f) (E  C
)  (E
  C)

g) (E  
C)  C 
h) (C E
)  (C
E
) i) (E  )  (E  E
) .

 
1
IV Given set E = – 2 ; – 1.3 ;  ; 1 + 2 ; π ; 3.444... .
3
1° Write in extension each of the subsets :

a) A = {x / x  E and x is irrational} .

b) B = {x / x  E and x is rational} .

c) C = {x / x  E and x is an integer} .

2° Determine the following subsets :

A  B ; A  C ; A  (B  C) and CCB .

V A and B are two disjoint sets such that :

Card (A  B) = (n – 2)2 and Card (B) = n (n – 4) .
Show that Card (A) is independent of n .

VI A and B are two subsets of a set E

such that :

A  B = {3 ; 4} , Card (A) = 5 ; Card (B) = 4 , CEA = {1 ; 2 ; 5 ; 6} and CEB = {5 ; 6 ; 7 ; 8 ; 9} .

Write in extension A , B and E .

22
2
ABSOLUTE VALUE
AND INTERVALS
A brief history
Diophante of Alexandrie (in the middle of the third century) defined in his book “the
Arithmetic” the square, the cube, the square square, the square cube, and the cube cube,
accompagnied by corresponding symbols and discussions about the minus symbols and
the law of signs.
The book X of Euclid’s elements contains a systematric classification of a ± b ,
a ± b and   a 
± b .
We find in it 115 propositions or irrationals.
Nicole Oresme (1323 - 1382) born in Normandie, presents the first systematic exposure
as operational rules for the multiplication and the division of ratios consisting of natural
exponants and fractionals in his “Algorismus proportionum” printed in Berlin at 1368.
He was the first who talked about the concept irrational exponent.
The Babylonians used a powerful procedure to evaluate the square root. On Yale table
24 51 10
we find: 2 = 1 +  +  + = 1.414213 .
60 602 603
At third century of our era, the chinese Liou Houi found an approximation of π equal to
3.14159 and considered a polygon of 172 sides.
At the end of the fourth century the chinese Tsu Ch’ung-chih (430-501) and his son
furnished an extraordinary result for the epoch on the value of π and giving 3.1415927 as
upper bound and 3.1415926 as lower bound result which were not went over it till
XVth century.
Gregory and David Chudnovsky, two american mathematicians have, in 1989, advanced
their calculation of π till the billionth.
The book “the Arithmetica integra” of the German Michael Stifel (1487-1567) did the
most important of german books of algebra printed during the XVIth century. He treated in
a significant way with negative numbers of radicals and of powers.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. Definition
2. Distance between two real numbers
3. Properties of the absolute value
4. Intervals
5. Fundamental results
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«I like false calculations since they give true results».

Hansarp
23
 P RELIMINARY ACTIVITies
ABSOLUTE VALUE AND INTERVALS

Activity 1
1° Give the opposite of each of the following :
–2 15
8 ; –2,1 ;  ; 0 ;  ; 5 - x ; y + 3 ; u – v.
3 7
2° x is a real number. Study the sign of –x.
3° Calculate x – y and y – x and indicate their sign in each of the following :
a) x = 7.3 and y = 2.5 ,
b) x = π and y = –3.72 ,
3 17
c) x = –  and y = –  .
5 3

Activity 2

The distances are given in Km. Jbeil

to Jounieh to Jbeil Jounieh

From Beirut 18 40
Beirut

to Saida to Tyr
From Beirut 45 88

1° Can we say that the distance from Jbeil to Beirut is – 40 ?

Saida
2° Calculate the distance from :
a)) Jounieh to Jbeil; Jbeil to Jounieh.
b) Jounieh to Saida; Tyr to Jbeil. Tyr

3° We represent this situation on an oriented axis x′x.

(Tyr) Beirut (Jounieh)

T B J
x′ O x
a) Place the points S (Saida) and G (Jbeil) while indicating their abscissas.
b) Use these abscissas to find the distances of the second question.

24
 1 DEFINITION
x  0 , OM = x
On an x′′Ox axis , x is the abscissa of a point M . O M
The absolute value of x , denoted by | x|| , is the x′ x
distance OM. x  0 , OM = – x
So OM = | x|| . M O
x′ x


x if x > 0
x if x  0
|x| = 0
–x
if x = 0
if x < 0
or |x| = –x if x  0 .
From this definition, we deduce that :
• for any real number x, ⏐x⏐  0 and ⏐–x⏐ = ⏐x⏐ .
• ⏐x⏐ = 0 for x = 0 .
• for any real x , x  |x|.
• for any real x , x2 = |x| .

EXAMPLES

1. ⏐5⏐ = 5 ; ⏐–5⏐ = – (–5) = 5 .

2. ⏐–14.4⏐ = 14.4 .
3. ⏐1 – 3⏐ = 3 – 1 .


x–2 if x > 2 ,
4. for any real x, |x – 2| = 0 if x = 2 ,
– (x – 2) = 2 – x if x < 2 .
5. (–5
)2 = ⏐–5⏐ = 5 .

2 DISTANCE BETWEEN TWO REAL NUMBERS

AB
B 6447448 A
a and b being two numbers , they are the abscissas of two points O
A and B of an axis x′Ox . x′ b1442443 a 0 x
|b – a|
By definition, the distance between the two real numbers a and b denoted d(a, b) , is the distance
between the points A and B denoted by AB or d(A, B) ; this distance is equal to the absolute value
of the difference of the two numbers a and b : d(a, b) = AB = d(A, B) = |b – a|| .

25
 Since a – b is the opposite of b – a , then
d(a, b) = AB = d(A,B) = |b – a|| = |a – b|| .

if a  b
 – (a – b) = b – a
a–b
|a – b| =
if a  b

In particular, OA = d(O,A) = ⏐a – 0⏐ = ⏐a⏐.

|a|| represents the distance from zero to the real number a .

Remarks
• If M is a point with abscissa x , then d(x, a) = d(x, b) is designated geometrically by MA = MB ;
thus , M is midpoint of [AB] .
A M B
• If d(x, a) > d(x, b) , then MA > MB and M is closer to B than A .

EXAMPLES

1. The distance from A to O is : B →

i A
OA = ⏐3 – 0⏐ = ⏐3⏐ = 3. x′ -4 O 1 3 x
2. The distance from A to B is :
AB = ⏐3 – (– 4)⏐ = ⏐7⏐ = 7.
3. If M is a point on (x′x) having x as abscissa, then the distance from A to


x–3 if x > 3 (M is at the right of A) ,
M is : AM = |x – 3| = 0 if x = 3 (M is confounded with A) ,
– (x – 3) = 3 – x if x < 3 (M is at the left of A) .

3 PROPERTIES OF THE ABSOLUTE VALUE

x and y are two real numbers.

1° ⏐x – y⏐ = ⏐y – x⏐.
2° ⏐xy⏐ = ⏐x⏐ . ⏐y⏐.


x ⏐x⏐
3°  =  with y ≠ 0 .
y ⏐y⏐

4° ⏐x + y⏐  ⏐x⏐ + ⏐y⏐.
5° ⏐x + y⏐  ⏐x⏐ – ⏐y⏐.
6° ⏐x – y⏐  ⏐x⏐ + ⏐y⏐
7° ⏐x⏐ = ⏐y⏐ is equivalent to x = y or x = – y.
8° ⏐x⏐2 = x2 = ⏐x2⏐ .

26
EXAMPLES

1. ⏐7 – 5⏐ = ⏐5 – 7⏐ = 2.

2. ⏐–2 × 3⏐ = ⏐–6⏐ = 6 and ⏐–2⏐ × ⏐3⏐ = 2 × 3 = 6,

so ⏐–2 × 3⏐ = ⏐–2⏐ × ⏐3⏐.
|–3|
5  = 5 and  =  , so  =  .
–3 3 3 –3 |–3|
3.
|5| 5 5 |5|

4. ⏐5+(–8)⏐ = ⏐5 – 8⏐ = ⏐–3⏐ = 3 and ⏐5⏐ + ⏐–8⏐ = 5 + 8 = 13,

so ⏐5 + (–8)⏐ < ⏐5⏐ + ⏐–8⏐.

5. ⏐5 + 8⏐ = ⏐13⏐ = 13 and ⏐5⏐ – ⏐8⏐ = 5 – 8 = –3,

so ⏐5 + 8⏐ > ⏐5⏐ – ⏐8⏐.

6. ⏐5 – 8⏐ = ⏐–3⏐ = 3 and ⏐5⏐ + ⏐8⏐ = 5 + 8 = 13,

so ⏐5 – 8⏐ < ⏐5⏐ + ⏐8⏐.

Remarks

• The two properties d and e give :

|x|| – |y||  |x + y||  |x|| + |y||
This double inequality is called : triangular inequality.

• From property g, for any positive real number r, we have :

|x| = r is equivalent to x = r or x = – r –r O +r
In general, for any two real numbers x and a,
⏐x – a⏐ = r gives x – a = r or x – a = – r, so x = a + r or x = a – r.
|x – a| = r is equivalent to x = a + r or x = a – r . a–r a a+r

EXAMPLES

1. ⏐x⏐ = – 2 is impossible .

2. ⏐x⏐ = 4 is equivalent to x = 4 or x = – 4 .

3. ⏐x – 2⏐ = 5 is equivalent to x – 2 = 5 or x – 2 = – 5 , that is x = 7 or x = –3 .

4. ⏐x + 3⏐ = 7 is equivalent to x + 3 = 7 or x + 3 = – 7 , that is x = 4 or x = –10 .

2
5. ⏐x – 1⏐ = ⏐2x + 3⏐ is equivalent to x – 1 = 2x + 3 or x – 1 = – 2x – 3 , that is x = – 4 or x = –  .
3

27
 4 INTERVALS

a and b are two real numbers such that a < b.

Set of real numbers

Representation Notation Name
x such that
axb [ ] [a;b] closed interval
a b
a<x<b ] [ ]a;b[ open interval
a b
semi open interval
ax<b [ [ [a;b[
a b at b
semi open interval
a<xb ] ] ]a;b]
a b at a
xa ] ]–∞;a]
a
x<a [ ]–∞; a[
a
xb [ [b;+∞[
b
x>b ] ]b;+∞[
b

Remarks

• The set of real numbers  is represented by the interval ]–∞ ; +∞[ .

a+b
• The midpoint (or center) of the interval [a,b] or ]a,b[ is the real c =  .
2
It is then said that [a,b] is an interval centered at c. In particular, the interval [–a,a] is centered at 0 with a > 0 .

•  = ]– ; +[ is a centered interval. Its center is any real number .

• ]– ; a[  ]a ; +[ has a as center .
a+b
• ]– ; a[  ]a ; b[  ]b ; +[ admits  as center .
2
The length (or amplitude) of [a,b] or ]a,b[ is the real α = b – a .
b–a
The radius of [a,b] or ]a,b[ is the real r =  .
2
The distance between a number x of an interval to its center is less than or equal to its radius r : | x – c||  r .

28
EXAMPLES

1. [–5 ; 5] is centered at 0 and its radius is 5 .

2. ]– 4 ; 10[ is centered at 3 and its radius is 7 .

5 FUNDAMENTAL RESULTS

a and x are two real numbers and r is a strictly positive number .

The writing in terms of

In terms of intervals Representation
the absolute value

0
⏐x⏐
⏐r x ∈ [–r ; +r] [ ]
–r +r

0
⏐x⏐
⏐r x ∈ ]–∞ ; –r] ∪ [+r ; +∞ [ ] [
–r +r

⏐x – a⏐
⏐r x ∈ [a – r ; a + r] [ ]
a–r a a+r

⏐x – a⏐
⏐r x ∈ ]–∞ ; a–r]∪[a+r ; +∞[ ] [
a–r a a+r

EXAMPLES

1. ⏐x⏐  –2 is impossible .
2. ⏐x⏐ > –2 is true for any x ∈  = ] –∞ ; +∞[ .
3. ⏐x⏐  4 means x ∈ [– 4 ; 4] .
4. ⏐x⏐ > 3 means x ∈ ]–∞ ; –3[ ∪ ] 3 ; +∞[ .
5. ⏐x–1⏐  6 means x ∈ [1–6 ; 1+6], that is x ∈ [–5 ; 7] .
6. ⏐x+3⏐ > 5 means x ∈ ]– ∞ ; – 3 – 5[ ∪ ]– 3 + 5 ; +∞[ ,
that is x ∈ ]–∞ ; – 8[ ∪ ]2 ; +∞[ .

29
 ABSOLUTE VALUE AND INTERVALS

Exercises and problems

6
Test your knowledge 1° Calculate the distance from 3.4 to 7.5 ,
then from −1.5 to 4.8.

1 Calculate the following : 2° What are the real numbers whose distance
1° ⏐2 – 3⏐ − ⏐−5⏐ from 1 is 3?
2° ⏐–3⏐ – ⏐– 4⏐
3° ⏐–7 – 3⏐ – 4 − ⏐3 – 6⏐
4° ⏐5⏐ – ⏐–3⏐ – ⏐2(3–7)⏐ 7 State whether interval I1 is included in I2
in each case :
     
2 11 2 14
5° –  + –  – –  –  .
3 5 5 3 1º I1 = [2 ; 4] and I2 = ]–3 ; 7[

2º I1 = [–3 ; 4] and I2 = [–3 ; +∞[

2 Calculate the absolute value of each of
3º I1 = ]–7 ; 6[ and I2 = [0 ; 12]
the following :

   
1° a = 3 – 2 5° e = (−1)13 5 5 25
4º I1 =  ; 7,7 and I2 =  ;  .
2° b = 1 – 3 6° f = 10−4 3 3 3
3° c = 17 – 4 7° g = 4 +2x2
4° d = π − 3.25 8° h = (1+x)2 .
8 Determine the center and the radius of
each interval.

 
3 Calculate the numerical value of 3 15
1º I1 = [– 6 ; 6] 3º I3 =  ; 
2 4
E = x − ⏐x – y⏐ + y in each of the following

 
cases : 4 13
2º I2 =]– 4,1 ; +2,7[ 4º I4 =  ;  .
1° x = −1 and y = 3 2° x = 2 and y = 3 . 5 7

9 Write in the form of an interval if possible

4 1º Let ⏐x⏐ = 2 and ⏐y⏐ = 4.
(represent it on an axis).
 
5x
Calculate ⏐3x⏐ ; ⏐–5y⏐ ; ⏐–3xy⏐ ;  .
2y 1º [– 4 ; 2] ∩ [– 1 ; 3]
2º What is the sign of the following, knowing
2º [– 4 ; 2[ ∪ [– 1 ; 3]
that z is a strictly positive number ?
⏐z⏐ ; ⏐–z⏐ ; –⏐–z⏐ ; z⏐z⏐ ; (–z) × ⏐–z⏐ . 3º ]– 5 ; –2[ ∩ [– 1 ; 3]
4º [– 2 ; 1] ∪ ]– 3 ; 5[
1
1º Let x be a real number such that ⏐x⏐   .
   
5 1 3 5
5 5º –  ;  ∩ 0 ; 
Show that ⏐5x⏐  1 . 2 2 2

2º Compare : 6º ]−∞ ; − 4] ∩ [− 4 ; +∞[

a) ⏐t + 3⏐ and ⏐t⏐ + 3 7º ]−∞ ; 3] ∪ ]3 ; +∞[
b) ⏐2u – 3⏐ and ⏐2u⏐ + 3 . 8° ]−∞ ; – 5] ∩ ]– 5 ; +∞[ .

30
 ABSOLUTE VALUE AND INTERVALS

10 Find, in each case, the set of real numbers

For seeking
such that :
1º ⏐x⏐ = 3 7º ⏐x⏐  − 2
12 Express without the absolute value each
2º ⏐x⏐ = −5 8º ⏐x⏐  0 of the following expressions :
3º ⏐y⏐  4 9º ⏐x⏐  9 1° A = ⏐x −3⏐

4º ⏐x⏐ < − 3 10º ⏐a⏐ – 2 = 0 2° B = ⏐−7 − x⏐ +5

3° C = x +⏐x⏐
5º ⏐t⏐ > 7 11º ⏐–x⏐– 4 = 4

 
2x
6º ⏐z⏐  0 12º ⏐x + 4⏐ = 0. 4° D =  – 2 for x < 3
x–3

 
3x
5° E = 8x –  .
x+1
11 Answer by True or False.

1° – 8 > ⏐–10⏐

2° ⏐3⏐ + ⏐–3⏐ = 0 13 Find the interval of x so that the

3° –⏐–8⏐ = 8 expression A is independent of x .

4° – (–a) = ⏐a⏐, for a < 0 1° A = x +⏐2 – x⏐− 5

5° –⏐2 – 3⏐ = 2 – 3 2° A = – x +⏐x – 5⏐+ 9.

6° ⏐10–3⏐ = 103

7° The writing ⏐x⏐ = –x is impossible

14 On an axis x′Ox , place the points A, B, C
8° For any real x, x  ⏐x⏐
and D of respective abscissas 2, 32, 3 and
9° If x > 0, ⏐x – 5⏐ = x – 5 1
–.
2
10° ⏐x –y⏐ = ⏐x⏐ – ⏐y⏐

⏐x⏐
11°  = 1 , for x ≠ 0
x 1° Calculate d(A,D) ; d(B,A) and d(C,D).

12° ⏐x⏐ < −2 for any x 2° Let x be the abscissa of a point M of x′Ox .

13° ⏐x – 2⏐  1 gives 1  x  3
 
1
a) Translate geometrically x +  and
2
14° The interval [−10;10] is centered at 5
⏐x – 3⏐ .
15° {1 , 2} is an interval in 
b) Interpret geometrically the equation
16° {x / x ∈  and –2 < x < 1} is an open
x + 2  = ⏐x – 3⏐.
1
interval in 

17° ⏐x – 7⏐  ⏐x⏐ – 7 . Show that it admits one solution. Find it.

31
 ABSOLUTE VALUE AND INTERVALS

15 Find, in each case, the set of real 17 Write in the form of intervals :
numbers, such that :  ;  ;  –{3} ;  ∩ ]0 ; 8[ ;
1º ⏐x – 4⏐ = 4 5º ⏐x – 3⏐ < 4
 – {–1 ; 1} ; {x / x ∈  and x > – 3} ;
2º ⏐5 – x⏐ = 7 6º ⏐x – 4⏐  – 2
{x / x ∈  and 1 < x  12} ;  – ]2 ; +∞[ .
3º ⏐x – 9⏐ = – 5 7º ⏐5 – x⏐ > – 1
4º ⏐x – 2⏐ = 0 8º ⏐2 – x⏐  5 . 18 x is a real number.
1 1
1° Show that, if ⏐x – 1⏐ <  , then x >  .
16 Determine x so that each expression is 4 2
defined : 2° Show that, if ⏐x + 2⏐  1, then 1 ⏐x⏐ 3.
x–1 2+x
1º A =  4º D = 
⏐x + 2⏐ ⏐x – 3⏐ + 3
19 Solve geometrically .
⏐x – 4⏐ + 4 1° ⏐x – 2⏐ = ⏐x – 1⏐
2º B =  5º E = ⏐
x⏐
–
1
⏐x + 1⏐
x ⏐
2° ⏐x + 1⏐ = x – 
1
2
⏐
3º C =  6º F = ⏐
 ⏐
x+ 2
+3.
⏐x⏐ – 2 3° ⏐x – 3⏐  ⏐x + 3⏐ .

To go further

I How many numbers are in : IV Given ⏐x⏐ = 6 and ⏐y⏐ = 4 .

1° [0 ; 1] 2° {0 ; 1} .
 
– 5x
1° Calculate ⏐3x⏐ , ⏐– 4y⏐ and  .
2y
II Write A , B , C , D , E and F without
absolute value , satisfying the given conditions . 2° Justify that : 2  ⏐3x + 4y⏐  34 .

A = ⏐2 – 2⏐ + ⏐10–1⏐ – ⏐– 0.1⏐ .

B = ⏐y – 1⏐ – ⏐4 – y⏐ with 1 < y < 4 . V Write A , B and C without absolute value .
3
C = ⏐2w – 3⏐ – ⏐5 – 2w⏐ with w <  .
 
2 x
⏐2x
⏐
D =  – 2 for x < 3 .
x–3
A = ⏐x – 4⏐ × ⏐2x – 8⏐ , B = ⏐– 3xy⏐ × 
6y

 
– 7x
⏐ 3x
⏐
E = 3x –  for x > – 1 .
x+1
and C =  – 7x with x < 1 .
x–1

⏐ 1
⏐
F = ⏐– x – 3⏐ + x +  + ⏐x2⏐ – 3
2 VI Place the points A and B with respective
1
for – 3 < x < –  . abscissas 4 and – 2 on an axis x′Ox with
2 origin O .
III 1° Can you find a real solution for the 1° Determine the abscissa of point I center of
equation ⏐2x – 5⏐ + 5 = 0 ? interval [– 2 ; 4] and calculate its radius .
2° Determine the real x for d(x ; 3)  4 .
2° M is a point on x′Ox with abscissa x .
3° Solve geometrically :
a) ⏐x – 2⏐ = ⏐x – 1⏐ ; b) ⏐x – 1⏐ – 2 > 0 ; a) Solve d(M ; I) < d(I ; A) .
c) ⏐4x – 8⏐ < 16 . b) Solve ⏐x + 2⏐ > ⏐x – 4⏐ .

32
3
POWERS AND RADICALS

A brief history
The need to count objects or animals appeared very early in the history of
mankind, and this is certainly the prehistory how the first integer numbers were
born. The fractions are known from Egytian and Babylonian civilizations.
Decimal numbers appeared later. Their current writing was introduced in XVIe
century by the european mathematicians.
From VIIIe century, in India, negative numbers were used for trade. In the West,
mathematicians have started working on negative numbers in the XVe century but
at the beginning of XIXe century their writing has become common.
The integers, decimals and fractions, positive or negative, are called now
rational numbers. The irrational numbers, whose existence was presented in
Greece in VIe century after AD, were better known from the work of the
algebraists in XIIIe century.
The Greeks of the Pythagorean school strive to represent the world around them
by numbers. Pythagoras was interested in the ratio of the diagonal of a square to
its side. He then made an important discovery: there is no fraction whose square
is equal to 2.
1
He named «inexprimable» the sizes that designate the length of the
diagonal of a square. 1 ? 1
This discovery upset the beliefs of the Pythagorean society where : 1
«everything in a number». 1
It took 2 000 years for the irrational numbers, 2 for example, to
1 1
be considered as numbers. 2
1

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

1. Powers having natural 3. Properties

Pythagorus exponents 4. Square root
Greek mathematician and
philosopher
2. Powers having rational and 5. nth root
(Samos 570 av J.C. - irrational exponents
Métaponte 480 av J.C.),
founder of a mathematical
and mystical school EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Are the roots of the words squared ?»

Eugène Ionesco
33
 P reliminary activity
POWERS AND RADICALS

Calculate n in each of the following :

1° (1.1)2 × (1.1)5 = (1.1)n 4° 23 × 4n = 27
n
2° (2.5)3 = (2.5)6 5° 1.115 = 0.1115 × 10n
(21.3)5
3°  = (21.3)3 6° 7.35 = 735 × 10n .
(21.3)n

1 POWERS HAVING A NATURAL EXPONENT

Let a be a real number.

The product a . a is denoted by a2 and is read «a squared» or «a power 2» or «a exponent 2».
The product a.a.a is denoted by a3 and is read «a cubed» or
«a power 3» or «a exponent 3» .
In general, for any number n such that n  2 we write :
a.a.a. ... .a = an and is read «a power n» or «a exponent n» .
14243
n times
By convention a1 = a for a ≠ 0 and a0 = 1 .
1
For any natural number n , a−n =  for a ≠ 0.
an

Remarks

−1)n = 1 if n is even.
• (−

−1)n = −1 if n is odd.
• (−

34
 2 POWERS HAVING RATIONAL AND IRRATIONAL
EXPONENTS

Let a be a strictly positive real number.

1

• The real number x = a q where q is a non zero whole number is written a and is read «radical
q

of order q of a» . It is defined by :
1
 q
x = a q = a with x = a.
q

1

If q = 3, x = a 3 = a is the cubic root of a with x3 = a.
3

p

• The real number a where p and q are non zero integers is written as ap and is read «radical
q q

p
of order q of a ».
p
 p
a = ap where  is a rational.
q q

q
• The real number ab where b is an irrational can only be calculated using a calculator.

3 PROPERTIES

a and a′ are two strictly positive real numbers, b and b′ any two real numbers :

b′′ bb′′ ab b–b′′

ab × ab′′ = ab+b′′ ; (ab) = a ;  ′
b′ =a ;
a
ab .
 
b a b
(aa′′) = aba′′b ;  =
a′′ a′′b

EXAMPLES

1. 5–3 × 57 = 5–3+7 = 54 = 625.

1 5 5
2. 7 3  = 7 3 = 25.6151 (with the calculator).
 

3. 52
3
= 52×3 = 56 = 51.5370 (with the calculator).

Remark

Any strictly positive number x can be written in the form of x = a.10n where n is a whole number
and 1  a < 10. This form is called scientific notation of x.

For example, 0.015 = 1.5 × 10−2 ; 8756.42 = 8.75642 × 103 .

35
 4 SQUARE ROOT

1° Definition
Let a be any real number.
• If a > 0 , there exist two opposite numbers having the same square a that are called square root of a . One is
positive , denoted by a and is read radical of a , while the other is negative, denoted by –a . For example 7
admits two square roots 7 and –7 .
Therefore the equation x2 = a has two solutions a and –a .
We have (a)2 = (–a)2 = a .
We can also write : x2 = a is equivalent to x = a or x = –a .
For example, x2 = 3 is equivalent to x = 3 or x = –3 .
• If a = 0 , then a has only one square root which is 0 .
The equation x2 = 0, has one solution, 0.
• If a < 0 , then a has no square roots.
The equation x2 = a has no solution.
For example x2 = –5 has no solution.

2° Properties
a and b are two strictly positive numbers.

a
b
a
; a = an with n a real number.
n
a × b = ab ;  =
b

Remark

The key  of the calculator allows to obtain an exact or approximate value of the square root of a positive number.

Remarks

• a + b ≠ a

+b .
62 + 82 = 6 + 8 = 14 and 62+
82 = 100 = 10.

• a – b ≠ a–b .

82 – 62 = 8 – 6 = 2 and 82–62 = 28 = 5.2915

• For any number a, a2 is positive and hence a2 exists.

If a  0, a2 = a × a = a = a.
2

)2 = –a × –a = –a  = –a.

2
If a  0, – a  0 and a2 = (–a)2 , where : a2 = (–
a
We can write : a2 = | a | .
xy if x  0
For example xy
2 exists if y  0 and x is any number : x
y
2 = | x | y
= .
–xy if x  0

36
3° Practical methods
• To simplify, for example, 72 we write :
72 = 36
×2 = 36 × 2 = 62 .
• To introduce a number under the radical, we square it.
38 = 32×
8 = 72 .
– 57 = –52×
7 = – 175 .
• It is easier to perform calculations on fractions without having radicals in the denominator.

EXAMPLES

5 5 3 53
1.  =  ×  =  .
3 3 3 3

5 – 3 5 – 3 2 + 2 (5 – 3) (2 + 2)

2.  =  ×  = 
2 – 2 2 – 2 2 + 2 (2 – 2) (2 + 2)

25 – 23 + 10 – 6 25 – 23 + 10 – 6

=  =  .
4–2 2
The expression 2 + 2 is called the conjugate of 2 – 2 .

Remark

We can also write a fraction without a radical in the numerator.

EXAMPLE

–2 + 1 (–2 + 1) (–2 – 1) 1 –1

 =  =  =  .
5 5 (–2 – 1) –5 (2 + 1) 5 (2 + 1)

5 THE nth ROOT OF A REAL NUMBER

1° Definition
a being a positive non zero number and n a non zero natural number, x is called the nth root of a if xn = a .

37
 • If n is even and a > 0 , then a has two opposite nth roots : a positive

one denoted by a and is read «the nth root of a» , and the other one will be –a .
n n

For example, a 4th root of 16 is 16 = 2 ; the other 4th root of 16 will be –16 = –2 .
4 4

Therefore the equation xn = a has two solutions a and –a .

n n

n n
Hence we have (a) = (–a) = a .
n n

We can write :

a > 0 and n is even , xn = a is equivalent to x = a or x = –a

n n

For example , x4 = 81 means x = 81 = 3 or x = –81 = – 3 .

4 4

• If n is even and a < 0 , then a has no nth root .

For example, –16 has no 4th root .

The writing –16 has no meaning.
4

Therefore x4 = – 16 has no solution.

, any real number a has an nth root denoted by a .

n
• If n is odd

For example, – 8 has one cubic root –8 = – 2 .

3

1024 has one 5th root 1024 = 4 .

5

Therefore the equation xn = a has only one solution x = a .

n

n is odd and a is any real number , xn = a is equivalent x = a .

n

For example :
x3 = 27 means x = 27 = 3 .
3

x5 = – 32 means x = –2
3 = –2 .
5

2° Properties
In the case where the following expressions are defined, we have the following properties :

 a a
1a = 1a .
n n
ab = a × b ;  = n  and in particular
n n n

b b
n
.

38
 POWERS AND RADICALS

Exercises and problems

m

5
Test your knowledge Write in the form of a n (x > 0 and y > 0).

 53 3–3
 ; 52
3 5 4
x5 ; ; ;


 x
3
1 Write in the form of a power (x being a
strictly positive number).

71
92
; 

x5y ;
3 4 
y
3 .
2
2 –
1° x7x5 4°  
x
 3
3 7° 
–x7
(–x)5
6 Use the calculator to give an
3 approximation of :
2 –
2° x3x – 4 5°  
x
–
5
4
8° 
–x9
(–x)6
.
5
1

3
; 7
1

4
; 13
2
–
3
; (3)2 ; 5
1
10
;
343
3
(–x)8 (2.1)0.3 ; (15.3)0.03 ; ;
3° x2x – 4 x –5 6° 
(–x)4
– 16 – 32
15 .
3 4 5
8 ; ;

2 Write the following in scientific notation. 7 Solve the following equations :

1° 31 × 10-2 3° 0.7 × 102 5° 0.002 1° x3 = – 81 3° x4 = – 7 5° (x + 2)4 = 16

2° x5 = 243 4° x6 = 64 6° (x + 3)5 = – 243
2° 4-2 4° 5000 6° 22.4 .

8 Simplify .
3 a , x , y and z are strictly positive numbers 1° 32 + 48
such that ax = 2 , ay = 3 and az = 5. 2° 12 – 27 + 48 – 75
Calculate : 3° 180 – 345 + 245

1° ax+y 3° a2x 5° a2x+3y– 4z .

y
4° 3×
3 9
4 ×  37 × 4

400
a 2
x+
2° ax–y 4° ax+y–z 6° .
5° 16 – 250 + 42
3 3 3

6° 6 – 35
2
4 Simplify .
7° 2 + 3
2

8° 5 + 3 5 – 3
×
27–2 45–3
32 × 75–3 7 × 36

1°   9° 5
–3 × 5
+3
36 × 454
–5 ; 2°
72 × 532 × 36 × 73
8
  × 10° 8 43 – 21 12 + 427 – 2 3

 
–2
1 22× 10–5 2–2 53 16
3° 5–3 × 
7 5 1 ; 4° ×  2 5
3 (4 × 5 ) 3 3 25–1 × 1250 93 × 63
11° 
29 × 32
3 3

3
(92) 4 210
3
5° 80.2 × 20.4 ; 6°  .
25 12°  .
4
(3 ) 10
2
3

39
 9 Simplify .

(–
57
)2
1° (
3–2
)2 3° (
 –.2
3)2 5° 
125

4° 
(9
–2)
2
2° (
65–8
)2 6° (3
–
17
)2 – (
17–3
)2 .

10 Rationalize the denominator .

3 1 2
1°  3°  5° 
5 3 + 1 5 – 2

2 1 2
2°  4°  6°  .
33 23 – 5 32
5

11 Simplify the following expressions (all the variables are positive numbers).

m–6 n3
1
1° x4 5° l49
l3 – l2
9l
3
3°

2° 29
x2 – 25x2 4° y × y × y 6° 9a3b5c6 .
3 4

12 Answer by True or False.

1° 4 × 4 × 4 = 34 9° –
x2 is never defined

2° (0.014)0 = (3000000)0 10° (–

5
)2 = (–5)

11° ––19 is positive

3
3° 04 = 0

4° 103 +104 = 107 12° x2

+9
4 = x + 7

5° 52 × 34 = 158 13° There is no value of x that verifies x2 = – x

3
 1

6° 8 2 = 82 14° 11 2 is a whole number
3

7° x2 = x , for any real number x 15° 

3 = 3 .
4 8

8° –x has no meaning

40
 POWERS AND RADICALS

For seeking

13 Let E = 2 2

–3  3 + 1 .

Calculate E2 then deduce the value of E .

14 Determine the value of each of the following.

(x
 –)
12
1°  4° 
(x
2
+1
2
2° x2 + x 3° (3
 –)
x2 – x – 3 ) – x2 + 3 .
x–1

Given : a = 243 × 64 ; b = 72 ; cx = 23 ; cy = 3 .

3 3 3 6 3
15
a
1° Show that  is a natural integer .
b
2° Show that c2x × c3y is a natural integer .
a
3° Deduce that  – c2x × c3y = 0 .
b

16 Simplify the following expressions.

1
–
7n + 14n

2 1 –0.5
1° 9 ×  6°  (n  )
3 7n – 14n
8 × 103 × 4 × 10– 4
n1
52n
+1
5n+
3
n
2°  7° A = 
n1
53n
+1
 5n–
1
n
0.0016
3n+4 – 6 × 3n+1 2n+3 + 5 × 2n+1
3°  (n  ) 8° B = 
7 × 3n+1 3 × 2n+1

4n+2 – 4n 4
x2+8
x2
+8
4°  (n  ) 9° C =  2 for x > 2
2n+1 – 2n 2x – 4
8n + 2n
5°  (n  ) 10° D = 64(
2–3
)6 + –32(
2+3
6 5
)5 .
20n + 5n

17 1° For x = 16, calculate the value of the expression :

3
–  3 2
–
 
4 1
–3(x0) 4 –(4x)0 +  3
– (x)2
8
E = 24x

4
x3

2° For x = 27, calculate the value of the expression :

–x +x 3  +x0 2 +3x 3 – 3

1
–  2 0
  1 – 1 1 1
3 9 3
F = 9x
x

41
 POWERS AND RADICALS

18 Given : A = 
5–3 × 
3
5+3 × 2 ; B = 
3
32 + 3
3
 5
 3 – 8
6
;
23n+1
– 23n
C =  , n.
2n+1 – 2n
1° Show that A and B are two integers .

2° Show that C = 3 × 2n .

3° Calculate n if C = 12 .

19 1° Simplify A , B and C .
2n+4 – 8n
3
912 × 32–2 
A = 223 × (0.5)24 ; B =  ; C = .
3
8
3 2n+1
2
(25)n
2° Solve for n :  = 5n .
125n

 2
 5
64 – –8 + –7
2 – 3–
3 3 3 3
4 3 × 12 3 × 232 ; B = 
3 1
3° Given : A =  .
4 × 2 × 2
8 4
16 4 × 183
3 3

Show that A and B are integers .

20 Simplify A and B .

1 25  x × 9yx22

3

A =  +  ; B =  for x > 0 and y < 0 .

5 – 2 5 + 2 2
12 –5 3
x y × 3y
3
x
3  

To go further

I Calculate the following numbers .

2 7
85 – 43
3
153 + 53 43 × 63
 
5 
10
125 + 25 10
; C= ; D = 
7
A=  ; B =
2 – 4
12 3 6 ; E= ;
5
6 3
4 × 93
3 3
9 –1 1254 + 2511

F = 1 – 5 1 + 5 1 + 52 .

4 4 4

–8 3
II Given A = 55–11 × 54 × 11–2 × (5 × 11)4 ; B = (52) (58) × 11–2 .
A
Calculate  .
B

42
 POWERS AND RADICALS

III Simplify the following expressions .

25n × 42n × 53

n 3
72n+1 – 72n–1 – 49n
A =  B =  n .
49n – 72n+1 – 72n 4×5 2n–1 × (250)

IV 4 × 10–8 + 0.000 000 5 .

Given E = 
29 × 10–6 – 20 × 10–7
1° Simplify and write E in scientific notation .
2° Given : A = 22n
 +1 and B = 22n
+1
×1 .
n n
4n+ 4n+
Simplify A and B and write them in the form ab where a and b are integers to be determined .
n

V In the table below , only one among the proposed answers to each question is correct . Write down
the number of each question and give , with justification , the corresponding answer for your choice .

Answers
N° Given
a b c

1° 
4
–
x is a
3
real number for all not real for all values real only for
values of x of x x0.

x
3

The equation  = 3

12
1
x
4
2°  2 3
12
has a solution x =

If A = a7
b15
,
3 5

a2ba a2ba
3 15
3° a2b
then A =

n
If B = (–
215  ,
3
)2/n
4° – 125 – 25 25
then B =

4yx22

If A = 27y 1 1
5°
3
x33 + xy –  –1
2 2
and x > 0 , y > 0 , then A =

9n+2 – 9n
If A =  ,
6° 32n – 32n+1 – 40 40 32n
then A =

43
 POWERS AND RADICALS

44
4
ORDER ON 
FRAMING AND APPROXIMATION
A brief history
 , irrational number
In practice, for our calculations, we use the approximated values 3.14 , or 3.1416
for . A ten-digit calculator performs calculations with 3.141 592 653 6 or
3.141 592 653 59 or even 3.141 592 653 589 8 .
7 1
• In Susa tablets (Babylonians), this is the number 3 +  +  that was taken
for . 60 120
25
This expression is equal to  = 3.125 which is an approximation to the nearest 10–3
of  . 8
• Over the years, through geometric or trigonometric considerations, accuracy
improved. Archimedes (287-212 av. J.-C.) showed that :
10 1
3 +  <  < 3 +  ( included between 3.1408 and 3.1429). Ptolémée (IIe century
71 7
8 30
after AD) proposed 3 +  +  .
60 3600
377
This expression is equal to  = 3.14 167 which is an approximation of  to the
–5
nearest 10 . 120

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

A Order D Approximation
1. Definition 1. Definition
2. Rule of signs 2. Approximation
3. Order and operations 3. Truncating and rounding
4. Precision of a calculation using
B Comparison of two the calculator
reals a and b

C Framing
1. Definition
2. Framing and operations
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«The one that does not love has no need to compare».

Yahya Haqqï
(egyptian writer)

45
 P reliminary activities
ORDER ON  - FRAMING AND PPROXIMATION

Activity 1

The goal of this activity is to notice that if two positive numbers a and b D C
are such that N
P
a > b , then a2 > b2.

ABCD is a square of side a .

A M B
Calculate its area A 1 .

M and P are two points of [AB] and [AD] such that AM = AP = b .

Calculate A 2 , the area of square AMNP.

Compare A 1 and A 2 then verify the goal of this activity .

Activity 2

Using a calculator , arrange in an increasing order :

1
1° 1.2 ; (1.2)2 ; 1.2  ; 1 and  .
1.2
1
2° 0.7 ; (0.7)2 ; 0.7  ; 1 and  .
0.7

46
 A Order

1 DEFINITION

Two real numbers a and b are such that a  b if and only if a – b  0 .

EXAMPLE

7 8 7 8 1
 <  since  –  = –  < 0 .
8 9 8 9 72

2 RULE OF SIGNS

Let a and b be any two real numbers. a + + – –

The adjacent table summarizes the rule of signs.
b + – + –
When the (?) is found, the sign is of the number whose
absolute value is greater. ab + – – +

a
 (b ≠ 0) + – – +
b
a+b + ? ? –
EXAMPLE

Let a = – 5 , b = 3 .

Since ⏐a⏐ = 5 > ⏐b⏐ = 3 , then a + b < 0 since a < 0 .

3 ORDER AND OPERATIONS

1° Addition and subtraction

a , b and c are real numbers .

If a  b then a + c  b + c.
If a  b then a – c  b – c.

47
 EXAMPLE

Since 2 < 5 , then 2 + 1 < 1 + 5 , so 3 < 1 + 5

and 2 – 1 < 5 – 1 , so 1 < 5 – 1 .
In fact 1 + 5  3.23 and 5 – 1  1.23.

2° Multiplication
a,b and c are real numbers.

• For c > 0, if a  b then ac  bc .

• For c < 0, if a  b then ac  bc .
• In particular, for c = – 1 , if a  b then – a  – b .

EXAMPLE

1 < 2 so 2 < 22 and –2 > – 22 .

In fact 22  2.82 and –22  –2.82.

3° Division
1
To divide by a non zero real number c is to multiply by  .
c
a b
• For c > 0, if a  b then    .
c c
a b
• For c < 0, if a  b then    .
c c
EXAMPLES

3  0.66 and 3  1.66 .

2 5 2 5
1. Since 2 < 5 and 3 > 0 then  < 
3 3

 
2 5 2 5
2. Since 2 < 5 and – 3 < 0 , then  >    0.66 and   – 1.66 .
–3 –3 –3 –3

4° Square and square root

a and b are two positive real numbers such that a  b.
We know that a2 − b2 = (a − b) (a + b). Since a + b is positive then a2 − b2 has the same sign as a − b.
Since a  b then a − b  0 so a2 − b2  0, therefore a2  b2 .

If 0 < a  b then a2  b2

48
 EXAMPLE

Since 0 < 2 < 3 , then 2 < 9 .

Remarks

• If a  b < 0 then – a  – b > 0.

From the preceding, (– a)2  (– b)2, therefore a2  b2.

If a  b < 0 then a2  b2

EXAMPLE

Since – 3 < – 2 < 0 , then 9 > 2 .

• If 0 < a  b then a and b are arranged in the same order as their squares a and b.

If 0 < a  b then a  b

EXAMPLE

Since 0 < 2 < 4 , then 2 < 4

=2.

Remark

If a2  b2 , then a  b if 0 < a  b or a  b if a  b < 0 .

5° Reciprocal
1
a and b are two strictly positive real numbers so ab > 0 and  > 0.
ab
1 1 1 1
If also a  b then a .   b .  , therefore    .
ab ab b a
1 1
If 0 < a  b then   
a b

Remarks
1 1 1 1
• If a  b < 0, then − a  − b > 0 and    therefore    .
–a –b a b
1 1
If a  b < 0 then   
a b

1 1 1 1
• If a < 0 < b then  < 0 and  > 0 so  <  .
a b a b
1 1
If a < 0 < b then  < 
a b

49
 EXAMPLES
1 1
1. Since 2 < 3 , then  >  .
2 3
1 1
2. Since –3 < –2 , then –  > –  .
3 2
1 1
3. Since –5 < 3 , then –  <  .
5 3

Remark
1 1
If a and b are the same sign and    , then a  b .
a b

B Comparison of two reals a and b

To compare two real numbers , is to determine which of the two is the smallest real or if they are equal .

Comparison technique
1° A negative real is smaller than a positive real .
2° Study the sign of their difference .
• If a – b > 0 , then a > b .
• If a – b < 0 , then a < b .
• If a – b = 0 , then a = b .

EXAMPLES
a a+5
Compare  and  with b > 0 .
b b+5
a a + 5 5 (a – b)
–=.
b b + 5 b (b + 5)

Since b > 0 , then b (b + 5) > 0 .

a a+5
• If a > b , then a – b > 0 and  >  .
b b+5
a a+5
• If a < b , then a – b < 0 and  <  .
b b+5
a a+5
• If a = b , then a – b = 0 and  =  .
b b+5

50
3° If at least one of the two reals has a radical , then we compare their squares .

EXAMPLES

1. Let’s compare 35 and 52 .

2 2
35 = 45 and 52 = 50 .
Since 45 < 50 , then 35 < 52 since the two reals are positive .

2. Let’s compare – 27 and – 35 .

2 2
– 27 = 28 and – 35 = 45 .
Since 28 < 45 , then – 27 > – 35 since the two reals are negative .

4° In some cases , it may be useful to combine more than one technique .

EXAMPLE

Let’s compare a = 5

+2
5 and b = 3–2
5 .
a2 = 5 + 25 and b2 = 3 – 25

a2 – b2 = 2 + 45 > 0 , then a2 > b2 and a > b since a and b are positive .

5° Comparing a positive number with its square, its square root and its
reciprocal
a) First case : a > 1
1 1
• a > 1 gives 1 >  by dividing with the positive number a , therefore  < a .
a a
• a > 1 gives a2 > a by multiplying with the positive number a .

• Since a2 > a then a2 > a , so a >a .

• a > 1 gives a > 1 = 1 .

By grouping all these results, we can write :

1
If a > 1 then  < 1 < a < a < a2
a

51
b) Second case : 0 < a < 1
By following the same procedure as in the 1st case, we can write :

1
If 0 < a < 1 then a2 < a < a < 1 < 
a

EXAMPLES

1
• Since 3 > 1 then  < 1 < 3 < 3 < 9.
3
1 1 1 1
• Since  < 1 then  <  <  < 1 < 2 .
2 4 2 2

C Framing

1 DEFINITION

Framing a real number x is to find two numbers a and b such that a  x  b or a < x < b or a  x < b or
a<xb.
The positive number (b – a) is the amplitude of this framing.
In some cases the framing allows to give a precise value of x. The obtained value is more precise when a and b
are nearer to each other.
a+b b–a
The center of the framing is c =  and its radius is r =  .
2 2

EXAMPLES

1. 3.14  π  3.15 : [3.14 ; 3.15] is a framing of π of amplitude 3.15 – 3.14 = 0.01 or 10−2, of center c =
3.14 + 3.15 3.15 – 3.14
 = 3.145 and of radius r = = 0.005.
2 2

2. 1.414  2  1.415 : [1.414 ; 1.415] is a framing of 2 of amplitude 1.415 – 1.414 = 0.001 or 10−3, of center
1.414 + 1.415
c =  = 1.4145
2
1.415 – 1.414
and of radius r =  = 0.0005 .
2

52
 2 FRAMING AND OPERATIONS

Given the following framings of two numbers x and y :

a  x  b and c  y  d.
1° The framing of the sum x + y is obtained by adding the members of the two inequalities :
a + c  x +y  b +d.

If a  x  b and c  y  d then a + c  x +y  b + d

EXAMPLE

If 17.3  x  17.4 and 21.9  y  22 , then 39.2  x + y  39.4 .

2° The framing of the difference x – y is the framing of the sum x + (–y) after framing (–y) since
x – y = x + (–y) .

If a  x  b and c  y  d ,
then – d  –y  – c and a – d  x – y  b – c

EXAMPLE

If 17.3  x  17.4 and 21.9  y  22 , then –22  –y  –21.9 and

– 4.7  x–y  – 4.5 .

3° The framing of the product xy is obtained by multiplying the members of the two inequalities
on condition that all the terms are positive.

a , b , c , d , x and y are positive .

If a  x  b and c  y  d , then ac  xy  bd

EXAMPLES

1. If 17.3  x  17.4 and 21.9  y  22 then 378.87  xy  382.8.

2. If –17.4  x  –17.3 and –22  y  –21.9 then
17.3  –x  17.4 and 21.9  –y  22 so 378.87  (–x) (–y)  382.8
so 378.87  xy  382.8.
3. If – 4  x  – 2 and 1  y  3 then
2  – x  4 and 1  y  3 then 2  – xy  12 and – 12  xy  – 2.

53
 x
4° When all the numbers are strictly positive, the framing of the quotient  is the framing of the
y
1 1 x 1
product x .  after framing  since  = x .  .
y y y y

a , b , c , d , x and y are strictly positive .

1 1 1 a x b
If a  x  b and c  y  d then      and     
d y c d y c

EXAMPLES

1 1 1
1. If 17.3  x  17.4 and 21.9  y  22 then 
22 y 21.9
17.3 x 17.4 x
and      , so 0.78    0.79.
22 y 21.9 y

2. If – 4  x  –2 and 1  y  3 ,
1 1 2 x x 2
2  –x  4 and     1 then   –   4 and – 4    –  .
3 y 3 y y 3

D Approximation

1 DEFINITION

Let x be a real number. We say that a is an a approximation of x to the nearest r (r > 0), or to
the precision r , if x ∈ [a−
−r ; a +r] or ⏐x−
− a⏐
⏐  r. r is also said to be the uncertainty of
approximation.

This definition can also be translated by : a – r  x  a + r .

The smaller r is, the better the approximation. r is given in general values in the form of n.10−p
where n and p are positive.

The committed error by taking a as an approached value of x is |x – a|| .

54
EXAMPLES

• The number π , used frequently, has n unlimited decimal writing :

π = 3.14159265...
By taking π = 3.141 , we can write, for example :
3.140  π  3.142 ,
then π = 3.141 is an approximation of π to the nearest 10 −3 since
3.142 – 3.140
r =  = 10−3 .
2
2
• 0.66 is a decimal approximation of  to the nearest 10−2 . In fact,
3

 
2 2 1 1 1
 – 0.66 =  – 0.66 =  and  <  = 10–2 .
3 3 150 150 100

Remarks

• If [a,b] is a framing of a real x (a  x  b), then the center

a+b b–a
c =  is an approximation of x to the nearest r =  .
2 2

x – 2  2
a+b b–a
We can write :

Any other value between a and b can be considered as an approximation of the real x.
• When in exercises an approximation is asked without precising the amplitude, it means that the
smallest possible value should be given .

Application
The measures are in cm .
ABC is a right triangle at A such that 2.6  AB  2.7 and 4.1  AC  4.2 . Find a framing
for the hypotenuse then an approximation mentionning the precision.

Since ABC is right at A , then the pythagorean theorem can be applied:

BC2 = AB2 + AC2 .
Since 2.6  AB  2.7 and 4.1  AC  4.2 , then
6.76  AB2  7.29 and 16.81  AC2  17.64 .

55
 Adding side by side gives 23.57  AB2 + AC2  24.93
or 23.57  BC2  24.93 , so 23,57  BC  24,9
3 ,
therefore 4.85  BC  4.99 .
4.99 + 4.85
An approximation of the hypotenuse is BC =  = 4.92 with a precision to the nearest
2
4.99 – 4.85
r =  = 7 × 10–2 .
2

2 APPROXIMATION BY DEFAULT OR BY EXCESS

We saw that a is an approximation of x to the nearest r if x ∈ [a − r ; a + r].

1° If x ∈ [a; a + r] then a is an approximation of x to the nearest r by default.
x
a a+r
2 2
For example, 0.66 is an approximation of  to the nearest 10−2 by default since 0.66  
3 3
 0.67 = 0.66 + 0.01.

2° If x ∈ [a – r ; a] then a is an approximation of x to the nearest r by excess.

x
a−r a
For example 1.415 is an approximation of 2 to the nearest 10−3 by excess
since 1.414 = 1.415 − 0.001  2  1.415.

3 TRUNCATING AND ROUNDING

A calculator of 10 digits gives for 5

2.236067977.
 to the 10−2 .
If we take two digits after the decimal point then then 2.23 is the truncating of 5
It’s an approximation by default of 5
 to the nearest 10−2.
If we take for 5 the value 2.24, we say that 2.24 is the rounding of 5 to the 10−2 . It’s an
approximation by excess of 5 to the nearest 10−2 .

56
In general :
• the truncating of a number x at 10−n is obtained by removing the digits after the nth place in the
decimal part.
• the rounding of a number x at 10−n is obtained by removing the digits after the nth place after
rounding the last needed digit.

4 PRECISION OF A CALCULATION USING THE CALCULATOR

A calculator does not express, in general, the exact result of a calculation.

It truncates or rounds this result by giving an approximation by default or by excess.
These are two examples illustrating this fact.

EXAMPLE 1
A calculator gives 3 = 1.732050808 and
(1.732050808)2 = 3.000000001.
The result is an approximation of 3 by excess.

EXAMPLE 2
2
A calculator gives  = 0.666666666 and
3
0.666666666 × 3 = 1.999999998.
2
The result is an approximation of  by default .
3

A little bit of history !

Srinivasa Ramanujan
(1887-1919)

born in a poor family in the South of India, and was

not able to achieve a higher education. He worked alone, isolated from
the math world. The English mathematician G. Hardy discovered him.
Fantastic, without example... he died at the age of 32, leaving behind him
several results and formulas... not yet fully exploited.
Thanks to Ramanujan’s, several millions of decimal parts of  can be determined !

57
 ORDER ON  - FRAMING AND PPROXIMATION

Exercises and problems

1 1
Test your knowledge 5 Given a <  a +b and b <  b + a.
3 3
4
Show that a + b <  (a + b) and deduce the sign
1 Given a = 21
– 5 and
8 3
of a + b.
b = 21
+ 5 .
8
Let x = a + b and y = b − a.
6 a and b being two strictly positive
1° Calculate x2 and y2 .
a+b
2° Simplify x and y. numbers, compare  and ab .
2

2 Compare the following numbers without

7 Deduce from each inequality a framing
using the calculator :
for x .
1° 65 and 83
1° |x – 3|  1 2° |x + 1.8| < 10–3
2° 11
– 7 and 7 – 2
4
 
1 1
3°  – x  4° |x|  3 5° |x| < 10–3 .
2 3
3° 2 + 5 and 9
+ 5
4

4° 5 – 3 and 8

– 15
2 8 1 1 1
x is an integer such that      .
6 x+1 4
2
5° 2 – 1 and 2 – 1 Calculate the possible values of x .

6°  – 2 and 
–
2
9 If 1 < x < 3 and 0 < y < 5 , is it true that :
7°  – 2 and ( – 2)2
1° x +y < 8 5° x2 > 9
1 1
8°  and  . 2° y − 2 < 3
1 1
6°  > 
3 – 3 3 – 4 x 3
1 1
3 Show that : 3° x −y > 3 7°  < 
y 5
1° if x < 2 , then x + 5 < 7
1 4° xy < 20 8° y2 < 25 ?
2° if 2 – 3x < 1 , then x > 
3
3° if 2  r , then r2 – 2  2 10 In each of the following cases , give a
4° if t > 5 , then t2 – 25 > –1 . x
framing of : x + y ; x −y ; xy ;  and x2 .
y
4 a and b being two non zero numbers, 1° 2  x  5 and 4  y  8
compare : 1 1
3 5 a a+b 2° 1.2  x  1.3 and   y  
1°  and  3°  and  4 2
a 2a b b
3° −5  x  −2 and 4  y  8
b b a a+4
2°  and  4°  and  (with a < b). 4° –3 < x < –1 and –5 < y < –2 .
7a 8a b b+4

58
 ORDER ON  - FRAMING AND PPROXIMATION

11 If 1  x  5 and – 9  a  –7 , frame : 17 Complete the following tables :

1°
1° a2 3° x 5° x2 + a2 .
Number nearest Truncating Arrounding
2° 2 – a2 4° x – a

2.375 10−1
5
12 Given  < x < 3 .
2
1° Frame 2x – 5 . 0.0072 10−3
1
2° Arrange in an increasing order 2x–5;  ;
2x –5
(2x – 5)2 and 2x–
5. 10−2 2.46 2.47

13 Complete : |x – ......|  ...... , to state that 10−1 12.7 12.8

2.15 is an approximation of x to the nearest
10–2 .
10−2 7.51 7.51

14 With the help of the calculator, find

17 as : 2° Rounding
Approximation Approximation
to 2
of x to the of x to the
1° an approximation to the nearest 10–3 by default, x
nearest 10 –2 nearest 10 –2 decimal
places of
by default by excess
2° an approximation to the nearest 10–6 by excess, x

3° truncated value to the nearest 10–4 ,

13.426
4° rounded value to the nearest 10–5 ,
5° rounded value to the nearest 10–3 .
5.023

15 A disc has a radius r such that

2.1  r  2.2. 3.225

Give a framing of the area of this disc if

3.1415  π  3.1416. –1.225

16 Knowing that 3.14  π  3.15 frame π

the perimeter of the 6
following figure. (the
unit is the cm). 4 7

59
 ORDER ON  - FRAMING AND PPROXIMATION

18 Answer by True or False, where x and y are two real numbers .

1° x < y gives x + 5 < y + 5

2° x  3 gives x +2  3

1
3° If 0 < x < 2 then  > 2
x

4° x > 5 gives x2 < 5

5° x > –2 gives x2 > 4

6° If 4 < x < 25 then 2 < x < 5

7° [1.3 ; 2.5] is a framing of 1.15

8° If x ∈ [1.5 ; 1.6] then 1.55 is an approximation of x to the nearest 5 × 10–2

9° If x ∈ [12.4 ; 12.8] then 12.4 is an approximation of x to the nearest 4 × 10–1 by default

10° 2.4 is the truncating of 2.414 to one decimal

11° 7.46 is the rounding of 7.458 to two decimals

12° A truncating to n decimals is an approximation by excess to the nearest 10–n .

19 Given |x – 2.17|  0.01.

1° Interpret an approximation for x .

2° Frame x .

3° Approximate x by default .

20 We know that 0.47 is an approximation by excess of a real x to the nearest 5 × 10–3 .

1° Frame x .

2° Is 0.4666 an approximation of x by default ? Why ?

3° Is 0.471 an approximation of x by default ? Why ?

For seeking

21 Given X = 4
–7 – 4
+7 .

1° What is the sign of X ? 2° Calculate X . Deduce a simpler value of X .

60
 ORDER ON  - FRAMING AND PPROXIMATION

22 a and b are two real numbers such that 0 < a < b .

a–1 b–1
1° Compare  and  .
a b
987 654 322 987 654 321
2° Deduce a comparison of :  and  .
987 654 323 9 876 454 322

23 Given – 3  x  – 1 and 2  y  4 .

x  .
y
Frame |x| + |y| ; |xy| and

24 Show that if |x – 4|  0.1 and |y – 3|  0.3 , then 0.6  |x – y|  1.4 .

25 x and y are two real numbers such that 2 < x < y .

1° Write |x – y| and |x + y – 4| with the absolute value symbol .
2° Compare |x – y| and |x + y – 4| .

3 2 5
26 Given      .
4 a+1 3
1° Frame a .
a2 + 1 2(a2 – 1)
2° Deduce a framing of : A =  and B =  then compare A and B .
a2 a2

27 a and b being two strictly positive numbers, show that :

a b 1 1 1
1° a2 + b2  2ab ; 2°  +   2 ; 3°  <  +  .
b a a+b a b

28 Compare the numbers : a = x2

+1 and b = x .

x2 + 5
29 Show that for any x,  >2.
x2+4

30 a and b being two real numbers such that a = 1 – b.

1 1
1° Show that ab   . 2° Deduce that a2 + b2   .
4 2

61
 ORDER ON  - FRAMING AND PPROXIMATION

31 1° Knowing that 7  x2  8 and 3  y  6 , frame x − y if x > 0 .

2° Knowing that − 4  x  2, frame E = 3x −2x2 and ⏐E⏐.
3° If − 3  x  – 1 , frame A = 2x − 5 and B = ⏐2x – 5⏐.
x
4° If 2  x  4 , frame A =  .
x+3
2x + 1
5° If − 2  x  – 1 , frame C =  .
x2 + 2

32 A number x has an approximation of 1.74 to the nearest 0.01 .

A number y has an approximation of 1.48 to the nearest 0.02 .

1° Give a framing of each of the numbers x and y.

2° Give an approximation and the corresponding precision of :

a) x + 2 ; b) 2x ; c) x + y ; d) xy .

To go further

I x and y are two strictly positive real numbers .

 
2xy x+y 1 1 1
1° Show that 0 <  <1. 2° Deduce that  < + .
x + y2
2 2
x +y2 2 x y

II Given |5 – x|  2 and d(y ; 2)  1 .

2x
1° Frame x , y , and x2 – y2 . 2° Show that |xy – 21|  19 .
y+1

III Given – 3 < a < – 1 and 1 < b < 4 .

1 – 2b
1° Frame  . 2° Calculate |a
+7 – 2| + |a
+7 – 3| .
a+4

IV Given 1  x2 – y2  9 and d(x ; 4)  3 such that x and y are two reals .

1° Frame x , x2 and y2 .

2° a) If y is a strictly positive real , then frame y .

b) If y is a strictly negative real , then frame y .

62
5
ADDITION OF VECTORS

A brief history
The notion of a VECTOR is probably issued from MECANICS by Galilée (1564 -
1642) one of the men who founded the modern mechanics or were previously with
the GREEKS .
The composition of forces and velocities by the rule of parallelograms seemed known
long ago. ROBERVAL (1602 - 1675) french mathematician and physician did the
introduction of this at the end of XVIIth century. The french mathematician BEZOUT
(1730 - 1783) gave a correct statement of this composition.
In mathematics, the notion of VECTOR, is relatively recent since it appeared at
XIXth century.
The addition of vectors was given by the German GAUSS (1777 - 1855) .
The theory of «EQUIPOLLENCES» was developped by the Italian BELLAVISTIS
(1803 - 1880).
In 1832, the German HERMANN GRASSMANN (1809-1877) verified, the
distances AB and BA are opposites and reached the notion of «geometric sum»
which permits spreading the formula AB+ BC =AC to any three points, relation
known in the name of CHASLES relation (1793-1880).
Issued by GRASSMANN, HAMILTON (1805-1865) and MOBIUS (1790 - 1868),
the operations and the rules of vector calculation were precised by the English
WILLIAM CLIFFORD (1845-1879).
→ appeared.
At 1920, the notation AB

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

A The vectors of the plane B Addition of vectors

1. Definition 1. Definition
2. Zero vector 2. Decomposition of a vector
3. Unit vector 3. Properties
4. Equal vector
C Subtraction of two
5. Opposite vectors vectors

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Without technique, a gift is nothing».

Georges Brassens
63
 P RELIMINARY ACTIVITY
ADDITION OF VECTORS

ABCDEF is a regular hexagon .

A B

1° Complete.
→
• AB has the same direction and the same sense as ........ F C
→ →
• BC ......................................................... EF .
→ → E D
• AB and CD do not have the same .................... .
→ → → → →
• BC = ........ ; ........ = FA ; BA = ........ ; BC ........ EF .

→ →
2° Remember that the sum of the two vectors AB and BC is given by :
→ → →
AB + BC = AC .

Complete.
→ → → →
AC + CE = ........ ; AD + DB = ........ ;
→ → → →
AF + ........ = AC ; ........ + BE = AE .

→ → →
3° Construct vector CL having the same direction as AB , having the opposite sense of AB , and
→
the same length of AB .

64
 A Vectors of the plane

1 DEFINITION

We suppose that we have chosen a unit of length in the plane. A and B are any two
→ →
points. A is the origin of vector AB , and B is its extremity . The line holding AB , or
→
B
any parallel to it is the direction of this vector. The sense of AB is from A to B. The
→ A
modulus or magnitude of AB is the distance between A and B in the chosen unit,
→ →
denoted by ||AB||; we therefore have : ||AB|| = d (A,B).

Every vector is characterized by its direction, its sense and its magnitude .

B B B B
A D A C A A
D C
C D C D

→ → → → → → → →
AB and CD have AB and CD have AB and CD have the AB and CD
the same direction, the same direction, same direction, same do not have
the same sense and opposite senses and sense and different the same
thesamemagnitude. the same magnitude. magnitudes. direction.

Remark
We cannot compare the senses of the vectors except if they have the same direction.

2 ZERO VECTOR

Any vector whose origin and extremity are confounded is called the zero vector (null vector),
→ → → → →
denoted by 0 : AA = BB = CC = 0 for example.
→
Its magnitude is zero ||0 || = 0 and its direction is not defined.

65
 3 UNIT VECTOR

Any vector whose magnitude is equal to the chosen unit is called unit vector.

4 EQUIPOLLENT OR EQUAL VECTORS

→ →
1° Two vectors AB and CD having the same direction, the same sense and
the same magnitude are said to be equal or equipollent. B
→ → A
We write : AB = CD .
D
A , B , C and D being four non collinear points,
C
→ →
AB = CD is equivalent to ABDC is a parallelogram.
→ → → →
2° We can have AB = CD with AB and CD on the same line. D
C
B
→ A
3° A vector can be represented with one letter, as u for example.
→
Being given a point A and a vector u , there is only one point B such that →
u
→ →
AB = u .
B
A

5 OPPOSITE VECTORS

→ →
Two vectors AB and CD having the same direction, same magnitude but opposite senses are
→ →
called opposite. We write : AB = – CD .
B
A C
D
C B
A
D

66
Remarks
→ →
• The two vectors AB and BA are opposite.
→ →
We write : AB = – BA .
→ →
• The opposite of vector u is – u .
→ →
• ||u || = ||– u || . B
I
→ → A
• If I is the midpoint of segment [AB], then IA = – IB .

B Addition of vectors

1 DEFINITION

→ → → →
Let u and v be any two vectors . From any point A of the plane, draw AB = u and
→ → → → →
BC = v . Vector AC , denoted by u + v is the sum of these two vectors.

→ → → → → →
u B
u + v = AB + BC = AC . → →
u v
→ → →
v
A
→ → C
u + v is independent from the choice of point A. u + v
→ → →
The relation AB + BC = AC is known as Chasles’ Relation.

→ →
If u and v have the same direction and the same sense , A, B and C are collinear and AB + BC = AC
→ → → →
That is || u + v || = || u || + || v || . Otherwise, triangle ABC gives :

→ → → → → →
AC < AB + BC, that is : || u + v || < || u || + || v || . u v
→ →
AB BC
A B C

67
 Parallelogram Rule
→ → → →
Let AB = u , AD = v and C is the 4th vertex of the parallelogram BADC.
→ → → → → → →
We have : AB + AD = AB + BC = AC = u + v .
B
→
u →
u
A C
→
v u +→
→ v
→
v
D

2 DECOMPOSITION OF A VECTOR

Any vector can be decomposed as the sum of two consecutive vectors or two vectors having the same origin.

EXAMPLES
→
1. Let AC be any vector. B
→
This vector can be decomposed in two consecutive vectors AB and
→
BC where B is any point of the plane.
→ → →
We write : AC = AB + BC .
A C

→
2. To decompose vector AC in a sum of two vectors belonging to (D′)
(D) and (D′) which meet at A , construct from C the parallel to (D′)
that cuts (D) at I , and the parallel to (D) that cuts (D′) at J .

AICJ is a parallelogram,
→ → → J C
so AC = AI + AJ .

A I (D)

68
 3 PROPERTIES

• The parallelogram ABCD gives :

→ B →
u → →v
→ → → → → A u+ v
AC = AB + BC = AD + DC , therefore : →
v +→
u →
C
→
v u
→ → → → D
u + v = v + u ( commutativity).

• From Chasles’ relation :

→ → → → → → B →
v C
AD = AC + CD = ( AB + BC ) + CD
→
=( u+ v)+ w
→ →
→v) (v→+ → →
→
u → w) w
→ → → → → → (u +
→→
AD = AB + BD = AB + ( BC + CD ) (u + v) +→
w
→ → → A
= u + ( v + w ). →→ → D
u+(v+ w)
Hence :
→ → → → → →
( u + v ) + w = u + ( v + w ) ( associativity).
→ → → → → → → →
• If AB = u , then AB + BB = AB , therefore: u + 0 = u .
→ → → → → → → →
• If AB = u , then BA = – u and AB + BA = AA = 0 , therefore :
→ → →
u+(– u)= 0.

C Subtraction of vectors

→ → → → → → → → → →
Given the vectors u and v . To subtract v from u is to add – v to u : u – v = u + (– v ).

→ →
Construction of u – v
→ → → → → → → → → → → →
1° If AB = u and CD = v , then u – v =AB – CD = AB + (– CD ) = AB + DC .

→ → → →
From B draw BM = – CD = DC = – v .

69
 → → → → → →
Chasles’ Relation gives : AB + BM = AM , therefore : u – v = AM .

M
→_→v -→
v
C
u
B →
A → v
u D

B
→ →
→ u –v
u

A → C
v

→ → → →
2° If AB = u and AC = v ,
→ → → → → → → → →
u – v = AB – AC = AB + (– AC) = CA + AB = CB .

Remarks
→ → → → → →
• AB + BM = AM is also written as : BM = AM – AB .
This relation allows us to write a vector as a difference of two others.

• In the preceding triangle ABC , we have :

→ → → →
CB < AB + AC , so || u – v || < || u || + || v || .

70
 ADDITION OF VECTORS

Exercises and problems

2 A
Test your knowledge ABCD is a rhombus
of center O , having a side
of 4cm and such that I J
1 Using the figure below, A^ = 60˚.
I , J , K and L are the D O B
1° Name the vectors that are : midpoints of [AD] , [AB] ,
→ [BC] and [CD] respectively.
a) equal to u . L K
→ 1° Replace the symbol * by
b) have the opposite sense of v .
→ a point from the figure :
c) same mangitude as w . → → → → C
→ a) AI = K* b) C* = KO
d) same direction as v . → → → →
c) *D = JO d) OL = J*
→ → → →
2° Construct the vector : e) KB = *I f) OD = B*
→ → → →
a) IL opposite to w . 2° Name the vectors equal to IJ and equal to AI .
→ → → →
b) JP equal to EF . 3° Construct vector AR = DB and vector
→ →
→ → BP = DA . What do you notice ?
c) KO having the same magnitude as v , the same
→ → 4° Answer by True or False.
direction as AB and opposite sense of u . → → → →
a) AI = AJ b) DL = BK
→ → → →
c) IJ = LK d) AR = CD
→ → → →
→ e) AB = – CB f) AD = – CB
v I → →
g) BI = KD .
→u

5° Complete by = or ≠
K → → → →
a) || AD|| ... || CD|| b) BC ... AD
→ → → →
c) IJ ... KL d) BJ ... LD
→ → → →
e) || IK|| ... || JL|| f) OI ... OK
→ → → →
g) LO ... OJ h) CK ... IA .
w→

6° Complete by the convenient vector :

→
a) The opposite of BC is ...........
→
b) Vectors AJ and ........... are equal.
→
D C c) Vectors LD and ........ are opposite.
→ →
A J d) The opposite of vector AB + CD is .......
→
7° Write AB as a sum of three vectors, then of
four vectors.
E F
8° Calculate :
B → → → →
a) || AI + IB|| b) || AD + OJ||
→ → → →
c) || AO + BJ|| d) || AD + CB|| .

71
 ADDITION OF VECTORS

3 Write each of the following as one vector :

→ → → → → → → → → →
1° BC – BA + BD – BC . 3° FA + BE + DF + CD + AB + EC .
→ → → → → → → → → → →
2° AE + EC + BD + DA + AB . 4° AB – DB – EB + DA + EF – AF .

→ →
4 What can be said about vectors u and v if :
→ → → →
1° || u || = 3 , || v || = 6 and || u + v || = 9 ?
→ →
2° || u + v || = 0 ?
→ → → →
3° || u || = 4 , || v || = 3 and || u + v || = 5 ?

5 SEA is a right triangle at E having SE = 4 cm and EA = 3 cm.

→ → →
1º Construct point T such that ET = EA + ES .
→
2º Calculate ||ET || .

6 ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 6 cm.

→ → → → →
1º Determine vector AD such that AD = AB + AC . 2º Calculate ||AD|| .

7 Let ABC be any triangle.

→ → → →
1° Place the point M such that CM = AB and the point N such that CN = BA .
What does point C represent ?
→ → →
2° Place the point P such that AP = AB – AC. What is the nature of quadrilateral BCAP ?
→ → → →
3° Construct vector ME such that ME = CA + CB.

→ → →
8 1° Place the point I such that : EG = EF + EI . G
→ → →
2° Place the point J such that : AC = AJ – AB .
C
E
3° Complete by < , > or =
→ → → F
a) || EG|| ... || EF|| + || FG||
→ → → A B
b) || AC|| ... || AJ|| – || AB||
→ → → →
c) || BA + AB′ || ... || BA|| + || AB′|| where B′ is the symmetric of B with respect to A.

72
 ADDITION OF VECTORS

9 Answer by True or False and justify your

For seeking
answer.
10 In each case, place a point A on (D) and a
1° ABCD is a parallelogram.
point B on (D′) such that
→ → → → →
a) AB and AD have the same direction. OC = OA + OB .
→ → → →
b) AD + AB = AB + BC .
→ → →
c) BC + DC = CA .
(D′)
→ → → →
d) AD + CB = AB + CD .
C
O
(D)
2° ABC is an equilateral triangle and I is the
(D′)
C
midpoint of [BC].
→ → → O
a) AC + CA = 0 .
(D)
→ →
b) AB = AC .
→ → (D′)
c) || AB|| = || BC|| .
→ → → O
d) IB + IC = BC .
C (D)
→ →
e) IB = IC .

(D′)

3° A, B and C are any three points.

O
→ → (D)
a) If AB = CB then A and C are confounded.
→ → C
b) If AB = BA then A and B are confounded.
→ → → C
c) – CB + AB = CA .
(D′)
→ → O
d) If D is the point such that AB and DC
(D)
have the same direction , then ABCD is a

parallelogram.
→ → → →
e) AB + ( CA + AC ) = AB .

73
 ADDITION OF VECTORS

11 A, B, C and D are any four points of a plane. I and J are the points such that :
→ → → → → → → →
AI = AC + AB – AD and AJ = AB – AC + AD .
→ →
Calculate BI + BJ. What can you deduce ?

→ → → → 
12 OA and OB are two vectors such that ||OA|| = ||OB|| = 4 and AOB = 120° .
→ → → →
1º Construct point C such that OA + OB + OC = 0 .
→
2º Calculate ||OC|| .

→ →
13 Decompose a given vector AB such that || AB|| = 6 in two vectors →v 1 and →v 2 in each of the
following cases :

1° ||→
v 1|| = 3 and ||→v 2|| = 4.
2° ||→
v 1|| = 5 and knowing the direction (Δ) of →
v2 .

3° knowing the directions (Δ1) and (Δ2) of →

v 1 and →
v2 .

4° ||→
v 1|| = 4 and the angle between the two vectors →
v 1 and →
v 2 is right .

To go further

I Given the fixed points A , B , C , D and E . M and N are two points defined by :
→ → → → → → → → → →
AM = AC – AB – AD + AE and AN = AB + AD + AC – AE .
→ →
1° Determine the vector CM + CN . Conclude .
→ → →
2° Determine the vector AM + AN – AC . Conclude .


II ABCD is a rhombus with side AB = 6 cm and ABC = 120° .
→ → → →
Calculate ||AB – AD || and ||AB + AD || .

III ABCD is a rectangle with side BC = 2 cm and AC = 4 cm .

→ → →
1° Plot the point E such that BE + BC = AC .
2° Determine the nature of triangle ACE and calculate the area of this triangle .
3° Determine the nature of quadrilateral BECD .

74
6
MULTIPLICATION OF A
VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER
A brief history

THE IDEA of doing the product of two vectors is given by the

work of Bellavistis (1803-1880) professor at the University of
Pudova in Italy.

In 1839, the German Hermann Grassmann (1809-1877) one of

the men who found multilinear algebra and geometry with many
dimensions, threw, in his theory on “the floods and the tides”,
the bases of the vector analysis and introduced the linear
product of two vectors which defined as :

“The algebraic product of a vector multiplied by the projection

of a second vector over the first”.

This linear product is actually our scalar product.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

1. Multiplication of a vector 2. Solved exercises

by a real 3. Using vectors to write the
a) Definition theorem of Thales and its
b) Properties converse.
c) Collinear vectors
d) Particular points
Michel Chasles EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS
(1793 - 1880)

«I love the force and from this force, an ant can become as powerful as
an elephant.»

Stendhal
75
 P RELIMINARY ACTIVITy
MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

Let ABC be any triangle ; I , J and K are the midpoints of [AB] ,

[AC] and [BC].
A
1° Compare the directions, the senses and the magnitudes of the
→ → L T
two vectors IJ and BC .
I J
→ → →
2° a) Show that vectors IJ , BK and KC are equal.
→ → → B C
b) Deduce that vector BC = IJ + IJ . K
→ → → 1→
It is convenient to write BC = 2IJ ou IJ =  BC .
2
→ →
c) Complete with a real number : BC = .......... BK .

3° Let L and T be the midpoints of [AI] and [AJ] .

→ →
Complete with a real number : a) LT = .......... IJ .
→ →
b) BC = .......... LT .

76
 1 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

1° Definition
→ →
u B
Let u be a non zero vector and k a non zero real number. A
→ → →
The product of u by k is the vector w denoted by k u such that :
D
→ → C
k→
• u and k u have the same direction ,
u avec k>0
→ →
• if k > 0, u and k u have the same sense ,
E
→ →
F k→
u avec k<0
• if k < 0, u and k u have opposite senses .
→ → → →
• The magnitude of k u is the product of the magnitude of u by the absolute value of k : ||k u|| = |k| || u|| .

Particular cases :
→ →
• 0u = 0 .
→ →
• k0 = 0 .
→ → → →
• If k u = 0 then k = 0 or u = 0 .

EXAMPLES
→ → 2 →
Let AB be a vector and C a point outside (AB). To construct the point D verifying CD =  AB ,
3 B
construct from C the parallel to (AB)
A D
on which point D is placed such that → 2 →
C CD = ..... AB
→ → 2 2 3
CD has the same sense as AB (since  > 0) and CD =  AB .
3 3
(We divide [AB] into three equal parts and CD will be equal to two of these three parts).

2° Properties
→ →
For any non zero real numbers α and β and any non zero vectors u and v :
→ → → →
α (u + v ) = αu + αv .
→ → →
α + β) u = α u + β u .
(α
→ →
α (β
β u) = (α
α β )u .

77
 EXAMPLES
→ → → → →
1. 2 AB + 2 BC = 2 (AB + BC) = 2 AC .
→ → → →
2. 2 AB + 3 AB = (2 + 3) AB = 5 AB .


2 →
 =  3 × 32  AB = 2 AB .
→ →
3. 3 ×  AB
3
→ → → → →
4. 4 AB – 4 AC = 4 (AB – AC) = 4 CB .

3° Collinear vectors
Two vectors having the same direction are called collinear.
→ → → → → →
If two vectors u and v are such that u = k v with k non zero, then u and v are collinear.

Remarks
→
• We admit that the vector 0 is collinear with all vectors.
→ →
• If AB and CD are two collinear vectors, then the lines (AB) and (CD) are either parallel or
confounded.
→ →
• If AB and AC are two collinear vectors, then the straight lines (AB) and (AC), being parallel and
having a common point A , are confounded, and the points A, B and C are collinear.
→ →
If AC = k AB , then A, B and C are collinear.

EXAMPLES

ABCD is a parallelogram such that AB = 4cm. E

A B
• The point E , verifying the relation
→ 1 →
AE =  AB , is found on (AB) with
4
D C

 
→ → 1 1
AE and AB having the same sense  > 0 and AE =  AB = 1cm.
4 4
→ →
• The quadrilateral AECD is a trapezoid. Since the vectors AE and CD are collinear (having the
→ 1 → → →
same direction) , then we can write AE = –  CD, because AE and CD have opposite senses.
4

78
4° Particular points B
Midpoint of a segment I

If I is the midpoint of segment [AB] then : A

→ → 1 →
• AI = IB =  AB ,
2
→ → → → →
IA = – IB or IA + IB = 0 .

• For any point M of the plane,

M
we have :
→ → → → → →
MA + MB = MI + IA + MI + IB
→ → → → → → → →
MA + MB = 2 MI + (IA + IB ) = 2 MI + 0 = 2 MI
→ → → → 1 → →
MA + MB = 2MI or MI =  ( MA + MB ) .
2

Center of gravity of a triangle

The center of gravity G of a triangle ABC, the meeting point of its medians,
→ 2 → → 2 → → →
verifies : AG =  AM or GA = –  AM and AG = 2 GM or
3 3
→ →
GA = –2 GM .
→ → → →
Since M is the midpoint of [BC], GB + GC = 2 GM = –GA ,
→ → → →
hence : GA + GB + GC = 0 .

P N

B M C

79
 Conversely,
→ → → →
The equality GA + GB + GC = 0 is equivalent to :
→ → → → → →
GA + GA + AB + GA + AC = 0
→ → → →
3 GA + AB + AC = 0
→ → →
3 AG = AB + AC
→ 1 → →
AG =  (AB + AC )
3
→ 1 → 2 →
AG =  (2 AM) =  AM , with M the midpoint of [BC].
3 3
→ → → → → →
There exists a unique point G verifying AG = 2 AM therefore verifying GA + GB + GC = 0 , situated on
3
the two thirds of the median [AM] starting from A. G is therefore the center of gravity of triangle ABC.

2 SOLVED EXERCISES

1° A and B are two distinct points. Place the point M such that
→ 5→
MA =  MB .
3
→ 5→ → →
To place the point M such that MA =  MB , we write this relation in the form of AM = α AB ,
3
α being a real number.
→ 5→ → 5 → →
The equality MA =  MB is written MA =  (MA + AB ) or
3 3
→ → →
3MA = 5MA + 5AB .
→ → → 5→
Therefore 2AM = 5AB and AM =  AB .
2
→ →
The vectors AM and AB are therefore collinear and have

 
5 A B M
the same sense since  > 0 . Hence point M is hence
2
located.

80
2° A , B and C are three non collinear points. D and E are defined by
→ → → → →
AD = AB + 2AC and AE = – AB .

a) Locate points D and E .

→ → → →
b) Express CD and CE in terms of AB and AC .
→ →
c) Compare CD and CE . What can be deduced for the points C , D and E ?

E A B

→ → → → → → → →
a) AD = AB + 2AC is written AD – AB = 2AC , hence BD = 2AC .
→ →
Since AE = – AB , E is then the symmetric of B with respect to A .

→ → →
b) From Chasles’ relation, CD = CA + AD .
→ → → → → → →
But AD = AB + 2AC , therefore CD = CA + AB + 2AC , hence ,
→ → →
CD = AB + AC .
→ → → → → →
Similarly CE = CA + AE , therefore CE = – AC – AB .

→ → → → → → →
c) We have CE = – AB – AC = – (AB + AC ) , therefore CE = – CD .
The points C , D and E are therefore collinear, and C is the midpoint of [ED] .

1 → →
3° Let ABC be any triangle , M and N are defined by AM =  AC
2
→ →
and AN = 2AB .

a) Locate M and N .

b) Show that (CN) and (BM) are parallel.

81
 → 1 →
a) Since AM =  AC , then C
2
M is the midpoint of [AC]. M
→ → N
AN = 2AB means that N is the symmetric of A with respect A B
to B.

b) Using Chasles’ relation :

→ → → → → → →
CN = CA + AN . But CA = 2MA and AN = 2AB , therefore
→ → → → → → →
CN = 2MA + 2AB = 2(MA + AB ) , therefore CN = 2MB .
→ →
The vectors CN and MB are collinear , so (CN) and (BM) are parallel .

3 WRITING THALES’ THEOREM AND ITS CONVERSE

USING VECTORS

1° Thales’ theorem (D) (D′)

Let (D) and (D′) be two intersecting straight lines at O . Let A be a
point on (D) and B a point on (D′) . O

If A′′ is the point such that B′ A′

→ →
OA′′ = kOA and B′′ is the point such that (A′′B′′) is parallel to
→ → → → B A
(AB) , then OB ′ = kOB and A′′B ′ = kAB .

EXAMPLE

Let ABC be any triangle. D is a point on [AB] such that DA = 2cm and DB = 3cm. The
parallel drawn from D to (BC) cuts (AC) at E .
→ →
Determine AC in terms of AE and deduce AC knowing that AE = 4cm.

82
 → 2→ A
Since AD = 2 and BD = 3 , then AB = 5 and AD =  AB .
5
2

Since (DE) is parallel to (BC) , then according to Thales’ D

4
theorem :
3
→ 2 → →
5 →
AE =  AC ou AC =  AE .
5 2
B E

It follows that
→ 5 →
||AC || =  ||AE || or
2
→ 5
||AC || =   4 , therefore
2

AC = 10cm.

2° Converse of Thales’ theorem

(D) and (D′) are two intersecting straight lines at O , A and A′ are two
B (D′)
points of (D) distinct from O , B and B′ are two points of (D′) distinct B′
from O . O
→ → → → → →
If OA ′ = kOA and OB ′ = kOB , then A′′B ′ = kAB .
A′
A (D)

EXAMPLE
→ 1→ → 1→
In the adjacent figure, OA ′ =  OA and OB ′ =  OB .
3 3
→ 1→
We can therefore write A′B ′ =  AB from the converse of Thales’ (D′)
3 B
, and deduce that (A′B′) is parallel to (AB) .
B′
(D)
O A′ A

83
 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

→ → → → → →
1 Given u = – i + 2 j and v = i – 2 j .
→ →
Find in terms of i and j the following vectors :
→ → → → → → → →
1° u + v 2° u – v 3° 2 u – v 4° 1 u – 1 v .
2 3

→ →
2 In each of the following figures, AB and CD are collinear. Place the missing elements .

1° 3°
C D
A B C D

B A

→ →
AB = ...... DC
→ →
AB = ...... CD

2° 4°
B
A
C

C D
D
A → 3→
→ →
AB = –  CD
2
CD = ...... BA

→ →
3 Let || u|| = 5 and || – 1 v || = 1 .
2 3
→ → →
Calculate : ||– 5 →u|| ; ||v || ; ||3v || ; ||4 →u|| ; ||– 3 v ||.
3 2

4 A and B are any two points of the plane.

→ → → →
1° Place on (AB), the points M and P such that : AM = 7 AB and AP = –5 AB .
→ → 3 3
2° Complete : MP = ... AB .

84
 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

5 In the adjacent figure, (FP) F P

is parallel to (MI),
A
AP = 1.5 cm , AM = 6 cm and

MI = 9 cm.

→ →
Express FP in terms of MI and
→
deduce ||FP || .

M I

6 Answer by True or False .

A , B , C and I are any points of the plane .
→ → → →
1° – 2AB and AB are collinear. 3° If AB = –3AC , then :
1 →
2°  AB is a unit vector. a) A , B and C are collinear.
AB
b) AB = –3AC .
→ → → → 3→
4° If 2IA + 3IB = 0 , then AI =  AB .
2

7 Locate point M verifying the relation, after finding the real number α such that :
→ →
AM = α AB .
→ → → → → → →
1° MA = 3 AB 3° BM = –1 AB 5° 4 MA + 6 MB = 0 .
3
→ → → 1 →
2° MB = 3 AB 4° MA = MB
2

8 A , B , C and D are points of the plane.

→ → → → 3→
1° Show that if 2DA + 3DB = 0 , then AD =  AB .
5
→ → → → → → →
2° Show that if DA + DB – DC = AC , then AD = AB – 2AC .

9 Let ABC be any triangle. Construct the points I and J such that :
→ → → → → →
AI = AB + AC and AJ = AB – AC . Deduce that B is the midpoint of [IJ].

10 Given three non collinear fixed points A, B and C.

→ → → →
1° Locate point M such that : MA + MB – MC = 0 .
→ → → → → →
2° Show that the vector V defined by : V = NA + NB – 2 NC is independent of N. Construct V .

85
 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

11 Let [AB] be a segment and C any point of

the plane.
For seeking
Where should the point P be placed so that :
→ → → 17 Let DIM be any triangle. A is the
CP = 2 CA – CB ? midpoint of [DM].
1° Construct the points T and H such that
→ → → →
12 Given a triangle ABC and I the midpoint DT = 4DI and IH = 3IM .
→ → → →
of [AB]. Locate point M such that 2° Express TH then IA in terms of ID and IM .
→ → → →
MA + 3 MB – 2 MC = 2 BI . What can you deduce ?

18 Let ABCD be a parallelogram.

13 Let ABCD be a parallelogram.
→ → 1° Construct the points E and F such that
1° Construct point I such that BI = 2 BD . → → → →
→ → → BE = 2AB and AF = 3AD .
2° Calculate DA + DC + DI . What does point
D represent for triangle ACI ? 2° Construct point G such that AEGF is a
parallelogram.

14 Let ABC be any triangle. Designate by A′, 3° Show that A , C and G are collinear.
B′ and C ′ the respective midpoints of [BC] ,
[CA] and [AB]. 19 Let ABC be any triangle.
→ → → →
1° Show that AA ′ + BB ′ + CC ′ = 0 . 1° Construct the points E , F and G such that :
→ 1→ → → → → →
2° Deduce that, if G is the centroid of triangle AE =  AB , AF = 2CF and 2GE + GC = 0 .
2
ABC , then G is also the centroid of triangle → →
2° Show that BF = 2EC .
A′B′C ′ .
3° The straight line (AG) cuts (BC) at K . What
does K represent for the segment [BC] ?
15 Let ABC be a triangle.
1° Construct the points D and E such that :
20 Let ABCD be a parallelogram, E is the
→ 1 → → → →
BD =  BC and AE = 2 AB + AC . symmetric of B with respect to C and F is
3
→ → → → 1 →
2° Express AD and AE in terms of AB and defined by DF =  DB .
→ 3
BC .
1° Show that A , F and E are collinear.
3° Deduce that the points A, D and E are
collinear. 2° The straight line (AF) cuts (DC) at J. Find the
→ →
real number k such that DJ = kDC .
16 ABCD is a parallelogram.
21 Let ABC be any triangle. I , J and K are
1° Construct points I and J such that :
the midpoints of [BC] , [AC] and [AB]
→ → →
1 → → 1 → respectively. L is the point such that KL = BJ .
AI = –  AD and IJ =  BA.
2 2 1° Show that J is the midpoint of [IL].
2° Show that A, C and J are collinear. 2° Show that (CL) is parallel to (AI).

86
 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

22 Let ABC be any triangle. 26 Let ABCD be any quadrilateral. G is the

centroid of triangle ABC.
1° Construct the points E and F such that :
→ 3 → → → 1 → → 1° Show that for any point M of the plane,
BE =  AC – AB and CF =  (AB + AC ) . → → → →
2 2 MA + MB + MC = 3 MG .
2° Show that A, C and E are collinear. 2° Construct point O defined by :
→ → → →
3° What can be said about (EF) and (AB) ? OD = OA + OB + OC .
3° a) Construct point E defined by :
→ → → → →
3 ED – 2 ( EA + EB + EC) = 0 .
23 Let ABCD be a rectangle of center O and b) Verify that E is the symmetric of D with
of sides AB = 8cm and BC = 3cm. M being any respect to G.
→ → → →
point, determine vector V = 3 CM + MB + 2 MO .
→ 27 Given a triangle ABC , and I is the
Calculate ||V || .
midpoint of [AB] .
→ →
1° a) Construct the point J such that AJ =–AC .
→ 1→ →
24 ABCD is a square of center O and side a. b) Deduce that IJ = –  AB – AC .
→ 2
M being any point, consider vector V defined → → →
by : 2° Consider the point K such that 2KB +KC =0 .
→ →
→ → → → → a) Express BK in terms of BC . Plot K .
V = 2 MA – 4 MC + MB + MD .
→ → 1→ 1→
1° Show that V is equal to a fixed vector to be b) Deduce that IK =  AB +  AC .
6 3
determined. → →
Find a relation between IJ and JK . Conclude .
→
2° Calculate || V || in terms of a.
3° Find point M such that :
28 Given a triangle ABC , I is the symmetric
→ → → → of A with respect to B , K is the point such that
MA + MB + MC = V . BK = CA and M is the intersection of (CK) and
(AB) .
1° Show that M is the midpoint of [AB] .
25 Let ABC be any triangle. → →
2° a) Express BI in terms of BM .
b) Show that B is the center of gravity of
1° Construct points D and E such that
→
triangle CKI .
1→ → 1→
CD =  AB and BE =  AC .
2 2
29 (AB) is a given line . The points M and N
2° Designate by I the midpoint of [BC] and by J → → →
are defined by : 3AM – 2BM = 0 and
→ → →
the midpoint of [ED]. 3BN – 2AN = 0 .
→ → → → →
Show that BE + CD = AI . 1° Express AM in terms of AB . Plot M .
→ →
→ → → 2° Express AN in terms of AB . Plot N .
3° a) Show that BE + CD = 2IJ .
3° I is the midpoint of [AB] .
b) Deduce that A , I and J are collinear and that → → →
a) Express IM and IN in terms of AB .
I is the center of gravity of triangle AED . b) Deduce that I is the midpoint of [MN] .

87
 MULTIPLICATION OF A VECTOR BY A REAL NUMBER

To go further

I Given a triangle ABC . M , I and J are the III Given a triangle ABC such that
respective midpoints of [BC] , [BM] and [AC] . AB = 12 cm , BC = 9 cm and AC = 15 cm .
→ 3→ 1° Construct the points P and N such that
D is the point defined by DA =  AB . → 7→ → 3→
2 AP =  AB and AN =  AC .
→ → → → 5 5
1° Express AI and DJ in terms of AB and AM . → →
2° M is a point on (BC) such that BM = xBC .
→ → →
2° Deduce that (DJ) and (AI) are parallel . a) Express PN in terms of AB et AC .
→ → →
→ → → → b) Express PM in terms of x , AB and AC .
3° Let V = PA – 2PB + PC where P is a
c) Determine x if the points P , M and N are
variable point in the plane of the triangle . collinear .
→
Show that V remains equal to a fixed vector to
IV ABCD is a rectangle with center O . I and
be determined . → 1→
J are the points such that AI =  AC and
4° Let G be the center of gravity of triangle 4
→ 3 →
AJ =  AC . M and N are the repective
ABC . 4
→ → → midpoints of [CD] and [BC] .
a) Express AG in terms of AB and AC .
1° Plot I and J .
b) Let L be any point in the plane of triangle → →
2° Express each of the vectors DI and JB in
→ → → → → →
ABC and U = LA + LB + LC . Show that terms of AD and AC .
→ →
U = 3LG . Deduce that DIBJ is a parallelogram .
→ → →
→ → 3° Show that : a) AC + BD = 2BC .
c) Deduce the locus of L when U and BC are → → →
b) AC + DB = 2AB .
collinear .
V Let ABC be a triangle .
1° Construct the points I , J , K and N such that :
II The adjacent → 1→ → → → → →
figure shows a AI =  AB , JA + JC = 0 . AC = CN and
3
semi-circle (O) , → → →
AK = 2AC – AB .
with center O → →
B D O E C 2° Show that AK = BN .
and radius 2 cm . → → →
D is the midpoint of [OB] and E is that of [OC] . Deduce that CB + CK = 0 .
→ → → →
[BC] is the diameter of (O) . The perpendicular 3° Express IK and IJ in terms of AB and AC .
to (BC) at E intersects (O) at A . 4° Show that the points I , J and K are collinear .
1° Draw the figure and determine the vector 5° M is the midpoint of [IB] . Show that (MC) is
→ → → → →
V = AB + AD + AE + AC , then calculate parallel to (IJ) .
→
||V || . 6° Let D be the symmetric of C with respect
to B . The lines (MC) and (AD) intersect at E .
2° Let S be any point in the plane of (O),
→ → → → → → →
determine the vector →
w = SO + SB – 2SA and Show that MA + MC + MD = 0 .
→
calculate ||w || . 7° Show that IJME is a parallelogram .

88
7
THE POLYNOMIALS

A brief history
The Babylonians associated the unknown to a length.
The greeks used the words “square”, “cube”, to designate x2,x3.
In 1591, Francois Viète, put the bases of literal calculation in his In Artem
Analytican Isagoge; he designated by letters not only the unknown but also the
coefficients (this last word is from him) and formed also the algebraic
expressions answering well precised rules; the symbolic notation of Viète we
improved by Descartes at 1637 to know their actual forms.
Bombelli, in 1572, denoted 1 for x,
2 for x2, 3 for x3 ,51 for 5x. The polynomial 5x2− 7x +2 is written then: 52.m.71.p.2
(m designates – and p +).
Simon Stevin, in 1585, denoted this polynomial by : 52 –71 +20
Francois Viète, in 1591, denoted this polynomial by : 5 in A quadratus − 7 in A +2,
it means 5 times A squared − 7 times A + 2
(A designates for him the variable x).
The symbols + and − were imagined by Johann Widmann in 1489, the symbol =
by Robert Recorde in 1557.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

A Generalities B Factorization and division by

1. Definition (x – a)
2. null polynomial 1. Root of a polynomial
3. Equal polynomials 2. Factorization of a polynomial by (x – a)
4. Numerical value of a where a is a real number
polynomial 3. Technique of factorization by (x – a)
5. Reduce and order a
polynomial C Factorization of a polynomial
by using its constant integer
term
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«This quick algebra that we call the spirit of the game.»

Sainte-Beuve

89
 P reliminary activity
THE POLYNOMIALS

1° Develop, reduce and order the following expression :

A(x) = (x – 1) (x2 – 2x – 3) .

2° Given the expression B(x) = (x + 1) (ax2 + bx + c) .

Calculate a, b and c so that A(x) and B(x) represent the same expression for any real number x.

3° Calculate A(1); A(–1) and A(3) and verify that

A(x) = (x – 1) (x + 1) (x – 3) .

90
 A Generalities

1 DEFINITION

We call polynomial P in the variable x, any expression defined for any real number x and that can
be written in the form of :

P (x) = axn +bxn–1 +cxn–2 +....... +r, with n a natural number and a ≠ 0 .

n is the degree of P.

The real constants a, b, c, ..., r are the coefficients of P .

EXAMPLES

8
1. Let P(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 + 3x –  .
5

8
P is a polynomial of degree 3 and of coefficients : 2; –5 ; 3 and –  .
5

2. Let Q(x) = 2x –3 + 3x3 + 7.

Q is not a polynomial since one of its exponents is not a natural number (exponent –3).

Particular cases

• A polynomial having one term is a monomial.

Example : A(x) = 3x2 .

• A polynomial having two terms is a binomial.

Example : B(x) = 3x4 – 5x .

• A polynomial having three terms is a trinomial.

8
Example : C(x) = 2x3 – 3x +  .
3

91
 2 NULL POLYNOMIAL

A polynomial in the variable x is null if and only if all its coefficients are zero. It is also called identically zero.

EXAMPLES

1. P(x) = ax2 + bx + c is null if a = b = c = 0 .

2. Q(x) = (a – 1) x3 + (2b – 3)x2 + (c + 1) x + d is null if

3
a = 1 ; b =  ; c = –1 and d = 0 .
2

3 EQUAL POLYNOMIALS

Two polynomials in the same variable x are equal or identical if and only if the coefficients of their similar
terms are respectively equal.

For example the two polynomials :

P(x) = 2x3 + x – 5 and Q(x) = (a – 1) x3 + (b + 2) x2 + cx + d – 4


a–1=2,a=3,
b + 2 = 0 , b = –2 ,
are equal if : .
c = 1,
d – 4 = –5 , d = –1

4 NUMERICAL VALUE OF A POLYNOMIAL

If the variable x is replaced by a particular value a, the real corresponding number P(a) is called the
numerical value of P for x = a.

For example : P(x) = 2x3 – x2 + 3x – 7 .

P(1) = 2 – 1 + 3 – 7 = –3 .
–3 is the numerical value of P for x = 1.

92
 5 REDUCE AND ORDER A POLYNOMIAL

1° Let P(x) = 3x3 – 2x2 + 5 – (x3 – 3x2 + 2x – 5) .

By removing the parentheses, we obtain :

P(x) = 3x3 – 2x2 + 5 – x3 + 3x2 – 2x + 5 .

P(x) = 2x3 + x2 – 2x + 10 .

We have therefore reduced and ordered P in the decreasing order of the powers of x.

2° Let P(x) = (x – 1) (x2 – 3x + 5) .

By expanding we obtain :

P(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 5x – x2 + 3x – 5

P(x) = – 5 + 8x – 4x2 + x3 .

This polynomial is reduced and ordered in the increasing order of the powers of x.

6 ROOT OF A POLYNOMIAL

We call root (or zero) of a polynomial P, any real number α such that P(α
α) = 0.

EXAMPLES

3
1. The polynomial 2x – 3 has one root which is  .
2

2. The polynomial (x – 1) (x + 3) has two roots ; 1 and – 3.

3. The polynomial x2 + 4 has no roots ; in fact x2 + 4 > 0 for any real number x.

93
 B Factorization and division by (x – α)

1 FACTORIZATION OF A POLYNOMIAL BY (x – α)
WHERE α IS A REAL NUMBER

If x = α is a root of a polynomial P (x ), that is P(α) = 0 , then it can be written as :

P(x) = (x – α) . Q(x) where Q is a polynomial in x called the quotient polynomial and degree
of Q = degree of P minus one .
P is said to be divisible by (x – α).

Remark

If a polynomial P is divisible by (x – α), (x – β), (x – γ), etc... then it is divisible by their product.
(α, β, γ,... are distinct).
EXAMPLES

1. Let P(x) = x2 + x – 2. We have P(–2) = 0, –2 is a root of P.

P(x) is therefore divisible by (x + 2) .

2. Let P(x) = x3 – 4x2 + 8x – 5. We have P(1) = 0, 1 is a root of P.

P(x) is therefore divisible by (x – 1) .

2 FACTORIZATION TECHNIQUE BY (x – α)

If α is a root of a polynomial P, then P(α) = 0 . So there exists a polynomial Q such that

P(x) = (x – α) Q(x).
How can we find Q?
Given, for example, P(x) = x3 – 4x2 + 8x – 5 .
We have P(1) = 0. P(x) is therefore divisible by (x – 1). It can be written P(x) = (x – 1).Q(x)
where Q is a polynomial to be determined .

94
1° Determining Q(x)

a) Identification method
P(x) = (x – 1) Q(x) .

Since P is of the third degree then Q must be of the second degree and has a general form
ax2 + bx + c.
P(x) = (x – 1) (ax2 + bx + c) .

By expanding we get :
x3 – 4x2 + 8x – 5 = ax3 + (b – a) x2 + (c – b) x – c .


a = 1,
By identification we find : b – a = –4, so b = –3,
c – b = 8, so c = 5 .

Therefore Q(x) = x2 – 3x + 5

and P(x) = (x – 1) (x2 – 3x + 5) .

b) Euclidean division method

Since P(x) = (x – 1) Q(x), therefore to find Q(x) we divide P(x) by (x – 1) since

P(x)
Q(x) =  .
x–1
We proceed as in the division of numbers and focusing on the term with the highest degree
:

P(x) → x3 – 4x2 + 8x – 5 x –1 • Divide x3 by x

–
x2 × (x – 1) → x3 – x2 x2 – 3x + 5
0x3 –3x2 + 8x – 5
• Divide – 3x2 by x
–
–3x × (x – 1) → – 3x2 + 3x
0x2 + 5x – 5 • Divide 5x by x
–
5 × (x – 1) → 5x – 5
0

Q(x) = x2 – 3x + 5 and P(x) = (x – 1) (x2 – 3x + 5).

95
 c) Horner’s method

P(x) = x3 – 4x2 + 8x – 5
= (x – 1) Q(x)
= (x – 1) (ax2 + bx + c) .

The english mathematician Horner (1786-1837) found a quick method to calculate the coefficients
a, b and c of Q(x) .

The coefficients of P(x) in 1 –4 8 –5

decreasing order

0 1 ×1 1 × (–3) 1 × 5
(always)
1
is a root of P a=1+0 b=–4+1 c=8–3
P(1)= –5+5
(since 1 is the zero x – 1)
Results a=1 b=–3 c=5 P(1)=0

Therefore Q(x) = x2 – 3x + 5
and P(x) = (x – 1) (x2 – 3x + 5) .

3 REMAINDER OF THE DIVISION OF P(x) BY (x – α)

If α is not a root of P , then (x – α) is not a factor of P(x) and

P(x) = (x – α) Q(x) + R , where Q is the quotient polynomial and R the remainder .
Therefore P(α) = R .
The remainder of the division of P(x) by (x – α) is R = P(α
α) .

EXAMPLE

Let P(x) = x3 – 3x2 + 5x – 1 .

The remainder R of the division of P(x) by (x – 1) is :

R = P(1) = 2 .

96
 Factorizing a polynomial using its constant term
C
in the case where it is an integer

1° Factorize P(x) = x3 – 4x2 + x + 6 .

The constant term is 6.
Its divisors are : +1; –1 ; +2 ; – 2 ; +3 ; –3 ; +6 ; –6 .
We find among them those that are roots of P.
P(–1) =0, so –1 is a root, and therefore P(x) is divisible by (x+1).
P(2) =0, so 2 is a root, and therefore P(x) is divisible by (x – 2).
P(3) = 0, so 3 is a root, and therefore P(x) is divisible by (x – 3).
P being of the third degree, P(x) = (x + 1) (x – 2) (x – 3).
Solving P(x) = 0 gives :
(x + 1) (x – 2) (x – 3) = 0 , so x = – 1 , x = 2 or x = 3.

2° Factorize P(x) = 2x2 + 3x – 2 .

The constant term is – 2 .
Its divisors are : + 1 ; – 1 ; + 2 ; – 2 .
P(1) ≠ 0 , P(– 1) ≠ 0 and P(2) ≠ 0 .
P(– 2) = 0 , so – 2 is a root and P(x) is divisible by (x + 2) .
P(x) is written P(x) = (x + 2) Q(x) .
To find Q(x) , we use one of the preceding methods.

 
1 1
We find P(x) = (x + 2) (2x + 1). We notice that P –  = 0 ; –  is a root of P which is not a
2 2
divisor of the constant term.

3° Factorize P(x) = x3 + x2 + 5x + 5 .
The constant term is 5 .
Its relative integer divisors are : + 1 ; – 1 ; + 5 ; – 5 .
P(1) ≠ 0 , P(– 1) = 0 , P(5) ≠ 0 , P(– 5) ≠ 0 .
So – 1 is a root and P(x) is divisible by (x + 1) .
Hence , P(x) = (x + 1) . Q(x) .
We find Q(x) = x2 + 5 and P(x) = (x + 1) (x2 + 5).
The only root of P(x) is – 1 .
Remark

The number of roots of a polynomial is at most equal to its degree .

97
 THE POLYNOMIALS

Exercises and problems

5
Test your knowledge Calculate the numerical value of each
polynomial for the given value of the variable.
1° P(x) = 3x3 – x2 + x – 5 for x = – 1.
1 Find the degree of each polynomial.
2° Q(y) = 2y4 – y2 + 2 for y = –2.
1
3° R(z) = 2 z3 – 3 z2 +  z + 5
7
1° P(x) = 2x3 – x – 1 . for z = 7 .

2° Q(y) = (2y2 – y + 1)2 .

6 Divide :
3° T(z) = (2z2 + z – 1)3 .
1° 3x3 – 10x2 + 4x – 3 by (x – 3) .

2° x4 – 3x2 – 4 by (x – 2) .
2 State which expressions are polynomials
3° x3 – x2 – 29x + 5 by (x + 5) .
and justify.

1° 4x3 – 5x2 + 1. 3° 2x2 – 5x+

1.
7 Using Horner’s method, find the quotient
3 of the division of :
2° x2 – 2x +1. 4° x3 – 5x2 +  +1.
x 1° x5 – 7x3 + 3x2 + 4x + 4 by (x – 2),
2° – 6x3 – 10x2 + 2x – 4 by (x + 2).

3 Reduce and order each polynomial in the

decreasing order of the powers of x . 8 State whether the given value of α is a
root of P(x).
1° P(x) = x3 – 2x + 3x3 – 5x2 + 7x – x2 – 4.
1° P(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 – 5x + 6 ; α = 2 .
2° P(x) = (x + 1)2 – 4x + 5.
2° P(x) = x4 – 2x2 – 2 ; α = 3 .
3° P(x) = (x – 1)3 + 3x2 + 3x.
3° P(x) = 2x4 – x3 – 22 ; α =2 .
4° P(x) = (1 + 2x) (3x – 5)2.

9 Find the remainder of the division of the

4 Let P and Q be the following polynomials: polynomial by the given binomial .

P(x) = 2x3 + 3x2 – 5x + x3 – 7x2 + 8 1° P(x) = x3 – 4x2 + 7x – 6 by (x – 2).

Q(x) = 3x4 – x3 – 2x4 – x + 5x + 9. 2° P(y)= y3 + 1 – 2y2 – 1 + 2y + 2 by

Reduce and order P(x); Q(x); P(x) + Q(x); y – 2.
P(x) – Q(x); 2P(x) – 3Q(x). 3° P(z) = z4 – 2z3 + 5z – 4 by (z + 2).

98
 THE POLYNOMIALS

10 Answer by True or False.

For seeking
1
1° x3 – x2 +  is a polynomial in x of degree 3.
x
2° Two equal polynomials have the same 14 Let P(x) be defined by :
degree. P(x) = x3 + 4x2 + x – 6.

3° a) If P and Q are polynomials of respective 1° Show that –2 and –3 are two roots of P.
degrees 2 and 3, then the degree of the 2° Factorize P.
polynomial P + Q is 5.
3° Solve P(x) = 0 then P(x) > 0.
b) The degree of the product PQ is 5.
4° a) h being a real number, calculate P(h –1).
4° 5 and 2 are roots of the polynomial b) Let Q(h) = P(h – 1) . Calculate Q(– 1) and
P(x) = x2 – 9x +10 . deduce a factorization of Q(h) .

5° A polynomial has at least one root.

15 Q is a polynomial defined by :
6° If 3 is a root of a polynomial then (x + 3) is Q(x) = x3 – (3m + 2n)x2 + (m + n)x where m and
a factor of this polynomial. n are real .

7° If 1 and –1 are roots of a polynomial, then 1° Determine m and n so that Q is divisible by

(x2 – 1) is a factor of this polynomial. (x – 1) and (x – 2) .
2° Deduce a factorization of Q .
11 Find m so that each of the following 3° Solve Q(x)  0 .
polynomials is divisible by the given binomial.
1° P(x) = x3 + 2mx2 – 5x + 1 by (x – 1). 16 P is a polynomial defined by :
P(x) = – x3 + 5x2 + x – 5 .
2° Q(y) = 3y4 – 2y2 + 4my – 4 by (y + 2).
1° Factorize P .
 
1 P(x)
3° R(z) = mz2 + z + 10 by z +  . 2° Given F(x) =  .
2 |x – 2| + 3
a) For what values of x is F(x) defined ?
12 1° Determine m, n and p so that the b) Simplify F(x) .
polynomial P defined by :
P(x) = (3m – 2)x2 + (m + 2n)x + 3m – 2n – p is 17 Factorize each of the following
identically zero. polynomials .
2° Calculate a and b so that the polynomial P 1° P(x) = x3 + 27
defined by :
2° P(x) = x3 – 8
P(m) = am – 5b + 4m + 3a + 2 is zero for any
real number m. 3° P(z) = z4 – 16
4° P(y) = – y2 + y + 2
13 Calculate a, b and m so that the
5° P(x) = x3 – 2x2 – 5x + 6
polynomials P and Q defined by :
P(x) = (m – 2)x2 + (2a + 3)x +b +6 and 6° P(x) = 2x3 – 5x2 – 11x – 4
Q(x) = 3x2 – (m – 2)x + 2a – 3 , are equal. 7° P(x) = x4 + 2x3 – 7x2 – 8x + 12 .

99
 THE POLYNOMIALS

18 Given the polynomials P and Q defined by :

P(x) = x2n – a2n and Q(x) = x2n+1 – a2n+1 where n is a non-zero natural integer and a is a real number .

1° a) Is a a root of P ? Is – a also ?

b) Is a a root of Q ? Is – a also ?

2° Given the polynomials S and T defined by : S(x) = x2n + a2n and T(x) = x2n+1 + a2n+1 where n is a
non-zero natural integer and a is a real number .
a) Is a a root of S ? Is – a also ?

b) Is a a root of T ? Is – a also ?

19 Let P be defined by : P(x) = mx3 + (m – 3)x2 – mx + 2.

1° Calculate m so that –1 is a root of P.
2° For the following , let P(x) = x3 – 2x2 – x + 2.
a) Show that P can be written in the form of P(x) = (x + 1) (ax2 + bx + c) , where a , b and c are reals
to be determined .
b) Let Q(x) = x2 – 3x + 2 . Factorize Q(x) .
c) Write , then , P(x) in the form of product of three factors of first degree .
3° Solve P(x) = 0.

20 P is a polynomial defined by : P(x) = 2x3 – 15x2 + 27x – 10 .

1° Verify that 2 is a root of P.

2° Write P(x) in the form of P(x) = (x – 2) Q(x) where Q is a polynomial .

Verify that Q is divisible by (x – 5) , then factorize Q(x) .

3° Write P(x) as the product of three factors of first degree in x .

4° Solve P(x)  0.

5° A is a polynomial defined by : A(x) = x2 + 2(m – 1)x + m where m is a real parameter .

a) Calculate m so that 2 is a root of A(x) . Factorize A(x) .
P(x)
b) Given F(x) =  .
A(x)
For what values of x does F(x) exist ?

Then , simplify F(x) and solve F(x)  0 .

100
 THE POLYNOMIALS

21 P and Q are two polynomials defined by :

P(x) = x4 – 4x3 + 3x2 + 4x – 4 and Q(x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + c ; a , b and c are real numbers .
1° Calculate P(2) . Deduce that P(x) = (x – 2) . Q(x) by calculating a , b and c .
2° For the values of a , b and c calculated , verify that 2 is a root of Q . Then deduce a factorization
of P(x) .
3° Solve Q(x) = x2 – 1 .
4° Solve P(x) < 0 .

22 Given the polynomial P such that : P(x) = ax2 + bx, where a and b are two non-zero real numbers .
1° Calculate a and b such that P(x+1) – P(x) =x, for all non-zero x .
n(n + 1)
2° Deduce that 1 + 2 + ... + n = P(n + 1) – P(1) and 1 + 2 + ... + n =  .
2

23 Consider the polynomial P(x) = 6x4 + 5x3 – 38x2 + 5x + 6 , that has two evident roots 2 and – 3 .
1
1° Show that if α is a non-zero root of P(x) , then  is a root of P(x) .
α
2° Deduce the new roots of P(x) .

3° Write P(x) in the form of four factors .

24 Determine a polynomial P of third degree divisible by x2 + 1 , having 3 as a root and the remainder
of its division by (x – 2) is 5 .

To go further

I The questions are independent .

1° Calculate m so that the polynomial P defined by : P(x) = (m2 – 4)x2 + (m2 + 4m + 4)x + m + 2 is a
null polynomial .
1
2° Calculate the reals a and b so that the polynomial Q(y) = (a – 2)y2 + (2a + b)y – a –  b is null for
2
all real y .
3° Calculate a , b and c so that the two polynomials A(x) = ax3 + 3x2 – (b + c)x + c + 2 and
B(x) = – 2x3 + bx2 + x – ax2 are identical .
4° Answer , with justification , by true or false .
a) 10 is a root of the polynomial P defined by : P(x) = 10–n x2 – (1 + 10–n)x + 1 where n   and n ≠ 1.
b) (x – 1) is a factor of x4 + 1 .
c) If the degree of a polynomial P is 3 , then the degree of (P)2 is 9 .
d) A polynomial of degree 4 that vanishes for 0 ; 1 ; – 6 ; 4 and 5 is a null polynomial .
e) A polynomial of degree 3 must have exactly three roots .

101
 THE POLYNOMIALS

II P is a polynomial defined by : P(x) = (m2 – 4)x2 + (m2 + 4 + 4m)x + m + 2 .

1° Calculate m so that P is a null polynomial .

2° A and B are two polynomials defined by :

A(x) = ax3 + 3x2 – (b + c)x + c + 2 and B(x) = – 2x3 + bx2 + x – ax2 .

Calculate a , b and c so that A and B are identical polynomials .

3° R is a polynomial defined by : R(x) = 3x2 + (m + 4)x + 3m – 5 .

a) Calculate the reals a , b and m to get R(x) = (x + 2) (ax + b) .

b) Deduce a factorization of R(x) .

x2 – 8x + 12
III Given E(x) =  .
x3 – 7x2 + 6x
1° Factorize the numerator and denominator of E(x) and simplify it when possible .
2° Solve : |x × E(x)| = |x – 2| .

IV A and B are two polynomials defined by :

A(x) = 2x2 + 9x + 7 and B(x) = (m – 1)x3 – 5mx2 + (2m + 1)x + 8m .

1° Show that – 1 is a root of A(x) . Then factorize A(x) .

2° Show that B(x) is divisible by (x + 1) for all m of  .

3° For the following , let m = 0 .

a) Factorize B(x) .
A(x)
b) Consider F(x) =  . Determine the domain of definition of F(x) .
B(x)
c) Simplify F(x) , then determine its sign over domain .

d) Let G(x) = |F(x)| . Write G(x) without the absolute value symbol .

V Given the polynomial A defined by : A(x) = x3 + 2x2 – 5x – 6 .

1° a) Justify the existence of a polynomial Q of second degree in x such that A(x) = (x – 2) Q(x) .
b) Determine Q(x) .

2° Calculate a , p and q to get Q(x) = a (x + p)2 + q for all x .

Then factorize Q(x) .

3° Solve A(x)  0 .

102
8
PROJECTION IN THE PLANE

A brief history
The XVIIIth century is a return to pragmatic conceptions («elements of
geometry» of Clairaut) and, between the publications of the «descriptive
geometry» of Mongue (1795) and «Erlangen program» of Klein (1872),
geometry knows a remarkable development. The notion of punctual
transformation is presented in a general way and is used in proofs.
Poncelet establishes the distinction between projective properties and
metric properties and to show that the first, which are preserved in
projection, are more important. («Projective properties of figures»,
1822).
This work which already laid the basis of structure, is continued by
Chasles («Superior geometry», 1852; «Conic sections», 1865), by Steiner
and by Klein who tries to establish a general principle opening the way to
a hierarchisation of the fields of geometry : projective, affine and metric.
Since 1850 projective geometry became independent. In 1899 Hilbert
publishes his «Basis of the geometry» where he puts a system of axioms,
some still taught, where as non euclidean geometry appears, contributing
to a clarification that takes place at the beginning of the XXth century, due
to the development of axiomatization work.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. Projection on a straight line 4. Projection of the sum of

Jean-Victor Poncelet, 2. Projection of the midpoint vectors
French general and
mathematician (1788-1867), of a segment 5. Projection of the product of
developped the use of the 3. Projections of two equal a vector by a real number
perspective and started the
basis of the projected vectors 6. Solved exercise
geometry.

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«It is hard to make good parallel lines with a small ruler.»

Cavanna

103
 P reliminary activities
PROJECTION IN THE PLANE

Activity 1
By supposing that the direction of the sun rays is that of (D) and that (D′) represents the ground,
the shadow of a point A on the ground is point A′, the intersection of (D′) with the parallel drawn
from A to (D).
(D)
1° Find the shadow of B, of C and then of E, on the ground. What
A
is the E B
→
shadow of AB ?
(D′) A′ C
2° If A and B are such that (AB) is parallel to (D), how would the
shadows of A and B be on the ground?
→ A
What is then the shadow of AB ? (D)

3° In the case where (D) and (D′) are parallel, can the shadows of A B
(D′)
and B be determined ?
Justify.
A (D)
4° (D) being perpendicular to (D′), place the shadows of A and B on B
the ground. (D′)

(D) A
B
(D′)

Activity 2
Let (Δ) and (Δ′) be two intersecting straight lines at I, (D) a non parallel (D)
(Δ)
straight line to (Δ) and (Δ′) and A a point of (Δ).
→ 1 →
1° Locate point B such that IA =  IB .
4
2° The parallels drawn from A and B to (D) cut (Δ′) at A′ and B′ A
respectively.
→ 1 →
Show that IA′ =  IB′. I (Δ')
4
→ →
3° What is the number α such that AA′ = α BB′ ?
4° Let M be the midpoint of [AB]. The parallel drawn from M to (D) cuts (Δ′) in M ′.
a) What is the nature of quadrilateral ABB′A′ ?
b) What does [MM ′] represent in this quadrilateral ?
c) Deduce the position of M ′ with respect to [A′B′].

104
 1 PROJECTION ON A STRAIGHT LINE

Definitions (D) (Δ)

E
Let (D) and (D′) be two non parallel straight lines in the B
A F
plane.

1° A is any point. The parallel drawn from A to (D) cuts

(D′) at A′. A′ is called the projection of A on (D′) along A′ B′ M N (D′)
(D).

We write : pr (A) = A′′ .

«pr» is the projection on (D′′) along the direction of (D).

If (D) and (D′′) are perpendicular, the projection is orthogonal.

2° B being another point, and B′ = pr (B), then :

→ →
pr ([AB]) = [A′′B′′ ] and pr ( AB) = A′′B′′ .

3° M is a point of (D′), then pr (M) = M.

4° • A straight line (Δ) parallel to (D), cuts (D′) at N. The projection of any point of (Δ) is N. For
→ → →
example : pr (E) = pr (F) = N since E and F are points of (Δ). Hence pr (EF) = NN = 0 .

Point N is the projection of all the points of (Δ).

• If B is confounded with A, then B′ is confounded with A′.

→ → → →
Hence pr (AA) = pr ( 0) = A′A′ = 0 .
→ → → →
pr ( 0) = 0 .


AB = 0
→ → or
Conclusion : If pr (AB) = 0 then →
AB is held by a line
parallel to (D).

Remark

In the case where the direction (D) is parallel to (D′), the projection does not exist.

105
 2 PROECTION OF THE MIDPOINT OF A SEGMENT

[A′B′] being the projection of [AB] on (D′) along (D), let I ′ be

the projection of the midpoint I of [AB].
(D) I B
Quadrilateral AA′B′B is a trapezoid; the parallel to the two
A
bases drawn from I the midpoint of [AB] cuts (D′) at I ′ . [II ′]
is the median of this trapezoid and therefore passes through (D’)
the midpoint I ′ of [A′B′]. A′ I ′ B′
Projection preserves the midpoint.

3 PROJECTION OF EQUAL VECTORS

→ →
AB and CD are two equal vectors and «pr» is the projection on (D′)
(D)
along (D) sucht that C
→ → → → A I
pr (AB) = A′B′ and pr (CD) = C ′D′ . D
B
ABDC being a parallelogram, hence its diagonals [AD] and [BC]
bisect each other at I. (D′)
A′ B′ I ′C′ D′
If pr (I) = I ′, then I ′ is the midpoint of [A′D′] and [B′C ′]. We have
:
→ → → → → →
A′B′ = I ′B′ – I ′A′ = – I ′C ′ + I ′D′ = C ′D′ .

The projections of two equal vectors are two equal vectors.

→ → → →
If u = v then pr ( u) = pr ( v).

106
 4 PROJECTION OF A SUM OF VECTORS
→ →
Let V1 and V2 be two vectors of a plane.
(D) →
→ →
V2
→ →
Let AB = V1 and BC = V2 , →
V1 C
B
→ → → → →
then AC = AB + BC = V1 + V2 .
A
The points A′, B′ and C ′ are the respective projections of A, B and C on
(D′) along (D); hence A′ B′ C′ (D′)
→ → → → → →
A′B′ = pr (AB ) , B′C ′ = pr (BC ) and A′C ′ = pr (AC ) .
→ → → → → →
But A′C ′ = A′B′ + B′C ′ or pr (AC ) = pr (AB ) + pr (BC ) , therefore :
→ → → →
pr ( V1 + V2) = pr ( V1) + pr ( V2).

Remark
→ → → → → →
Let w = V1 – V2 , therefore V1 = w + V2 .
→ → →
From what preceded, pr ( V1) = pr ( w) + pr ( V2) or
→ → →
pr ( w) = pr ( V1) – pr ( V2) , therefore :
→ → → →
pr ( V1 – V2) = pr ( V1) – pr ( V2) .

5 PROJECTION OF THE PRODUCT OF A VECTOR BY

A REAL NUMBER
→ →
Let V1 and V2 be two vectors of the same plane having the same direction.
→ →
There exists therefore a non zero real number α such that V2 = α V1 .
→ → → →
From a point A draw AB = V1 and AC = V2 .

107
 α>0 α<0
→ →
V2 V2
(D) (D)
→ C → C
V1 V1

B A
A B

(D′) (D′)
A′ B′ C′ A′ B′ C′

The points A′, B′ and C ′ are respectively the projections of A, B and C on

→ → → →
(D′) along (D); hence A′B′ = pr (AB) and A′C ′ = pr (AC).
A′C ′ AC
Using Thales’ theorem :  =  = |α| ,
A′B′ AB
→ → → →
so : A′C ′ = α A′B′ or pr (AC ) = α pr (AB ) ,
→ →
therefore :pr ( V2) = α pr ( V1) and
→ →
pr ( α V1 ) = α pr ( V1 ).

Remark
Let A′ and B′ be the projections of A and B on (D′) along (D).
C and C ′ are two points of (AB) and (D′) respectively such that
→ → → →
A′C ′ = α A′B′ and AC = α AB . From the converse of Thales’ theorem, (CC ′) is parallel to
(BB′), hence C ′ is the projection of C on (D′) along (D).

6 SOLVED EXERCISE

Let A′′, B′′ and C ′ be the respective midpoints of [BC], [AC] and [AB] of
a triangle ABC .
A
Show, by using projections, that G is the center of gravity of triangle
→ → → → C′ G B′
ABC if and only if GA + GB + GC = 0 .
C
B A′

108
1° Show that if G is the center of gravity of ABC, then
→ → → →
GA + GB + GC = 0 .
→ → → →
Let S = GA+ GB + GC , pr1 is the projection on (BC) along ( AA′ ) and pr2 is the projection on
(AC) along ( BB′ ).
→ → → → → → →
• pr1 ( S ) = pr1 ( GA + GB + GC ) = pr1 ( GA) + pr1 ( GB) + pr1 ( GC )
→ → → → →
pr1 ( S ) = 0 + A′ B + A′ C = 0 since A′ is the midpoint of [BC].
→ → →
It follows that S = 0 or the line holding S is parallel to ( AA′ ).
→ → → → → → →
• pr2 ( S ) = pr2 ( GA + GB + GC ) = pr2 ( GA) + pr2 ( GB) + pr2 ( GC )
→ → → → →
pr2 ( S ) = B′A + 0 + B′C = 0 since B′ is the midpoint of [AC].
→ → →
It follows that S = 0 or the line holding S is parallel to (BB′).
→
Conclusion : The line holding S cannot be parallel to two intersecting straight lines (AA′ ) and
→
(BB′ ) , so S is the null vector, from where :
→ → → →
GA + GB + GC = 0 .
→ → → →
2° Show that if GA + GB + GC = 0 , then G is the center of gravity of ABC.
Let pr3 be the projection (BC) along (AG) and pr4 the projection (AC) along (BG).
→ → → → →
• pr3 ( GA + GB + GC) = pr3 ( 0 ) = 0 .
If A″ = pr3 (G) then A″ = pr3 (A) .
→ → → → → → →
pr3 ( GA) = A″A″ = 0 ; pr3 ( GB) = A″B and pr3 ( GC) = A″C .
→ → → → → → →
But pr3 ( GA + GB + GC) = pr3 ( GA) + pr3 ( GB) + pr3 ( GC) = 0
→ → → →
= 0 + A″B + A″C = 0 .
Point A″ is therefore the midpoint of [BC] (A″ is confounded with A′).
G belongs therefore to the median [AA′].
→ → → → →
• pr4 ( GA + GB + GC) = pr4 ( 0 ) = 0 .
If B″ = pr4 (G) then B″ = pr4 (B) .
→ → → → → → →
pr4 ( GA) = B″A ; pr4 ( GB) = B″B″ = 0 and pr4 ( GC) = B″C .
→ → → → → → →
But pr4 ( GA + GB + GC) = pr4 ( GA) + pr4 ( GB) + pr4 ( GC) = 0
→ → → →
= B″A + 0 + B″C = 0 .
Point B″ is therefore the midpoint of [AC] (B″ is confounded with B′).
G belongs therefore to the median [BB′].

Conclusion : G , being the point of intersection of the two medians [AA′] and [BB′] of triangle
ABC , is the center of gravity of this triangle.

109
 PROJECTION IN THE PLANE

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

→
1 ABCD is a parallelogram of center I, E is the point defined by AE = 2 E
→
AB and «pr» is the projection on (D′) along (Δ). B
A
1° Complete : (Δ)
→ I
pr (A) = ... ; pr (B) = ... ; pr ( AB) = ...
C
2° Construct the points :
C ′ = pr (C) ; D′ = pr (D) ; I ′ = pr (I) and E′ = pr (E). D

3° Answer by True or False : A′ B′ G (D′)

→ → → →
a) pr ( [AD]) = [A′D′] b) ||pr ( AB)|| = || AB|| c) ||pr (AC)|| = || AC||
→ →
d) B′E′ = B′A′ .

4° Complete.
→ → → → →
a) pr ( AE) = ... c) pr ( AD) ... pr (BC) e) pr ( AB + BC ) = ...
→ → → → →
b) pr (A′B′) = ... d) pr ( AC) ... pr ( AI ) f) pr ( AE) ... pr ( AB).

5° Place the point F such that pr (F) = D′.

6° Determine the points of the parallelogram that are projected onto G.

7° Where are the points that are projected on I ′ located ?

2 Let O be a point on a straight line (D), A and B are two fixed points and R is the point such that :
→ → →
OR = OA + OB.

Let A′, B′ and R′ be the orthogonal projections of A, B and R on (D).

→ → →
Show that OA′ + OB′ = OR′.

→ 1 →
3 Let ABC be any triangle. M is the point such that AM =  AB and N is the point such that
→ → 3
AN = – 2 AB.
Let M′ and N′ be the projections of M and N on (AC) along (BC).
→ 1 → → →
Show that : MM ′ =  BC and NN ′ = – 2 BC .
3

110
 PROJECTION IN THE PLANE

4 Let ABCD be a parallelogram. (xy) is a straight line

y
passing through A and (Δ) is any straight line.
B′ (Δ)
Construct from B , C and D the parallels (BB′) , (CC ′) and (DD ′)
C′
A
to (Δ).
D′
The points B′ , C ′ and D′ belong to (xy). B
x
→ → →
1° Express AC ′ in terms of AB′ and AD′ by using the D

projection «pr» on (xy) along (). C

→ → →
2° Deduce that CC ′ = BB′ + DD ′ .

For seeking
→ → → →
5 Let ABC be any triangle and the points E , F and D defined by AE = 2AB , AF = 3AC and
→ → →
AD = AE + AF .
The parallels drawn from E and F to (BC) cut (AD) at I and J .
→ → →
1° Show, by using the projection “pr” on (AD) along (BC) that AD = AI + AJ .
→ →
2° Let K be the intersection point of (BC) and (AD). Show that: AD = 5AK .

6 Let ABCDE be a regular pentagon of center O. By

→ → → → → →
projecting orthogonally the vector S = OA + OB + OC + OD + OE A
on line (Δ), and by using another convenient projection, show that
B E
→ → 0
S=0.

B′ I E′
Hint : Any straight line joining O to a vertex is an axis of
C D (Δ)
symmetry of the figure.

111
 PROJECTION IN THE PLANE

7 O being the circumcenter of triangle ABC, show by using orthogonal projections, that the point H
→ → → →
defined by OH = OA + OB + OC is the orthocenter of triangle ABC .

8 In the following figure, (Δ) is a straight line

A
that cuts lines (BC) , (AC) and (AB) of a triangle (Δ) B′ C′
A′
ABC in A′ , B′ and C ′ respectively.
C″
C
C ″ is a point of (AB) such that (CC ″) is parallel to

(Δ) .
B
1° By using the projection “pr” on (AB) along (Δ) ,

A′B C ′B B′C C ′C ″
show that  =  and that  =  .
A′C C ′C ″ B′A C ′A

A′B B′C C ′A
2° Deduce that  ×  ×  = 1
A′C B′A C ′B
(Menelaus’ Relation).

9 Let ABC be any triangle. P, Q and R are points defined by :

→ → → → → → → → →
PB + 2 PC = 0 ; 3 QA + 2 QC = 0 ; 3 RA – RB = 0

1° Construct P, Q and R.

2° Show, with the help of projections, that P, Q and R are collinear.

112
9
COORDINATE SYSTEM

A brief history
The notion of a VECTOR is probably issued from MECHANICS with Galilée
(1564-1642) one of the men who founded the modern mechanics or were
previously with the GREEKS .
The composition of forces and velocities by the rule of parallelograms seemed
known long ago. Roberval (1602-1675) french mathematician and physician did
the introduction of this at the end of XVIIth century. The french mathematician
BEZOUT (1730-1783) gave a correct statement of this composition.
In mathematics, the notion of VECTOR, is relatively recent since it appeared at
XIXth century.
The addition of vectors was given by the German GAUSS (1777-1855) .
The theory of «EQUIPOLLENCES» was developped by the Italian
BELLAVISTIS (1803 - 1880).
In 1832, the German HERMANN GRASSMANN (1809-1877) verified, the
distances AB and BA are opposites and reached the notion of «geometric sum»
which permits spreading the formula AB + BC = AC to any three points, relation
known in the name of CHASLES relation (1793-1880).
Issued by GRASSMANN, HAMILTON (1805-1865) and MOBIUS
(1790-1868), the operations and the rules of vector calculation were precised by
the English WILLIAM→ CLIFFORD (1845-1879).
AT 1920, the notation AB appeared.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. System of the plane

1º Real line axis Abscissa of a point
2º System of the plane. Coordinates of a point and of a vector
2. Analytic expression of vectors’ equalities
3. Translation of axes
4. Using a system to prove some properties
René Descartes
(1596 - 1650) EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«I was pleased especially with the mathematics due to the certainty of

their reasons.»
René Descartes

113
 P reliminary activities
COORDINATE SYSTEM

Activity 1

Let (D) be a graduated oriented straight line.

+
F E C O A B D (D)

1° Complete by the convenient number :

→ → → → → → → → → →
OB = ... OA ; OC = ... OA ; OD = ... OA ; OE = ... OA ; OF = ... OA .
→
OA is considered as a reference vector.

2° Complete by the convenient number :

→ → → → → → → → → →
OA = ... OB ; OC = ... OB ; OD = ... OB ; OE = ... OB ; OF = ... OB .
→
OB , in this case, is the reference vector.
→
3° Considering OC as a reference vector, determine the following :
→ → → → →
OA , OB , OD , OE and OF .

4° Calculate the real numbers x, y, z and t in each of the following cases :

→ → → → → → → →
OA = x OD ; OC = y OD ; OE = z OD ; OF = t OD .

Activity 2
→ →
Let O, A and B be three non collinear points. (D) and (D′) are the lines holding vectors OA and OB
respectively.

1° Place the points E, F, G and H such that :

→ → → → → → → → → 1 →
OE = 2OA ; OF = –3 OB ; OG = OE + OF and OH = OE –  OF .
3
→ → → →
2° Write the vectors OE , OF , OG and OH in the (D’)
→ →
form of x OA + y OB where x and y are real numbers.

3° Write, in the same form, the vectors :

→ → → →
EF , GH , EG and FH .
B

O A (D)

114
 1 SYSTEMS IN A PLANE

1° System of a straight line. Abscissa of a point

→
Let O and A be any two points of a straight line (D). OA is chosen as a unit vector. The line on
which we consider :
• point O as origin
→ (D)
• an equal unit to ||OA ||
→ A
• a positive sense which is the sense of OA , O
→
is called an axis denoted by (O , OA ) .
→ →
Point O and vector OA constitute a system of (D) : O is the origin and OA is the reference
vector .
→ →
For any point M of (D) corresponds a vector OM which is collinear with OA . We can therefore
write :
→ → (D)
OM = x OA where x   . M
A
O
The real number x is called the abscissa of point M in (O, N
→
OA ).
→ →
M
x is also called the algebraic measure of vector OM in (O, OA ) denoted by O:O
M
=x.
→ → →
 × OA .
M
Hence, OM = x OA = O

N
If N is another point of (D) of abscissa x′, then : O = x′ and
→ → →
ON = x′′ OA = O  × OA .
N
→
Vector MN is written :
→ → → → → → →
N
MN = ON – OM = O × OA – O M × OA = (O N–OM ) × OA = MN × OA
→ →
N
where M=ON
–O M ′
 = x′ – x is the algebraic measure of vector MN in the system (O, OA ).
The distance between the two points M and N is MN = | x′′ – x | .

MN=O N–O M is equivalent to : O
M
+M N =O N which is Chasles’ rule for the case where the
points are collinear, where Chasles’ rule for vectors is always true.

115
 Remark

Let I be the midpoint of segment [MN] , we have :

→ 1 → → → →
OI =  (OM + ON ) . But OI = O I × OA and
2
1 → → M
O+ ON →
 (OM + ON ) =  × OA ,
2 2
M
O +O N x + x′′
so OI =  =  .
2 2
The abscissa of the midpoint of a segment is the average of the abscissas of its extremities.

EXAMPLES
→
In the system (O, OA ) we have :
→ → (D)
B
OB = 4 OA therefore O=4, I
→ → C O A
C
OC = – OA , O=–1, B
→ →
BC = – 5 OA C
,B=–5.
C
This verifies B=O
C
–O
B
.
B
O+O C
 4–1 3
I = 
If I is the midpoint of [BC], then : O = =.
2 2 2

2° System of a plane. Coordinates of a point and of a vector

a) System
Let O, A and B be three non collinear points of a plane.
→ →
The couple of the non collinear vectors OA and OB is called a reference system of the plane
→ →
denoted by (OA ,OB).
→ → → →
(O ; OA , OB) is a system of the plane of origin O and reference (OA ,OB).
→→
Any couple ( i , j ) of non collinear vectors of a plane is a reference in this plane.

→ → →
j j j
O → O → O →
i i i
→ → → → → →
(O ; i , j ) is a normal (O ; i , j ) is an (O ; i , j ) is an orthonormal
→ → → →
system, i and j have orthogonal system, i and j are
→ →
equal magnitudes. system, i and j perpendicular and have the
are perpendicular. same magnitude.

116
b) Coordinates of a point
→ →
Let (O ; i , j ) be a system of a plane, and M any point in this plane.
→ →
The parallels drawn from M to the lines x′x and y′y the supports of i and j cut y′y and x′x in Q and P
respectively.

In the parallelogram OPMQ, we have : y

→ → → → →
P
OM = OP + OQ = O× i + O
Q
× j Q M
→ → → →
OM = x i + y j j
x′ O i→ P x
P
where x = O and y = O
Q
. y′
→
The axis x′′x oriented by vector i is the axis of abscissas.
→
The axis y′′y oriented by vector j is the axis of ordinates.
→→
The real numbers x and y are called the abscissa and the ordinate of point M in the system (O, i , j ).
→→
The ordered pair (x,y) is called the coordinates of M in (O ; i , j ).
x
It is denoted by M (x , y) or M⎜ .
y

c) Coordinates of a vector
→ → →
Let u be a given vector, and M is the point such that OM = u . y
→→
If x and y are the coordinates of M in (O ; i , j ) : M(x,y) , →
u
M
→ → →
we have: OM = x i + y j . Therefore: →
x′ j x
→ → →
u =x i +y j . O →
y′ i
The real numbers x and y are called the coordinates or the scalar
→ →→
components of vector u in the system (O ; i , j ).
→ → x
It is denoted by : u (x,y) or u⎜ .
y

117
 Remarks
→→
• If A (xA,yA) and B (xB,yB) are two points in a system, then (O ; i , j ),
→ → → → → → → → →
AB = OB – OA = (xB i + yB j ) – (xA i + yA j ) = (xB – xA) i + (yB – yA) j .
→
The coordinates or the scalar components of AB are X = xB – xA and Y = yB – yA
→ → X = xB – xA
We write : AB (X , Y) or AB ⎜
Y = yB – yA

• If I is the midpoint of [AB],

→ 1 → → → → → →
x 
1
OI =  (OA + OB ) =  A i + yA j + xB i + yB j .
2 2
→ (xA + xB ) → (yA + yB) →
 
xA + xB yA + yB
OI =  i +  j , hence I  , .
2 2 2 2
→ → → → → →
• Let C (xC ; yC) in (O ; i , j ). If G is the center of gravity of triangle ABC then GA + GB + GC = 0
→ 1 → → →
or OG =   OA + OB + OC  .
3
→ xA + xB + xC → yA + yB + yC →
OG = 
 3  
i + 
3
j , hence 

 
xA + xB + xC yA + yB + yC
G  , 
3 3

→ → → → → →
• The null vector in the system (O, i , j ), is written 0 = 0 i + 0 j so 0 (0,0).

EXAMPLES
→ →
Given A(4,3) , B(–1,2) and C(3,–2) in the system (O ; i , j ).

→ → → → → →
1. AB = (–1 – 4) i + (2 – 3) j = – 5 i – j , therefore AB (–5,–1).

 
–1 + 3 2 – 2
2. If I is the midpoint of [BC], then I  ,  , so I(1,0).
2 2

3. If G is the center of gravity of triangle ABC, then :

 
4–1+3 3+2–2
G  ,  , so G(2,1) .
3 3

118
2 ANALYTIC EXPRESSION OF VECTORS EQUALITIES

→ → → →
Let u (x,y) and v (x′,y′) be two vectors in a system (O ; i , j ).

1° Equipolent or Equality
→ → → →
Let M and N be two points such that OM = u and ON = v .
→ →
If u = v then M and N are confounded, therefore :
→ →
u (x,y) = v (x′′,y′′) is equivalent to x = x′′ and y = y′′

2° Sum
→ → → → → →
If u = x i + y j and v = x′ i + y′ j , then :
→ → → → → →

x + x′
u + v = (x + x′) i + (y + y′) j , therefore : (u + v ) .
y + y′

→ → x′′ → → x + x′′
  
x
If u and v then (u + v )
y y′′ y + y′′

3° Product of a vector by a real number

→ → → → →
If α is a real number, then α u = α (x i + y j ) = (αx) i + (αy) j
→ → αx
 
x
If u α u)
then (α , α∈
y αy

4° Parallel or collinear vectors

→ →
We suppose that u and v are non zero vectors.
→ → → →
If u and v are collinear, then there exists a real non zero number α such that v = αu with
→ →
v (x′,y′) and α u (αx,αy) , therefore :
x′ = αx and y′ = αy so xy′ – yx′ = 0.
→ →
u (x,y) and v (x′′,y′′) are collinear is equivalent xy′′ – yx′′ = 0.
x y
If x′′ ≠ 0 and y′′ ≠ 0, then we can write  = 
x′′ y′′

119
 Remarks

• The real number xy′ – yx′ is called the determinant of the two vectors
→ → →→
u (x,y) and v (x′,y′) in the system ( i , j ). It is denoted by :

 
→ → x y
det ( u , v) = = xy′′ – yx′′ .
x′′ y′′
→ → → →
• If xy′ − yx′ ≠ 0 , then u and v are not collinear, and therefore ( u , v) will
form a new system.
→ →
• If the vectors AB and AC are collinear, then the points A, B and C are
→→ → →
collinear. In a system (O ; i, j ), given AB (X,Y) and AC (X′,Y′).
→→
A, B and C are collinear is equivalent to XY′′ – YX′′ = 0 or det ( AB , AC ) = 0.

→→
5° Magnitude of a vector in an orthonormal system ( i , j )
→ → → →
(O ; i , j ) is an orthonormal system having i and j as unit vectors. That is
→ →
|| i || = 1 and || j || = 1.
→ y
Let u (x,y) be a vector in the plane and M a point such that
→ →
OM = u .
M (x,y )
If P and Q are the orthogonal Q →
→ u
projections of M on the axes (O, i ) →
→ j
and (O, j ) respectively, then : x′ x
→ → → → → O →
i P
OM = OP + OQ = x i + y j .
→ → → → y′
OP = x i gives ||OP || = |x| || i || = |x| .
→ → → → →
OQ = y j gives ||OQ || = |y| || j || = |y| = ||PM || .

Triangle OPM is right at P, so according to the Pythagorean theorem :

OM2 = OP2 + PM2 = x2 + y2 or OM = x2
+y2
→ →
If u (x,y) , then ||u || = x2+y2 .

Remark
→→
Given, in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) the points A (xA,yA) and B (xB,yB).
→
The coordinates of vector AB are (xB – xA) and (yB – yA). Therefore :
→
||AB || = (x
–B 
xA)+
2 y
(B–y
A) .
2

120
 EXAMPLES
→→
In an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ), given the following points and vectors: A(2,3) , B(–4,2) ,
→ →
u (3,–5) and v (–1,–4) .
→ → → →
1. The coordinates of vector ( u + v) are ( (3–1 , –5–4)), so ( u + v) (2;–9).
→ →
2. The coordinates of vector –2 u are (–2(3),–2(–5)) , so –2 u (–6 ; 10).
→ →
3. The magnitude of vector v is : || v|| = (–
1
)2
+–
(4
)2 = 17 .
→ →
4. The magnitude of vector AB is : ||AB || = (–
4–)
22
+2
(–)
32 = 37.
→→
5. Let C (x , 2) be a point in (O ; i , j ). Find x so that A, B and C are collinear. To have this,
→ →
AC and AB should be collinear.
→ →
We have : AB (– 6 , –1) and AC (x – 2 , –1) , hence :
x – 2 –1
 =  = 1, therefore x = – 4 .
–6 –1

3 TRANSLATION OF THE SYSTEM

→→
To translate a system (O ; i , j ) is to change the origin O Y
y
to O′ and leave the same unit vectors
→→
( i , j ).
The axes of the two systems are parallel respectively. M
→ → Y →
j
O′ (a,b) and M′ (x,y) are points in the system (O ; i , j ).
y X′ →
The same point M has for coordinates (X,Y) in the system O′
i
X
X
→ →
(O′ ; i , j ).
→ → → → Y′
OM = OO ′ + O′M j
is written : x′ O → x
→ → → → → → i
x
xi + yj = ai + bj + Xi + Yj
→ → → →
x i + y j = (a + X) i + (b + Y) j ,
y′
 
x=a+X X=x–a
therefore or
y=b+Y Y=y–b
These relations are known under the name of formulas of the translation of a system.

121
 EXAMPLES
→ →
Given the points A (3 , 2) , B (–1 , 6) and O′ (1 , 3) in a system (O ; i , j ).

→ →
1. Calculate the coordinates of A and B in the system (O′ ; i , j ).

Applying the formulas of the translation :

→→
XA = xA – xO′ = 3 – 1 = 2 and YA = yA – yO′ = 2 – 3 = –1, so A (2 , –1) in (O′ ; i , j ).
→ →
XB = xB – xO′ = – 1 – 1 = – 2 and YB = yB – yO′ = 6 – 3 = 3 , so B (–2 , 3) in (O′ ; i , j ).

2. Calculate the coordinates of I , the midpoint of [AB] in the two systems.

→ →
 
xA + xB yA + yB
In (O ; i , j ) : I  ,  , so I (1 , 4)
2 2
→ →
 
XA + XB YA + YB
In (O′ ; i , j ) : I  ,  , so I (0 , 1)
2 2
→ →
Determine the coordinates of I in (O′ ; i , j ) using the formulas of translation.
XI = xI – xO′ = 1 – 1 = 0 and YI = yI – yO′ = 4 – 3 = 1 , so I (0 , 1) .

4 USING A SYSTEM TO PROVE PROPERTIES

Situation

→ 1 →
Let I be the midpoint of [AB] , of a parallelogram ABCD, and E the point defined by IE =  ID .
3

→ →
By choosing the system (B , BC , BA ) , find the coordinates of the points A , B , C , D , I and E .

Show then that the points A , E and C are collinear.

122
Solution
The coordinates of the points A , B , C , D , I
and E in the system
→ →
(B , BC , BA ) are : A D
B(0 , 0) , C(1 , 0) , E
I
A(0 , 1) , D(1 , 1) ,

 
1 B
I 0, .
2 C


→ X = xD – xI = 1 and
We deduce the coordinates of ID : 1 , so
Y = yD – yI = 
→ 2
 
1
ID 1 ,  .
2

→ 1 → 1 1 1
Since IE =  ID , then xE – xI =  (xD – xI) , xE = xI +  xD –  xI ,
3 3 3 3
1
xE = 0 +  – 0 ,
3
1
soit xE =  ,
3
1 1 1
and yE – yI =  (yD – yI) , yE = yI +  yD –  yI ,
3 3 3
1 1 1
yE =  +  –  ,
2 3 6
2
so yE =  ,
3
 
1 2
therefore E  ;  .
3 3
→ →
To have A , E and C collinear, the vectors AE and AC , should be collinear.
→ → → →
In (B ; BC , BA ) , we have : AC (xC – xA , yC – yA) , so AC (1 , –1)

→ → 1
 
1
and AE (xE – xA , yE – yA) , so AE  , –  .
3 3
→ →
   
1 1 1 1
Since 1 × –  – –1 ×  = –  +  = 0 , then AC and AE are collinear
3 3 3 3

and hence A , E and C are collinear.

123
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

Exercises and problems

3
Test your knowledge ABCD is a parallelogram of center O.

Answer by True or False.

→
1 Given a system (O, OA) of a straight
→ →
line (D). 1° (A ; AB , AD) is a system of the plane.

1° Place the points B, C and D of respective → →

2° (A ; AB , AC) is a system of the plane.
abscissas 2, –5 and 6.
→ →
3° (C ; CB , CD) is not a system of the plane.
(D)
A → →
O 4° (O ; OB , OD) is a system of the plane.

→ →
B
2° Calculate A, BC,CD, .
AD 5° (O ; OA , OC) is not a system of the plane.
→ →
3° Find the abscissa E if OE = –3 OA ?

4° Find the length of the segments [AC], [BD]

and [CE].

5° Find the abscissas of the points A, B, C, D 4 In the following figure, ABCD is a square
→ of center O, E is a point on (AB) such that
and E in the system (O, OB).
AE = AC .

Complete by orthonormal, orthogonal,

→
2 Given a system (O, i ) of a straight line normal :
(D) . → →
1° (A ; AB , AD) is an ........................... system
1° If A, B and C are three points of (D) , show → →
2° (A ; AE , AD) is an ........................... system
that the expression
→ →
BC2 3° (O ; OB , OC) is an .......................... system
 is constant.
B
A×B
C
+AC×C
B → →
4° (A ; AE , AC) is an ........................... system
2° In this part, the points A, B and C have for C
D
respective abscissas –6, 4 and 2. Calculate the
abscissa of point C′ , the symetric of C with
respect to I , the midpoint of [AB] , then evaluate
O
the expression

E = 2
CB
′ – 3 IA
. A B E

124
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

→ →
5 Given a triangle ABC : 8 ( i , j ) is a system of a plane. The vectors
→ → → →
→ → → → → → u and v are defined by ( i , j ) their coordinates.
u = 2 AB – 3 AC and v = – AB + 2 AC. → →
State in each case if u and v form a system.
→ →
1° Find the coordinates of u and v in the system → →
1° u (5 , –3) and v (1 , –1)
→ →
(A ; AB , AC ). → →
2° u (5 , –2) and v (2 , –5)
→→
2° Deduce that ( u , v) forms a system.
   
→ 1 → 1
3° u 2 , –  and v –2 , 
4 4

 
→ 2 3 →
4° u  ,  and v(10 , 9).
3 5
6 1° Let A (5 , –6) and B (2 , 1) be two
→ →
points of a system (O ; i , j ) . → →
9 Calculate t so that the vectors u and v are
→ → → collinear, in each of the following cases :
Express the vectors OA , OB and AB in terms of
→ → → →
i and j . 1° u (–1 , 5) and v (t ; t+1)
→ → → →
→ → → → 2° u (2 , 3) and v (t ; 2t)
2° If OE = – i + 2 j and EF = 4 i + 3 j , what
→ →
are the coordinates of points E and F ? 3° u (2+t , 2) and v (–t , –1) .

3° Find the coordinates of I the midpoint of → →

10 In an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) given
[AB], and of G, the centroid of triangle AEF . the following vectors :

→ → → → 2→ 1→
u = 3 i + 3 j and v = –  i +  j .
3 2
→ →
7 Given in the system (O ; i , j ) : → →
Calculate ||u || and ||v || .
→ → →
u (–2 , 3) , v (1 , 4) , w (1 , –3).
3
→ → 11 Let A(7 , –2) and B(–3 , 1) be two points
1° Write in the form of x i + y j the vectors : → →
in the system (O ; i , j ) .
→ → → → → →
a) u + v ; b) 2 u ; c) –3 v ; d) 2 u + 3 w 1° Calculate the coordinates of point H defined
→ → →
→ → by 2 HA + 5 HB = 0 .
e) –5 u – w .
2° Show that A , B and H are collinear.
2° Calculate the coordinates of points F , G and
→ → → → 3° Let C(4 , 2).
H knowing that OF = u , OG = 2 v and
→ → a) Find the coordinates of G , the center of
OH = –3 w .
gravity of triangle ABC.
3° Consider the point A(3 , 4). Calculate the
b) If I is the midpoint of [AB] , verify that the
coordinates of point B in each of the following
points G , C and I are collinear.
cases :
4° Determine the coordinates of the points O, A,
→ → → → → → → → → →
a) AB = 2 u b) AB = u – v c) AB = 2 u + v . B, H and C in the system (A ; i , j ).

125
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

→ →
12 Let ABCD be a parallelogram of center O. Consider the system (O ; OB , OC).
→
1° Find the scalar components of vector AB .
→ → →
2° Calculate the coordinates of point E defined by OE = 2 OB + OC .

3° Verify that A, B and E are collinear points.

→ →
13 G is the center of gravity of triangle ABC. Consider the system (A ; AB , AC ). Designate by I , J
and K the respective midpoints of [BC] , [CA] and [AB].

1° Calculate the coordinates of the points A , B , C , I , J and K.

→ →
2° Find a relation between AG and AI .

3° Deduce the coordinates of G .

14 Answer by True or False.

→ →
(The points and the vectors are in a system (O ; i , j ) .

1° a) A (0 , –1) is a point on the axis of abscissas.

b) TouAll the points on the abscissas’ axis has their abscissas zero.

c) All the points on the ordinates’ axis has their abscissas zero.

→ →
2° a) The vectors u (3 , –2) and v (1 , 1 ) are collinear.
2 4
→ →
b) The vectors u (1 – 2 , 1 ) and v (–3 , 1 + 2) are collinear.
3
c) The points E (–2 , 3) ,F (2 , –3) and K (4 , –6) are collinear.

For seeking
→ 1→ → 2 →
15 Let ABDC be a parallelogram. Points E and F are defined by AE =  AC and EF =  ED .
3 5
→ →
By using the system (A ; AB , AC ), show that the points B , C and F are collinear.

126
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

→ →
16 ABCD is a parallelogram of center O. Consider the system (A ; AB , AD).

1° Find the coordinates of the points A, B, C, D and O.

2° Find the coordinates of I, J, K and L the midpoints of [AB], [BC], [CD] and [DA] respectively.

3° Show that IJKL is a parallelogram.

→ → → → →
4° Calculate the coordinates of point E defined by 2 EA + EB – 3 EC + 2 ED = 0 .

→ → → → → →
5° Let F be defined by AF = –3 AB + 5 AC. Calculate the components of AF of 2 AF and of –3 AF .

→ →
17 Let ABCD be a right trapezoid at A and D , such that AB = 3DC and AD = DC .
→ →
1° Find the coordinates of A , B , C and D in the system A ; AB , AD  .

2° (BC) cuts (AD) at P , calculate the coordinates of P .

3° (AC) cuts (BD) at O , calculate the coordinates of O .

→
4° Suppose that AD = 3 cm , calculate ||PO || .

→ →
18 Consider , in the system (O ; i , j ) , the points E(1 ; 3) , F(7 ; 6) and G(4 ; a) .

1° Draw a figure .

2° Determine the real number a so that E , F and G are collinear .

3° Determine a so that G is the midpoint of [EF] .

4° Can we determine a so that O is the center of gravity of triangle EFG ? Justify .

5° Can OEFG be a trapezoid ? If yes , determine the possible values of a .

→ →
19 Given the points A(– 2 ; 1) , B(4 ; – 3) and C(– 1 ; 2) in a system (O ; i , j ) .
→ → →
1° Calculate the coordinates of point D defined by AD = – 2BC + 3AC .

2° Let M (m + 1 ; 2m – 3) . Calculate m so that A , B and M are collinear .

3° Calculate the coordinates of G the center of gravity of triangle ABC .

→ →
4° Calculate the coordinates of B in the system (A ; i , j ) .

127
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

→ →
20 Let OAB be any triangle. In the system (O ; OA , OB ) , M and N are the points defined by :
→ → → →
OM = t OA and ON = (1 – t) OB , where t is a real number.
→ → →
1° Calculate the coordinates of Q defined by OQ = OM + ON .
→ →
2° Show that A, B and Q are collinear. What is the relation between BQ and BA ?

3° For what values of t is point Q between A and B ?

4° Calculate t so that the lines (AB) and (MN) are parallel.

→ → → → → → → →
21 In the system (O ; i , j ) given the vectors : v = –2 i + 3 j ; OA = i – 2 j ;
→ → → → → → → → →
OB = 3 i – 4 j ; OC = – i + 2 j and OM = x i + y j .
→ → → →
1° Calculate the components of vector u = 2 OB – 3 OC + 3 BA .

2° Find a relation between x and y so that :

a) A, B and M are collinear.

→
b) M is on the parallel to v passing through A.
→ →
3° Calculate x and y so that AM = – 2 v .

4° Calculate the coordinates of point G , the centroid of triangle ABC.

→ → →
5° Find the coordinates of point D such that AD = –2 BC + 3 BD.

6° Calculate the coordinates of points O, A, B and C in :

→ →
a) the system (B ; i , j )
→ →
b) the system (D ; i , j )
→ → → → → → → →
7° Compare the scalar components of AB and AC in the systems (O; i , j ) , (B ; i , j ) and (D; i , j ).

22 Let ABCD be a square having a side of 1 cm. Construct inside this square the equilateral triangle
ABE and on the exterior the equilateral triangle BCF.
D C
→ →
1° What are the coordinates of the vectors DE and DF in the E
→ →
system (A ; AB , AD ) ? F
2° Show that D, E and F are collinear.
A B

128
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

23 The adjacent figure shows a square ABCD and a right isosceles D C

1
triangle AIE at I with AI =  AB , A , I and B are collinear and F is a
2
point
→ 1→ E P
such that AF =  AC .
4 F
1° Determine the coordinates of A , B , C , D , I , F and E in the
→ →
system A ; AB , AD  . I
A B
2° Show that the points B , E and F are collinear .

3° Calculate EF .

4° (BC) intersects (IF) at P . Calculate the coordinates of P .

24 Given a rectangle ABCD as shown in the adjacent figure . I and D C

J are the respective midpoints of [AB] and [AD] . E is the point of
→ →
intersection of (BJ) and (DI) . Consider the system A ; AI , AJ  and
J
designate by (x0 ; y0) the coordinates of point E . E

1° Determine the coordinates of points A , B , C , D , I and J .

A I B
2° Using the collinearity of points B , E and J on one hand and the
collinearity of points D , E and I on the other hand , show that 2x0 +
y0 = 2 and x0 + 2y0 = 2 .
Deduce the coordinates of point E .

3° Prove that the points A , E and C are collinear .

To go further

I Consider a triangle OAB .

→ → → →
1° Place the points C and D defined by : OC = 3OA and CD = 3AB .
→ → →
2° a) Verify that OD = 3(OA + OB ) .
b) Deduce that the points O , B and D are collinear .

3° By choosing a convenient system , determine the coordinates of all the points of the figure , and prove
that the points O , B and D are collinear .

129
 COORDINATE SYSTEM

II Consider a triangle ABC ; E is the midpoint of [BC] .

→ → → → 1→ → 2 →
I , J and F are points defined by : IA + IB = 0 ; AJ =  AC and IF =  IJ .
→
4 3
1→ 1→
1° Draw a figure and show that IF =  AC –  AB .
6 3
→ → → →
2° Express AE and AF in terms of AB and AC . Conclude .
→ →
3° Show that (A ; AB , AC ) is a system in the plane .
4° Determine the coordinates of all the points of the figure . Conclude .

III In the adjacent figure , ATIE is a square of side 1 . E M I

K is a variable point of [TI] and L is the midpoint of [TA] .
SAL is an equilateral triangle and KIMO is a square . K
O
→ →
Consider the system (A ; AT , AE ) and designate by x the length of the side of KIMO . S

1° Determine the coordinates of points A , T , I , E , L and S .

2° Express , in terms of x , the coordinates of K and O .
A H L T
3° Calculate x so that the lines (TO) and (SE) are parallel .

IV Part A B

M is the midpoint of [AC] .

→ →
1° Calculate BA – CB  .
→ 2→ → → → → →
F , D and E are points defined by BF =  BC , AD = 2AC and CE = AC + AB .
3
2° Construct the points F , D and E .
→ → → →
3° Express AE then AF in terms of AB and AC .
4° Deduce that A , E and F are collinear .
→ → →
5° Compare the vectors FA + FD and FB . Deduce that F is the center of A M C
gravity of triangle BAD .

Part B
→ → → 1→ → 1→
Consider the system (M ; i , j ) such that i =  MC and j =  MB .
3 4
→ 1 →
P is the point defined by EP =  EF and K is the symmetric of A with respect to B .
2
1° Determine the coordinates of points A , B , K , D and F . Justify .
2° Show that xE = 12 , then find the coordinates of E and P .
3° Prove that K belongs to line (DP) .

130
10
TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE
ORIENTED ARC
A brief history
TRIGONOMETRY was known a long ago.
During the Vth and IVth centuries, the Babylonians were interested in the
cotangent where they constructed a table. The unit used was the degree which is
the division of the circle in six parts of 60° (60 was the numerical base of
Babylonians).
The Greeks were profited of the results of Babylonians to find the relations
between the angles in a circle and the lengths of the intercepted-chords. For
example :
ARISTARCHUS established the ratio of the distance of the earth from the moon
and that of the earth from the sun.
HIPPOCRATES considered as the FATHER OF TRIGONOMETRY drew a table
of chords which prepared the table of sines.
PTOLEMY worked on these same tables in his book. “THE ALMAGEST” .
Later on, the Hindus used the «half-chord of the double arc» and gave him a name
which became the actual sine.
The mathematicians Arabs, then the Latins, did perfectly the tables and the
methods of trigonometric calculations.
The notion of oriented angles and their measures in radian, were appeared at
XVIIIth century with EULER. This radian, which permits associating angle and
length, becomes, at the begining of XXth century, the legal unit used by scientists.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

1. Units of arcs and angles 5. Trigonometric circle

2. Relation between the degree 6. Measure of oriented arcs
and the radian 7. Principal determination or
3. Length of an arc of a circle the princial measure of an arc
4. Orientation of a circle

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Pairs of kissing lips are not embarassed by the trigonometry.»

F. Soddy

131
 P reliminary activity
TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE - ORIENTED ARC

Let (C) be a circle of center O and radius 1, (1 unit). positive sense

A central angle is measured from a radius [OA], considered the +

reference axis, and the intercepted arc of this angle is B
measured from point A, considered as origin (starting point).
O +30° start
This angle and its arc have the same measure that can be
− 45° A
positive or negative,
as indicated in the adjacent figure. _
 C negative

 
The algebraic measure of arc AB is denoted by
(c) sense
  


meas AB ou AB ; here, meas AB = AB = 30° and meas AC =
AC = – 45°.

 
1° Locate on this circle, the points D,E,F and G such that :
 
AD = 225° ; AE = – 120° ; meas AF = 60° ; meas AG = – 50° .

2° A complete turn in the positive sense corresponds to 360°° .

A complete turn in the negative sense corresponds to – 360°° .

Arc AH has a measure of 480° :
(480°° = 360°° + 120°°) , that is a whole turn in the positive sense and 120° more. H +
+480
a) Place on this circle the point K such that :
 A
meas AK = 570° . O

b) What is the number of full turns and in which sense ?


3° Arc AI has a measure of – 480° :
(– 480°° = – 360°° – 120°°) , that is a whole turn in the negative sense and –
120° more.
O A
a) Place on this circle the point R such that :
 I − 480
meas AR = – 570° .
_
b) What is the number of full turns and in which sense ?
+
4° Place on this circle the point T such that

meas AT = 885° . O A
Which arc, included between 0° and 360°, has the
same extremity T ?
_

132
 1 UNITS OF ARCS ANS ANGLES

To measure the arcs and the angles we use :

1° The degree (°°)

A central angle of measure 1° , intercepts an arc of the circle which is the r
r

1
ra
th
360 part of this circle. This arc has a measure of 1° .

d
1 rad
O
2° The radian (rad) is the measure of the arc whose length is equal to r
the radius of this circle.
The corresponding central angle to this arc has for measure 1 rad.
1 rad  57°° 17′′ 45″″ .

2 RELATION BETWEEN THE DEGREE AND THE RADIAN

The circumference of a circle of radius r being 2πr, the measure in radians of this circle is 2π since
the arc of length r is equivalent to 1 rad.
π rad corresponds to 360°° , or π rad corresponds to 180°°.
2π
Let a be the measure of an angle in degrees and b its measure in radians. We therefore have the
formula of conversion :
a b
=.
180 π

The following table gives the measures in degrees and radians of particular angles.

Degrees 30 45 60 90 180 270 360

    3
Radians     π  2π
6 4 3 2 2

133
 EXAMPLES

1. An angle measures 72°. Its measure b in radians is given by :

b 72 72 2
= so b =  =  rad.
 180 180 5
5
2. An angle measures  rad. Its measure a in degrees is :
12
5

a 12 180 × 5 180 × 5
 =  , so a =  =  12 = 75° .
180  12

3 LENGTH OF AN ARC OF A CIRCLE

Let (C) be a circle of center O and radius r. A and B are two points of (C)
B l
forming an arc
 A
AB of length l, intercepted by a central angle of measure α rad.
r α
The length of a circle, that is an arc of 2π rad, r

is 2πr. The length of arc AB is : O
l 
 =  , so l = rα α.
2r 2
In the case where r = 1 , l = .
(C)

Remark

If d is the measure in degrees of AOB , then
d
l = rππ  from the formula of conversion.
180

EXAMPLES


1. The length of an arc intercepted by a central angle measuring  rad in a circle of radius 5cm
4
is :
5 5
l = rα =  cm , so l =  cm ~ 3.927 cm.
4 4

2. A cyclist moves on a circular path of radius 100m.

The covered distance after a rotation of 60° is :
d 60
l = rπ  = 100π  m ~ 104.72 m.
180 180

134
 3. The big hand of a clock measures 12cm.
The distance covered by the extremity of this hand after 15 minutes is :
d 90
l = rπ  = 12π  cm ~ 18.85 cm.
180 180
4. A horse covers a distance of 5km on a circular path having a diameter of
500 m. The measure in radians, of the arc α described by the horse is :
l 5000
α =  =  rad = 20 rad.
r 250

4 ORIENTATION OF A CIRCLE

Let A and M be two points on a circle (C) of center O. There are two M
possibilities to move from A to M . +


considered, by convention, the positive or direct sense,

(anticlockwise). A


O
considered the negative or indirect sense, (clockwise).
The circle on which a positive sense is chosen, is called oriented circle.
_



Arc AM , denoted by AM is called an oriented arc; A is its origin and
 (C)
M its extremity. Its algebraic measure is denoted by meas AM or AM
.

5 TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE
B
Having chosen a unit, any circle +
having a radius of 1, an origin
(here A) and a sense of →
rotation, is called j
a trigonometric circle.
O → A (origin of acrcs)
The center O of the i
trigonometric circle is the
origin of an orthonormal
→ →
system (O; i , j )
→ → → →
wehere i = OA and j = OB .
The length of the circle of radius r is 2πr , therefore the length of the trigonometric circle is 2π.

135
 6 MEASURE OF THE ORIENTED ARCS
B
Let (C) be an oriented circle of center O. A and B are two points A

on (C) such that angle AOB has a measure of α rad , where +
α
α  [0 ; ].

To move from A to B, we can move in two different senses : direct O

or indirect. –2π + α


The following table indicates the measures of the oriented arc AB (C)
after a certain number of full turns.

After ... 0 turn 1 turn 2 turns n turns

Direct sense α α + 2π α + 2.2π α + n2π

Indirect sense –2π+α (–2π+α) – 2π (–2π+α) – 2,2π (–2π+α) –n2π


These measures can be summarized as follows :
AB = α + k 2π
π where k ∈  .

EXAMPLES


Angle O of triangle AOB measures  rad.
4

 
1. In the direct sense : AB =  rad.
4

 

2. In the indirect sense : AB = –2π +  rad.
4 
B

 A
+

4
3. After two turns in the direct sense :

 
4 


4 
AB =  + 2.2π rad =  + 4π rad. 
O

–2 + 
4. After three turns in the indirect sense : 4

 

4 

AB = –2π + – 3.2π rad =  – 8π rad .
4

136
 7 PRINCIPAL DETERMINATION OR THE PRINCIPAL
MEASURE OF AN ARC


Among all the measures of the oriented arc AB , there is one and only one that belongs to the
π ; π] , it is called :
interval ]-π


the principal determination or the principal measure of AB .

EXAMPLES

 7
1. An oriented arc AB has a measure of  rad.
4

7 8  – 
 =  –  =  + 2π with –  ∈ ]–π ; +π] .
4 4 4 4 4

–  is the principal measure of this arc.
4

–11 –12   
2. Similarly :  =  +  =  – 2π with  ∈ ]–π ; +π] .
6 6 6 6 6

 is the principal measure of this arc .
6

3. 1220° = 3 × 360° + 140° with 140° ∈ ]–180° ; +180°] .

140° is the principal measure of this arc.

4. 1.5 rad is a principal measure since 1.5  ]–π ; π] .

137
 TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE - ORIENTED ARC

Exercises and problems

5
Test your knowledge Indicate the circles oriented positively.

1 Complete the following table. M

Degrees 135 –210 660

A A
O O
5
Radians  –5
  –12 4.75
6 4
(C1) M
(C2)

2 Let (C) be a circle having a radius of 4cm. M

Complete the table where l designates the length
in cm of the arc (C) intercepted by the arc α in M
radians. A A
O O
length of the arc
7 11.6 16π
l in cm (C3) (C4)
arc : α rad 6 
  1.25
13 12

3 Let (C) be a circle having a radius of 5cm. 6 1°° Draw an oriented circle (C) of center O
Complete the following table where l designates and radius 3cm, where A is the origin of the arcs.
the length in cm of the arc of (C) intercepted by
the arc α in degrees.
2°° Locate points M, N, P and L such that :

  
length of the  2 5
  
arc l in cm 4 3 9 AM = 120°, AN = –75°, AP = 7π rad and

arc : α° 36° 144° 18°  –5

AL =  rad.
3

3°° Locate points E, F, G and H such that :

4 An arc of a circle has a length of 3 cm.

Calculate the radius of the circle if the central
 
–3
AE = 60°, AF =  rad,
4

angle measures :

1° 1.2 rad 2° 18°.

 9

AG =  rad and AH = –780°.
4

138
 TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE - ORIENTED ARC

  B
7 Arc AB measures  rad.
3 
Indicate if the arc whose measure is given below has the same extremity B : 
3
4 7 19 O A
1°  rad 3°  rad 5°  rad
3 3 3
– –5 –35
2°  rad 4°  rad 6°  rad.
3 3 3

 –
8 Arc AB measures  rad.
6
Indicate if the arc whose measure is given below has the same extremity B : A
O − 
23 –11 –13 6
1°  rad 3°  rad 5°  rad
6 6 6 B

7 31 41
2°  rad 4°  rad 6°  rad.
6 6 6

9  4
Let (C) be an oriented circle. A is the origin of arcs and B is a point such that : AB =  rad.


3
Give four other measures of AB .

10 Find the principal measure of each of the following arcs :

 –7 11
 rad ;  rad ; –2,120° ;  rad ; –1,680° ; 3,105° ;
5 32 2

– 47 –11
 rad ; –7π rad ;  rad ; 2.14 rad .
4 2

11 Answer by True or False.

1° It is possible to measure an arc in radians.
2° The length of the circumference divided by the length of its diameter gives 2π.
3° An arc of π radians is equivalent to an arc of π degrees.
3
4°  rad is equivalent to 108°.
5
5° 1° is equivalent to 0.017 rad.
6° A right angle measures  rad.
7° On a circle of radius r , an angle  rad intercepts an arc of length r .

139
 TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE - ORIENTED ARC

For seeking

12 The minutes’ hand of a clock measures 15cm. What distance will its extremity covers in 40 min ?

13 The radii of two concentric circles measure respectively 5cm and

D 150°
 
8cm. A central angle of 150° intercepts arcs AB and CD on each of the B C
O A
two circles. What are the lengths of these two arcs ?

14 Show that the following figures have the

same perimeter. R
R 2 rad

R R
(2)
(1)

15 k being an integer, locate on a trigonometric circle the extremities of the arcs having the following
measures :
 2k  2k 2 k  k
1°  + k2 ; 2°  + k2 ; 3°  ; 4° –  +  ; 5°  +  ; 6° –  +  .
3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3

To go further
I Find the principal measure of each of the following arcs :
7π 23π π
 ; – 1.5 rad ; – 202° ;  ; 1.845° ; – 21  .
32 3 4

II (C) is a circle with radius 4 cm .

1° Find the measure , in radians , of the central angle corresponding to an arc of the circle of length
18 cm .
2° Find the length of an arc of the circle with measure 150° .

III (C) is a trigonometric circle with center O and A is the origin of arcs .


Determine and plot the points M on (C) such that :
 π
1° 4 AOM = π + K . 2π ; K   . 3° 2 AM = K  ; K   .


2
 π π
2° 3 AOM = π + K . 2π ; K   . 4° 2 AM = –  + K  ; K   .
4 2

140
11
TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

A brief history
Stars’
Claude Ptolemy (100-170) Saturn sphere
TRIGONOMETRY was known a long ago.
At Vth and IVth cemturies, the Babylonians were
interested in the cotangent where they
constructed a table. The unit used was the Sun
degree which is the division of the circle in
six parts of 60° (60 was the numerical
base of Babylonians). Venus
The Greeks benefited of the results of
Babylonians to find the relations
between the angles in a circle and the Mercury
lengths of the intercepted-chords. For
example :
ARISTARCHUS established the ratio Earth
of the distance of the earth from the
moon and that of the earth from the Moon
sun.
HIPPOCRATES considered as the Mars
FATHER OF TRIGONOMETRY drew a Jupiter
table of chords which prepared the table
of sines.
PTOLEMY worked on these same tables in
his book. “THE ALMAGEST” .
Later on, the Hindus used the «half-chord of
the double arc» and gave him a name which
became the actual sine.
The mathematicians Arabs, then the Latins, did
perfectly the tables and the methods of trigonometric
calculations.
The notion of oriented angles and their measures in radian, were appeared
at XVIIIth century with EULER. This radian, which permits associating angle and length, becomes, at the begining
of XXth century, the legal unit used by scientists.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

1. Trigonometric ratios in a right triangle

2. Trigonometric lines in the trigonometric circle
3. Signs of trigonometric ratios
4. Trigonometric ratios of some remarkable arcs
5. Associated arcs and angles

Claude Ptolemy EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

(100 - 170)

«The winding , wavy lines of her heautiful body...»

Hyppolyte Tain

141
 P reliminary activity
TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

ABC is a right triangle such that : AB = 3 cm and AC = 4 cm.

1° Calculate BC .

2° a) Calculate cos B , cos C , sin B , sin C , tan B and tan C .

 
b) Using the calculator, find in degrees the measure of angles B and C .

3° Calculate cos2 B + sin2 B then cos2 C + sin2 C .

4° Compare cos B and sin C , sin B and cos C .

5° Compare to 1 , the numbers sin B , sin C , cos B and cos C .

6° By using the calculator, can we find tan 90° ? tan 270° ?

142
 1 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS IN A RIGHT TRIANGLE

In the right triangle ABC , BC is the length of the hypotenuse, AC the length C
 
of the side opposite to angle B and AB is the length of the side adjacent to B
.

A B


The cosine of angle B , denoted by cos B, is defined by :

 
AB adjacent side
cos B =   .
BC hypotenuse

The sine of angle B , denoted by sin B is defined by :

 
AC opposite side
sin B =   .
BC hypotenuse

The tangent of angle B , denoted by tan B or tg B, is defined by :

 
AC opposite side
tan B =   .
AB adjacent side

The cotangent of angle B , denoted by cot B or cotg B, is defined by :

 
AB adjacent side
cot B =   .
AC opposite side

The sine, cosine, tangent and cotangent of angle B are called Trigonometric ratios, or
trigonometric lines of this angle.

Remarks
• In the right triangle ABC we have : AB2 + AC2 = BC2 .
AC2 AB2 AC2 + AB2 BC2
Hence : sin2B + cos2B =  2 + 2 =  2 = = 1.
BC BC BC BC2
sin2 B + cos2 B = 1
This relation is known as the «fundamental relation».
• From the definition of tanB and cotB we have :
1
cot B =  .
tan B

143
 2 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES ON THE
TRIGONOMETRIC CIRCLE

1° Definitions
a) Cosine and sine of an angle
Let (C) be the trigonometric circle of center O , the origin of y
→ →
the orthonormal system (O ; OA , OB ), M any point on (C)

and α the principal determination of arc AM . H and P are
B
the orthogonal projections of M on the axes .
P M
By definition, the cosine of  is the abscissa of M in the
→ →
system (O ; OA , OB ) and the sine of  is the ordinate of M sin 

in this system. x′ x
O cos  H A
We write cos  = O
H and sin  = O
P
 , therefore M (cos 
, sin ). (C)
The abscissa axis is the cosine axis and the ordinate axis is
the sine axis.
y′

b) Tangent and cotangent of an angle y

z
The tangent at A to (C) cuts (OM) at T and the tangent at B
to (C) cuts (OM) in S . By definition tan  = A
T and B cot  S t
t′
cot  = B
S. M T
The axis z′′z , having the same sense as y′y , is called the tan 
tangent axis and the axis t′′t , having the same sense as x′x , is 
called the cotangent axis. x′ A x
O

(C)

z′
y′

144
2° Properties y
z +
a) For any point M (cos  , sin ) of (C) the abscissa and
the ordinate are included between –1 and 1 therefore –1  B S t
t′
cos α  1 and P M T
(cos , sin )
–1  sin α  1 or sin 
 H
⏐cos α⏐  1 and ⏐sin α⏐  1 . x′ cos  A x
O
Whereas tan α and cot α vary between ]– ∞ , +∞
∞[ .

(C)
b) In the right triangle OHM we have :
HM2 + OH2 = OM2 , so sin2 α + cos2 α = 1. We find the z′
y′
fundamental relation.

c) Triangles OHM and OAT are similar, therefore :

M
H  O H
 H
O M
H  sin 
===O H so A
T =  , therefore tan  =  .
T
A A
O  1 H
O  cos 

Similarly, triangles OPM and OBS are similar, therefore :

M
P P
O P
O  M
P cos 
===O P S =  , therefore cot  =  .
 so B
S
B B
O 1 P
O  sin 
1
These two relations give cot  =  .
tan 

3° Other formulas
By dividing both sides of the fundamental relation
cos2 α + sin2  = 1 by cos2  where cos α ≠ 0, we obtain :
1 1
1 + tan2  =  or cos2  =  .
cos2  1 + tan2 

Similarly , by dividing both sides of cos2  + sin2  = 1 by sin2 α where sin α ≠ 0, we obtain :
1 1 tan2 
1 + cot2  =  or sin 2  =  =  .
sin2  1 + cot2  1 + tan2 

145
 3 SIGNS OF TRIGONOMETRIC LINES
→ →


Let (C) be the trigonometric circle of center O , the origin of the system (O ; OA , OB ). Any point
M of (C) such that AM = α is defined by M(cos α , sin α).


• If M varies on the minor arc AB y



(first quadrant), that is B 2

P M

0, 
2 x′ A
O H 0 x
then sin α  0 , cos α  0 and tan   0.

y′


• If M varies on the minor arc BC y


 B
(second quadrant), that is 2
M
P

,  x
2 x′ C

H O A
then sin α  0 , cos α  0 and tan   0.

y′


• If M varies on the minor arc CD y

B
(third quadrant), that is

3  H x
, x′ C O A
2
then sin α  0 , cos α  0 and tan   0. P
M 3

2
D
y′

146
 
• If M varies on the minor arc DA (fourth quadrant),

that is y y
B B
3
    2 ,
2 x′ H A x x′ 
H A x
 C O 
0 C O 2
or –     0 ,
2
P P
then sin α  0 , M 3
M
D –  D 
cos α  0 and 2 2

y′ y′
tan α  0.

EXAMPLES


 
1
1. Let α be an arc defined by : α ∈  , π and sin α =  . The other trigonometric lines of α
2 3
should be calculated.
π
 
1 8
• cos2 α = 1 – sin2 α = 1 –  =  . Since α ∈  , π , cos α < 0 therefore :
9 9 2
– 22
cos α =  .
3
1

sin  3 –1
• tan α =  =  =  .
cos  – 22 22

3
1
• cot α =  = – 22 .
tan 


 
2. Let α be an arc defined by : α ∈ –  , 0 and tan α = –3. The other trigonometric lines of α
2
should be calculated .
1 1
• cot α =  = –  .
tan  3

 
1 1 1
• cos2 α =  =  =  . Since α ∈ –  , 0 , cos α > 0
1 + tan  1 + 9 10
2 2
1
therefore : cos α =  .
10
sin  1 –3
• tanα =  , sin α = cos × tanα =  × (–3) , therefore sin α =  .
cos  10 10

147
 4 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES OF SOME REMARKABLE
ARCS


1° M is a point of the trigonometric circle
B +
(C) defined by AM =  where M(O
H
,O
P
), or M(cos  , sin ).
• If M is confounded with A, then α = 0 and M(1,0), hence : P M
C α
O H A

cos 0 = 1 , sin 0 = 0 and tan 0 = 0

(C) D

• If M is confounded with B, then α = 
2
and M(0,1), hence :
  
cos  = 0 , sin  = 1 and tan  does not exist
2 2 2

• If M is confounded with C, then α = π and M(–1,0), hence :

cos  = –1 , sin  = 0 and tan  = 0

3
• If M is confounded with D, then α =  and M(0,–1), hence :
2
3 3 3
cos  = 0 , sin  = –1 and tan  does not exist
2 2 2


y
 +
2° M is such that AM =  rad ,
6 B
 
H
M(O,O
6 
) or M cos  , sin  .
P
6  P
1 1
M
 
2  x
6
OHM is semi equilateral, hence :
x′ O 3
 H A
1 3 2
M
H=O
P =  and O=,
H
2 2
(C)
It follows :
y′

 3  1  3
cos  =  , sin  =  and tan  = 
6 2 6 2 6 3

148
 

3° M is such that AM =  rad,
4
B
y +

 
H
M(O ,OP 
) or M cos  , sin  .
4 4  P M
2 1
OHM is right isosceles 
2 

4 x
(HO = HM), hence :
x′ O 2
 H A
H
O2 + H
M
2 = O
 H
M 2, 2O 2 = 1, 2

2
O==H
H M
=O
P
, (C)
2
It follows : y′

 2  2  
cos  =  , sin  =  and tan  = 1
4 2 4 2 4
4° M is such

rad,
 
that AM = 
3 B
P
y

M
+

3 1
  
H
M(O,O
3 
) or M cos  , sin  .
P
3  2 


1
3 x
x′ O 
2
H A
OHM is semi equilateral, hence :
3 1
M
H=O =  and O
P =.
H (C)
2 2
y′
 1  3 
cos  =  , sin  =  and tan  = 3
3 2 3 2 3
The following table summarizes the trigonometric lines of the remarkable arcs.

α     3
0     π 
in radians 6 4 3 2 2
1 2 3
sin α 0    1 0 –1
2 2 2
3 2 1
cos α 1    0 –1 0
2 2 2
3
tan α 0  1 3 0
3
3
cot α 3 1  0 0
3
Remark
 3
tan  , tan  , cot 0 and cot  do not exist.
2 2
149
 5 ANGLES OR ASSOCIATED ARCS


In all this paragraph M1 is the point of the trigonometric circle such that
AM 1 =  . y

α and – α)

1° Opposite arcs (α B
+
Let M2 be a point of (C) such that AM 2 = – . Q M1
The two points M1 and M2 being
symmetrical with respect to the axis x′x have  P x
x′ O – A
the same abscissa and opposite ordinates, P′
hence :
(C) Q′ M2
sin (– ) = – sin  tan (– ) = – tan 
cos (– ) = cos  cot (– ) = – cot  y′

2° Supplementary arcs y
α and π – α)
(α
+


Let M3 be the point of (C) such that B
M3 Q′ Q M1
AM 3 =  –  .
The two points M1 and M3 being symmetrical with respect to the ordinate –
 P x
axis y′y have the same ordinate and opposite abscissas, hence :
x′ P′ O A

(C)
sin( – ) = sin tan( – ) = –tan
cos( – ) = – cos cot( – ) = –cot y′

3° Arcs differ by y
π (α
α and π + α)
+ B


Let M4 be the point of (C) such that
Q M1
AM 4 =  +  .

The two points M1 and M4 being symmetrical with respect to the +  P x
P′
origin O , have opposite coordinates, hence : x′ O A

M4 Q′
sin( + ) = – sin  tan( + ) = tan (C)
cos( + ) = – cos cot( + ) = cot y′

150
4° Complementary Arcs y
π
α and  – α)
(α + B
M′
2 Q′
Let M ′ be the point of (C) such that

Q π
M1
 –
 2
 x
AM ′ =  –  .
2 x′ O P′ P A
The two points M1 and M′ are symmetrical with respect to the first
bisector (D) of the system, of equation y = x . We show that : The
abscissa of M′ is the ordinate of M1 and the ordinate of M′ is the (C)
(D) : y = x
abscissa of M1 , hence : y′

 
 
sin  –  = cos 
2  
tan  –  = cot 
2
 
 
cos  –  = sin 
2  
cot  –  = tan 
2

π y
5° Arcs differ by  +
2
π B
α and  + α)
(α M
Q′
2 Q M1
 +


2
Let M be the point of (C) such that 
 x
AM =  +  . x′ P′ O P A
2

M
The two triangles OPM1 and OP′M are congruent hence P1 = – (C)
P
O′
y′
P
and O=P
′M
 , therefore :

 
 
sin  +  = cos 
2  
tan  +  = – cot 
2
 
 
cos  +  = – sin 
2  
cot  +  = – tan 
2

π (α
6° Arcs differ by k2π α and α + k2π
π) k  
The arcs α and α + k 2π where k ∈  have the same trigonometric lines on the trigonometric circle
since they have the same extremity. Hence :
sin ( + k2) = sin  tan ( + k2) = tan 
cos ( + k2) = cos  cot ( + k2) = cot 

151
 EXAMPLES
5 5 4  
1. The arc  rad is written as :  =  +  = π +  . Its trigonometric
4 4 4 4 4
lines are :
  2
 
5
sin  = sin  +  = – sin  = –  ;
4 4 4 2
  2
 
5
cos  = cos  +  = – cos  = –  ;
4 4 4 2
5 5
tan  = 1 and cot  = 1 .
4 4

5 5 6  
2. The arc  rad is written as :  =  –  = π –  . Its trigonometric
6 6 6 6 6
lines are :
  1
 
5
sin  = sin  –  = sin  =  ;
6 6 6 2
  3
 
5
cos  = cos  –  = – cos  = –  ;
6 6 6 2
5 –3 5
tan  =  and cot  = – 3 .
6 3 6

– 13 – 13 – 12  

3. The arc  rad is written as :  =  –  = –2π –  . Its trigonometric lines are :
6 6 6 6 6

 – 
   
– 13 1
sin  = sin –2 –  = sin  = – sin  = –  ;
6 6 6 6 2
 –  3
   
– 13
cos  = cos –2 –  = cos  = cos  =  ;
6 6 6 6 2
3
   
– 13 – 13
tan  = –  and cot  = –3 .
6 3 6

4. The arc 135° is written as : 135° = 90° + 45° .

2
sin(135°) = sin(90° + 45°) = cos 45° =  ;
2
–2
cos(135°) = cos (90° + 45°) = – sin 45° =  ;
2
tan(135°) = – 1 and cot(135°) = – 1.

152
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

Exercises and problems

3
Test your knowledge ABC is a right triangle at C such that
3
tan A =  and BC = 6cm.
4
1 In which quadrant is situated the Calculate : A
extremity of the arc measuring :
7 –23 1° AC
260°  rad  rad
3 6
– 2° AB
–300°  rad 6 rad
4
16 3° sin A
470°  rad 1,300° ?
3
4° tan B

2 Find the value of x in each of the

5° cos B
following cases :
1° B 6° sin B
B C
6cm
x 7° cos A.

25°
C
6cm A
2° A 4 Find the exact value of each of the
following expressions.
x
 
1° sin  + cos
4 4
64°
B 6.5cm C  
2° 2 sin  cos 
6 6
3° B x
A
 
3° 2 sin  – cos π + tan2 
3 4

4cm
 7 3
4° sin  + cos  + tan 
40° 3 6 4

tan 0° + tan 60°

5°  .
C 1 – tan 0° . tan 60°

153
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES


 
5 Without using the calculator find the
9 Let α be the arc such that : α ∈  , π
angle  in each case : 2
 1 –12
1° 0 <  <  and sin  =  and cos α =  . Without using the calculator,
2 2 13
 3 find sin α, tanα and cot α.
2°  <  <  and sin  = 
2 2

 
1
3° 0 <  <  and cos  = –  10 Let  be the arc such that    , 
2 2
 3 and 3 sin2  = 1. Calculate the exact values of
4° –  <  < –  and cos  = – 
2 2
 sin , tan  and cot  .
5° 0 <  <  and tan  = 3
2

 
 3
6° –  <  < 0 and tan  = – 1 . 11 Let α be the arc such that : α ∈ π , 
2 2
and tan α = 2 . Without using the calculator,
6 Using the calculator, calculate to the
calculate cosα, sinα and cotα.
nearest 10–3 each of the following :

1° sin 35° 4° tan 15° 20′ 12 Let  be the arc such that :    ; 
2  
3 and 9 cot2  = 4 . Calculate the exact values of
2° cos 213° 5° tan 
5
 cot  , tan  , cos  and sin  .
3° cos 32° 15′
 
6° sin –  .
7
13 Simplify the following expressions :
7 Using the calculator , find an approximate
1° cos α - cos3 α
value of angle a , expressed in degrees, minutes
and seconds, in each case : 2° sin2 α cos α + cos3 α

1° sin a = 0.3 4° cos a = – 0.4 3° 1

–in
s . 1
+in
s
1
2° tan a = 23 5° cos a =  (1 – cos2 ) tan2 
3 4° 
1 1 + tan2 
3° sin a = –  6° tan a = – 42 .
5 1
5°  .
(1 + tan ) (cos2  – 1)
2

8 Without using the calculator, calculate the

trigonometric lines of each of the following arcs : 14 Show that the following expressions are
constant.
22 – 25 – 23
 rad ;  rad ;  rad ; –150° ; 1° sin α cos α (tan α + cotα) ;
3 4 3
sin2  cot2  1
2°  ; 3° cos2 α +  .
300° ; 765° . 1 – sin2  1 + cot2 

154
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

15 Verify the following identities :

1 1
1° (sin α + cos α)2 – 2 sin α cos α = 1 6° sin2α – sin2β =  – 
1 + tan  1 + tan2 
2

2° (sinα + cosα)2 + (sinα – cosα)2 = 2 7° 1 – sinα . cosα . tanα = cos2α

1 1
3° (sinα + cosα)2 – (sinα–cosα)2 = 4sinα cosα 8°  – =1
sin  tan2 
2

1 sin2 
4° tan α + cot α =  9°  – cos α = 1 .
sin  cos  1 – cos 

1
5° tan2α (1 + cot2α) = 
cos2 

16 Reduce the following :

   
3 27
1° sin(4π + α) 6° sin  + α + cos  – α + sin(3π + α) – cos(7π – α)
2 2


tan ( + ) . cot  – 
2  
2° cos(α – 2π) 7°  sin ( – 3)

5 3
  
sin  –  . tan  + 
2 2 
3° cos(α − π) 8° 
cos(15 – )

cos(13 – ) . tan( + 3)

 
3
4° tan  + α 9° 
2 3

cos  – 
2 

   
3
5° sin α +  + cos(α + π) 10° cos(α + 3π) – cos(α – 3π) + sin α +  – 2cos(π – α).
2 2


17 Given 3 sin x = 1 with x between  and π.
2

1° Without using the calculator, calculate the trigonometric lines of x.

   
5 3
2° Calculate then : sin(–x) ; cos x +  ; sin x +  .
2 2

155
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

18 Answer by True or False.

For seeking

2 
1° a) We can find an arc α in 0 ,  such that
19 Without using the calculator, evaluate
sin α = 0.4 . each of the following expressions :
 1° sin2 9° + sin2 81° + cos2 45° ;
 
b) We can find an arc α in  , π such that
2
3 cosα = −1 2° sin2 91° + sin2 1° ;

 3° sin2 36° + sin2 54° + sin2 18° + sin2 72° ;


c) There exists an arc α in 0 , 
2  such that

2 cosα = 5 . 4° sin2 10° + cos2 16° + sin2 80° + cos2 74° ;

d) For any arc α we have : 3 cos α < −7 . 5° 5 sin 270° – tan 80° tan 10° . tan 40°. tan 50° ;

e) We can find an arc α such that 2cosα > 5 . cos2470°–sin210°+cos2880°–cos120°

6° G =  .
tan2 240° . tan2 390° . tan2 315°
2° For any arc α we have :
1
a) 1 + cot2α =  . 20 1° A , B and C are the angles of a triangle.
cos2 

b) cos2α − sin2α = 2cos2α − 1 . Show that :

c) sinα2 + cosα2 = 1 . a) sin (B + C) = sin A

d) tan α . cot α = 1 . b) cos (A + C) + cos B = 0

   
A+C B
e) sinα = 1
–o
c
s2
. c) sin  = cos  .
2 2
3° a) The cosine of an acute angle is positive.
2° Show that if triangle ABC is right at A , then :
b) The sine of an arc is between 0 and 1.
a) sin2 B + sin2 C = 1
2 2
c) If sin α =  then cos α =  . tan B sin2 B
2 2 b)  =  .
tan C sin2 C

3
 
1
d) The point M  , –  of the trigonometric
2 2 21 ABC is a right triangle at A .
circle of center O, origin of the orthonormal


1° a) Show that sin2 A + sin2 B + sin2 C = 2 .
→ →
system (O ; i , j ), such that AM = α with
b) Deduce the value of cos2 A + cos2 B + cos2 C .
1 3
cos α =  and sin α = –  with A(1,0) .
2 2
2° In this part BC = 3AB .

e) sinα + cos α < 2 . Calculate sin A + sin B + sin C .

156
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

22 Verify the following identities :

tan2  1
1° cos4 α – sin4 α + – = 0; 5° (1 + sinα +cosα)2 = 2(1 + sinα) (1 + cosα) ;
1 + tan2  1 + tan2 

sin2  1 – 2cos2 
2° 1 +  = 1 +tan2 α + tan4 α ; 6°  = tan α – cot α ;
cos4  sin  cos 

1
3° cos2 α (2 + tan2 α) = 2 – sin2 α ; 7° tan2 α + cot2 α +2 =  .
sin2  cos2 

4° cot2 α − cos2 α = cos2 α . cot2 α ;

5
23 Given sin x + cos x =  . Calculate :
6
1 1
1° sin x cos x 2°  +  3° tan x + cot x 4° sin3 x + cos3 x .
sin x cos x

 5 + 1
24 Knowing that cos  =  , find the exact value of :
5 4
 4 9 7
1° sin  2° cos  3° sin  4° tan  .
5 5 5 10

π 6 – 2
25 Given sin  =  .
12 4
π 6 + 2

1° Verify that cos  =  .
12 4
7π 5π 37π
2° Deduce the exact values of sin  , cos  and sin  .
12 12 12


26 An arc, included between –  and 0, verifies the relation : 3 cotx = – 4.
2
Calculate the exact value of the expression F = 4 tan x – 6 sin x – 2 cos x.


27 An arc, included between  and π , verifies the relation : 25 tan2 x = 144.
2
Calculate the exact value of the expression E = 12 cot x + 5 sin x – cos x .

 1
28 1° Knowing that tan t = 2 and 0 < t <  , calculate the exact value of  .
2 sin2 t cos2 t
 sin  1
2° Let  and  be two angles such that  –  =  ,  =  and 0 <  <  .
2 sin  2
Calculate the trigonometric lines of  .

157
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

29 Given y = 1
+in
sx . 1
–in
sx .
y
Calculate  in each of the following cases :
cos x

  9
1° –  < x <  2°  < x < 5 .
2 2 2

30 ABC is a right triangle at A verifying sin B = 22 sin C and BC = 9 .

1° Calculate AC and AB .
 
2° Calculate, with the help of the calculator, angles B and C .

1
31 1° Given  an acute angle such that 2 tan2  +  = 10 .
cos2 
Calculate tan  and deduce  . Calculate cos  and sin  .

 tan  cot  + 1
2° If  =  , calculate the exact value of the expression E =  .
4 cot  tan  – 1

32 1° Verify the equality (3 sin  – 1) (sin  – 4) = 3 sin2  – 13 sin  + 4 .

2° Calculate the trigonometric lines of arc  knowing that  is obtuse and
2 cos2  + 5 sin2  – 13 sin  + 2 = 0 .

33 All the questions are independent . (Unit of arc is the radian)

1° Calculate the value of :
π π π π
   
2 + 2 sin 31  . tan 7 
6 3   
cos –  + sin 11 
3 3 
a) A =  17π . b) B =  π π .
cos  – cos 9π cos 25  + sin 47 
6 6 6
4π 11π
2° a) Find a relation between cos  and cos  .
15 15
2π 4π 4π 11π
b) Deduce the value of E = sin  + cos  + sin  + cos  .
3 15 3 15

cos2 x π
34 Given E =  for x   , π (Unit of arc is the radian) .
(co x + sin x – 1) (cos x + sin x + 1) 2  
1 6
1° a) Show that E =  cot x . 2° Given sin x =  .
2 4
1 1
b) Show that  –  is constant . a) Find the value of cos x and tan x .
4E2 cos x
b) Calculate , in this case , the value of E .

158
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

π π
35 The unit of angle is the radian and x  I = –  ;  .
2 2  
cos x cos x
Given , on I , the expression E =  +  .
1 – sin x 1 + sin x
1° Show that E is defined for x of I .
2
2° Show that E =  .
cos x
3° Calculate x for E = 4 .

π
 
1
36 The unit of angle is the radian , x  I = 0 ;  and tan2 x +  = 19 .
2 cos2 x
1° Calculate tan x .

2° Calculate the value of E = 210 sin x – 310 cos x + 18 cot x .

3° Deduce the value of :

π π

a) cos – 7  – x .
2  b) sin (11π – x) .  
c) tan 13  + x .
2

37 The unit of angle is the radian .

π
 
cos x + sin x
x is an angle of  ; π and A =  .
2 sin x – cos x
tan x + 1
1° Show that A =  .
tan x – 1
2° Calculate sin x and cos x for A = 0 .

To go further

I In a triangle MEA we have :

tan E = (2 + 3) (2 – 3) and tan M = 2 + 3 .
4 4

Without using a calculator , show that MEA is a right triangle at A .

π π
 
sin x + 3  – sin x – 7 
2 2  
II Given E =  π π .
 
cos x – 5  – cos x + 
2 2  
π π
1° Simplify E .  2 2 
2° Solve over –  rad ,  rad , E = 3
.

159
 TRIGONOMETRIC LINES

III x and y are two complementary angles .

 
sin x sin y
Calculate the value of E = 2 sin x sin y  +  .
sin y sin x

π
 
sin x 1
IV x and y are two complementary angles and x  0 ;  rad . If  =  , calculate :
2 sin y 2
1° sin x and cos x .
π π
 
2° the value of E = 3 sin 5  – x – 2 cos x – 3  .
2 2  

π π
V
 
Given A = cos (a – 7π) – cos a – 7  – cos (a + 3π) + sin a + 3  .
2 2  
(Unit of arc is the radian) .

1° Simplify A .
–1
2° Calculate A2 when sin a =  .
2 cos a

π π
    
1 2 1 2
VI Knowing that x   rad ;  rad[ ; simplify cos2 x –  – sin2 x +  .
3 2 2 2

π
 
4
VII Given (cos x – 1)2 =  and x  –  rad ; 0 .
9 2

1° Calculate cos x and sin x . (Unit of angle is the radian)

π π
 
2° Deduce the numerical value of A = sin 5  + x – cos (17 π – x) + cos 3  + x .
2 2  

VIII Prove the following identities . (Unit of angle is the radian or degree)

1° sin2 x (10 + cot2 x) = 1 + 9 sin2 x .

3π
2° 1 – sin2  – cos2 11° – cos2 79° = – 1 .
2

2 cos x × sin x – 2 sin2 x π

3°  2 = 1 – tan x (x ≠ k  and k  ) .
(cos x + sin x) – 1 2

160
12
SCALAR PRODUCT
IN A PLANE
A brief history
The idea of multiplying two vectors is given in the work of
Bellavistis (1803-1880) professor at the University of Padova in
Italy.
In 1839, the german Hermann Grassmann (1809-1877), one of
the founders of multilinear algebra and multidimensional
geometry, throws, in his theory on «waves and tides», the basis
of vector analysis and define the product of vectors as :
“The algebraic product of a vector multiplied by the projection
of the second vector on the first”.
This product is actually our scalar product.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. Definition 5. Characterization of scalar product

2. Properties 6. General relation of Pythagoras
3. Other expressions of 7. Calculation of MA2 + MB2
scalar product 8. Calculation of MA2 – MB2
4. Consequences

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«We have products, but we don’t have any masterpiece».

Honoré de Balzac

161
 P reliminary activities
SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

Activity 1
→ →
In the plane of an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ), consider the points A(5;0) ; B(2;23) and H , the
→
orthogonal projection of B on (O , i ).

.
. B
.
.
→ .
j
α
. . . . . .
O → H A
i

→ →
1° Find the components x and y of OA and x′ and y′ of OB .

2° Calculate p = x x′ + y y′.
→ →
3° Calculate ||OA || and ||OB ||.

4° Determine tan α, sin α, cos α and deduce α.

→ →
5° Calculate p1 = ||OA || . ||OB || . cos α and verify that p = p1.

H
6° Find the value of p2 = O.O
A
 and verify that p = p1 = p2.
1
7° Calculate AB2 and the value of p3 =  (OA2 + OB2 – AB2).
2
What do you notice?

162
 P reliminary activities

SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

Activity 2
ABC is a triangle such that AB = 2; AC = 33 and H the orthogonal projection of B on (AC).


1° Case 1 : angle CAB = 30°°
a) Calculate the real number B

p = AB . AC cos CAB .
30º
b) Deduce the sign of p . A C
→ H
i


2° Case 2 : angle CAB = 90°°
Calculate the real B

p = AB . AC . cos CAB .

Conclusion.
A C


3° Case 3 : angle CAB = 120°°
B
a) Calculate the real

p = AB . AC cos CAB .

b) Deduce the sign of p .

120°
C
H A →
i

163
 1 DEFINITION

→ → → →
In the orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) the scalar product of vectors u (x,y) and v (x′,y′), written
→→ → →
u .v (we read u scalar v ) is the real xx′ + yy′.

→→
u .v = x x′′ + y y′′

Remarks

→ → → →
• If (X,Y) and (X′,Y′) are the coordinates of u and v respectively in another system (O′ ; i , j )
→ → → →→
deduced from (O ; i , j ) by the translation of vector OO′ , then u .v = XX′ + YY′=x x′ + y y′.

The scalar product of two vectors is then independent of the choice of the orthonormal

system.

→ → → → → → → →
• If u = v we obtain, u . v = u . u = x2 + y2 which we denote by u 2 (scalar square of u ). We
→
have seen that x2 + y2 = ||u ||2 , then :

→ → →2 → 2
u . u = u = ||u || = x2 + y2.

EXAMPLE
→ →
In the orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) we have the points A(2;3) ; B(−1;2) ; C(0;2) and D(3;–5).
→ →
Then : AB (–3;–1) and CD (3;–7).

→→
AB .CD = xx′ + yy′ = – 9 + 7 = – 2.

→ → →
AB 2 = AB . AB = x2 + y2 = 9 + 1 =10.

164
 2 PROPERTIES

→ → → → →
In the orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) given the vectors u (x,y), v (x′,y′) and w (x″,y″).

1° Commutativity
→→ →→
u .v = xx′ + yy′ and v .u = x′x + y′y. Since xx′ + yy′ = x′x + y′y, then :

→→ → →
u .v = v . u

2° Distributivity
→ →
The coordinates of v + w are : x′ + x″ and y′ + y″, then :
→ → →
u .(v + w ) = x (x′ + x″) + y(y′ + y″) = xx′ + xx″ + yy′ + yy″.

Or :
→→ →→
u .v = xx′ + yy′ and u .w = xx″ + yy″, then :
→→ →→
u .v + u .w = xx′ + yy′ + xx″ + yy″.
→ → → →→ →→
Therefore : u . (v + w ) = u .v + u .w

This property is known as the distributivity of scalar product with respect to the addition of
vectors.

3° Product by a real number

→ →
If α and β are any two real numbers, the coordinates of vectors αu and βv are respectively :
(αx,αy) and (βx′, βy′).
→ → →→
(αu ).(βv ) = αx . βx′ + αy . βy′ = αβxx′ + αβyy′ = αβ(xx′ + yy′) = αβ(u .v ).
→ → →→
( u ) . (v ) =  (u .v ) with    and   

4° Remarkable scalar products

Similarly, we prove :
→ → → →→ →
(u + v )2 = u 2 + 2u .v + v 2 . (1)
→ → → →→ →
(u – v )2 = u2 – 2u .v +v2 . (2)
→ → → → → →
(u + v ) . (u – v ) = u2 –v2 . (3)

165
 Remarks

• The relation (1) is equivalent to :

→ → → → 2 → 2 → 2 →→
(u + v )2 = ||u + v || = ||u || + ||v || + 2u .v ,
→→ 1 → → → →
so : 
u .v =  ||u + v ||2 – ||u ||2 – ||v ||2
2 
• The relation (2) is equivalent to :
→ → → → 2 → 2 → 2 →→
(u – v )2 = ||u – v || = ||u || + ||v || – 2u .v so :
→→ 1 → → → →

u .v =  ||u ||2 + ||v ||2 – ||u – v ||2
2 
→ → → →
We apply this result to any triangle ABC with u = AB , v = AC
→ → → → →
and u – v = AB – AC = CB . A
We obtain : → →
v u

→ → 1 C → → B
AB . AC =  (AB2 + AC2 – BC2) u –v
2

EXAMPLE

ABC is a triangle such that AB = 4 , AC = 3 and BC = 6 .

→ → 1 11
AB . AC =  (16 + 9 – 36) = –  .
2 2

3 ANOTHER EXPRESSION OF SCALAR PRODUCT

→ →
Let u and v be two given vectors in the plane. Through a point →
→ → → → v
O of this plane we draw: OA = u and OB = v . We form the
→ → →
orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) by taking A on (O , i ) . The →
→ → u
respective coordinates of OA and OB are (x,0) and (x′,y′). B
→ →
OA . OB = xx′ + 0y′ = xx′. y′
→
→ j α
If H is the orthogonal projection of B on (O, i ) , then
 → →
O →
i
x′ H A
 = OB cos (AOB) = ||OB ||cosα and x = ||OA ||.
H
x′ = O

166
then :
→ → → →
OA . OB = xx′ = ||OA || . ||OB || cos α.
→ → → → 
If u = OA , v = OB and α = AOB the angle between two vectors
→ →
u and v , then :

→ → → →
u . v = ||u || . ||v || . cos α

4 CONSEQUENCES

1° Sign of scalar product

→ →
Let u and v be two vectors in the plane and  their angle.
→→ → →
We have : u .v = ||u || . ||v || . cos α .
→ →
Since ||u || and ||v || are positive, the sign of this scalar product depends on the sign of cos α. Three
cases are to be considered :
 →→
 
• If α is acute 0  α <  , then cos α > 0 and u .v > 0.
2

 →→
 
• If α is obtuse  < α  π , then cos α < 0 and u .v < 0.
2

 →→
 
• If α is right α =  , then cos α = 0 and u .v = 0.
2

B
B B
→ →
v v
→ α
α v
α A
O → → O →
u A O u A u
→→ →→ →→
u .v > 0 u .v < 0 u .v = 0

167
 Particular cases
→→ → →
u .v = ||u || . ||v || . cos α
→ → → →→
• If u = 0 , then ||u || = 0 and u .v = 0.
→ → → →→
• If v = 0 , then ||v || = 0 and u .v = 0.
→ → → →  →→
• If u ≠ 0 , v ≠ 0 and α =  , then u .v = 0 : it is the condition of orthogonality of two
2
non-zero vectors .

→→
Conversly : u .v = 0 if :
→ → → → → →
• ||u || = 0 or ||v || = 0 then u = 0 or v = 0 ,
π
or cos α = 0 , then α =  .
2
The scalar product of two vectors is zero, if and only if, one of the vectors is zero or if they
are orthogonal.

EXAMPLE
→ → → → → →
Given in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) the vectors u and v defined by u (3,4) and v (−8,6).
→→ → →
u .v = – 24 + 24 = 0, then u and v are orthogonal.

2° Expression of the cosine of the angle of two vectors

→ →
Let u and v be two vectors and α their angle.
→ →
→→ → → u.v
u .v = ||u || . ||v || . cos α, then : cos α = → →
||u || . ||v ||
→ → → →
If (x,y) and (x′,y′) are the respective coordinates of u and v in the orthonormal system (O ; i , j )
, we obtain :

xx′′ + yy′′
cos α = 
x2+
y2 . x′2
+′′2
y
EXAMPLE
→ → 
In an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) , given A(2 ; 1) , B(– 1 ; 0) and C(2 ; 2). Denoted α angle BAC .
→ → → → → →
We have : AB (– 3 ; 1) , AC (0 ; 1) , AB . AC = 1 , ||AB || = 10 and ||AC || = 1 .
1
Therefore cos α =  .
10

168
3° Scalar product of two collinear vectors
→ → → → → → 
Let u and v be two vectors such that u = OA , v = OB and forming an angle AOB = α.
→ →
• If u and v have same sense, then
 •
α = AOB = 0, cos α = cos 0 = 1 and : O A B
→ →
OA . OB = OA . OB.
→ →  •
• If u and v have opposite senses, then α = AOB = π , cos α = cos B O A
→ →
π = – 1 and : OA . OB = – OA . OB.
We can summarize the two preceding results by :

→ →
A
OA . OB = O.O
B
 with O , A and B collinear

EXAMPLE

ABCD is a square of side 2 . D C

→ → → →
• AB . DC = AB . DC = 4 (since AB and DC are collinear with same
sense) .
→ → → →
• AD . CB = – AD . CB = – 4 (since AD and CB are collinear with A B
opposite sense) .

5 CHARACTERIZATION OF SCALAR PRODUCT

→ → 
Let OA and OB be two non-collinear vectors with AOB = α, and H
the orthogonal projection of B on (OA). Choose an orthonormal
→ → → →
system (O ; i , j ) such that OA and i are collinear.
→
Designate by (x,y), the coordinates of OA , and by (x′,y′) those of B
→
OB . The coordinates of H are then (x′,0). →
j
→ → → → α
OA . OB = xx′ + 0 = xx′ and OA . OH = xx′ + 0 = xx′.
O → H A
i

169
 → → → →
Then : OA . OB = OA . OH

The scalar product of two vectors does not change if we replace one of the vectors by its
orthogonal projection on the other (or on an axis of same direction as the other).

EXAMPLE

ABC is a right triangle at A.

B
→ → → → → →
AC . BC = AC . AC = AC 2 since AC is the orthogonal
→ →
projection of BC on AC .

A C

6 GENERAL RELATION OF PYTHAGORAS

Let ABC be any triangle : A

→ → →
We know that : BC = AC – AB then
→ → 2
BC2 = (AC – AB ) ,
→ → B C
BC2 = AB2 + AC2 – 2AB . AC (1)


Therefore : BC2 = AB2 + AC2 – 2AB . AC . cos (BAC)

This relation is known by: “General relation of Pythagoras”.

Remark
→ → 1
From (1) we find : AB . AC =  (AB2 + AC2 – BC2) .
2
EXAMPLE

ABC is a triangle such that AB = 4, AC= 2 and BAC = 60°.
1
BC2 = 16 + 4 – 2 × 4 × 2 ×  = 20 – 8 = 12 and BC = 23 .
2

170
 7 CALCULATION OF MA2 + MB2 (MEDIAN THEOREM)

A, B and M are three non-collinear points in the plane and I is the M

midpoint of segment [AB]. [MI ] is the median in triangle MAB issued
from M.
→ → →
MA2 = MA 2 = (MI + IA )2
→ →
= MI2 + IA2 + 2MI . IA . A B
→ → → → → I
MB2 = MB 2 = (MI + IB )2 = (MI – IA )2
→ → → →
= MI2 + IA2 – 2MI . IA (since IB = –IA ).
Adding side by side, we obtain :
AB2 AB
MA2 + MB2 = 2MI2 + 2IA2 = 2MI2 +  since IA =  .
2 2

2 2 2 AB2
MA + MB = 2MI + 
2
EXAMPLE

ABC is any triangle such that AB = 3, BC = 4 and AC = 2. Calculate the length of the median
[ AI ] of this triangle.
BC2 BC2 16
AB2 + AC2 = 2AI2 +  or 2AI2 = AB2 + AC2 –  = 9 + 4 –  = 5
2 2 2
5 5
AI2 =  and AI = .
2 2

8 CALCULATION OF
MA2 – MB2
M

A, B and M are three non collinear points in the plane, I is the

midpoint of segment [AB] and H is the orthogonal projection of M
A B
on (AB). → I H
i
→ → → →
MA2 − MB2 = (MA – MB ) . (MA + MB ).
→ → → → → →
B
MA2 – MB2 = BA . 2MI = 2AB . IM = 2AB . IH = 2A . IH
.
→ →
 = ||AB || = AB, then :
B
In the system (A , i ), A
MA2 – MB2 = 2AB . IH


171
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

Exercises and problems

6
Test your knowledge Calculate the cosine and the sine of the
→ →
acute angle of vectors u and v .
→ →
In all the exercises and problems, the 1° u 3 ; 1 and v 1 ; 3
→ → → –4 → 2
system (O ; i , j ) is orthonormal.

2° u  ; 2 and v  ; 1 .
3 3  
→→
1 Calculate u .v in each of the following
cases :
→ →
1° u (2 ; 3) and v (–1 ; 4) → → →
7 Consider the vectors u = 2i + 3j and
→ 3 →
   
3 → → →
2° u  ; 1 and v –1 ;  v = –3i + 2j .
2 2
→ → → → → 1° Prove that the following vectors are
3° u = –i + j and v = j
→ → → → → orthogonal.
4° u = i – 2j and v = – i . → → → →
a) i + j and i – j
→ →
→ → b) u and v
2 Given the vectors v (3;–1) and u (–1;y). → → → →
c) u + v and u – v .
Calculate y in each of the following cases : → → →
→→ 2° Is vector i orthogonal to u + v ?
1° u .v = 4 → →
to u – v ?
→→
2° u .v = –3
→→
3° u .v = 0.
8 The unit is A
→→ the centimeter.
3 Calculate u .AB in each of the following
6 0°
cases : ABCD is a rhombus
→ 2
1° u (1 ; –2) , A (2 ; –1) and B (1 ; –2). of center O, of
→ → → → → → → → side 2 and such that
2° u = – i – j , OA = i and OB = i + j  B
BAD = 60° . D
→ → → → → → → O
3° u = 2 j , OA = – i and OB = 2i + 3 j . Calculate the
following scalar
→ products :
4 Calculate ||AB || in each of the following
→ →
cases : 1° AC . BD C
1° A (1 ; –1) and B (2 ; –5) → →
2° AB . AD
2° A (4 ; 8) and B (1 ; 2)
→ →
3° BA . BC
→ → → → → → → →
5 Given u = 2i – 3j and v = i – 2j . 4° DO . DA
→ → → →
1° Calculate ||u + v || . 5° OD . OB
→ → → →
2° Calculate ||2u – 3v || . 6° AD . CB

172
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

9 The unit of length is the centimeter. 14 Given a triangle ABC . Let AB = c ,

ABCD is a square of center O and side CA = b and BC = a . The measures of the angles
AB = 2. A 2 are in degrees and the lengths of the sides are in
B
Calculate : centimeter.
→ →
1° AB . CD Complete the following table (Use a calculator).
→ →
2° AC . BD O   
→ →
a b c A B C
3° DB . OD
→ → 8 7 80
4° AO . OC . D C
5 8 60

→ → 11 13 17
10 Calculate m so that vectors u and v are
orthogonal.
→ →
1° u (1;m) and v (2;–5)
15 ABC is a triangle such that AB = AC = 7 cm
→ →
2° u (2;–3m) and v (6;–6) and BC = 5 cm.
→ →
3° u (3m–2;–14) and v (3; m+1). Calculate the length of the medians AI , BJ and
CK of this triangle.

→ → → →
11 Calculate (u + v )2 + (u – v )2 and 16 ABC is a triangle, [AH] is a height issued
→ → 2 → → 2
(u + v ) – (u – v) . in each of the following from A.
→ →
cases : 1° Show that AC . AH = AH 2.
→ → → → → →
1° u (3 ; 0) and v (4 ; 5) 2° Show that AB . AH = AC . AH .
→ →
2° u (−2 ; 3) and v (7 ; −9).
17 Answer by True or False.
→ → →
u , v and w are vectors in an orthonormal
12 Given the points A(2 ; 1), B(4 ; –1) and → →
system (O ; i , j ).
C(–1 ; 4).
→→ → → → →
→ → →  1° (u .v ) w = (v . w ) u
Calculate ||AB ||, ||AC ||, ||BC || and angle BAC .
→→ → →
2° (v .w ) u is a vector collinear with u
→→ → → → →
13 ABC is a triangle such that AB = 5 cm , 3° u .v = 0 means that u = 0 or v = 0
→→ →→ → →
 
AC = 8 cm , BAC =  . Calculate BC and the 4° u .v = u .w gives v = w
3
→→ → → →
median AI . 5° u .v = means that u is orthogonal to v – w .

173
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

22
For seeking ABC is a triangle such that AB = 3,

AC = 5 and CAB = 60°.
→ → → →
18 Let u and v be two vectors such that Calculate AB . AC and deduce the value of
→ →
||u || = 8, ||v || = 5 and the angle of these two → → → →
 (3AB – AC ) . (–2AB + AC ).
vectors is α =  .
3 → →
23 Given the vectors u and v such that
Calculate : → → → →
→ → ||u || = 3, ||v || = 6 and the angle α of u and v is
1° u . v
→ → 120º.
2° 2v .(– u ) → → → →
→ → → 1° Calculate x so that (u – 2v ) . (xu + v ) = 8.
3° 2u .(u – v ). → →
2° Calculate ||2u + v || .

→ → → → → →
19 Calculate the scalar product of the vectors 24 Given : a = 2m –3n , b = 3m –2n ,
→ →
u and v in each of the following cases : → → → →
||m || = 2, ||n || = 3 and the angle of vectors m and n
→ →
1° ||u || = 53, ||v || = 46 and the angle α is 120º.
→ → 2
of u and v is 
3 Calculate the value of :
→ → → →
2° ||u || = 2 , ||v || = 3 and ||u +v || = 4
→ → → →
→ → → → E = (2m – 3n )2 – 2a . b + m2 – 2n2.
3° ||u + v || = 3 and ||u – v || = 7 .
25 1° Calculate, using the figure below, the
→ →
20 Given the vectors u (3 ; –2) and v (5 ; 6). scalar product :
→ → → →
→ → a) AB . DC b) DB . AC
1° Calculate u2, v2 and u . v . → → → →
→ → → → 2 → → 2
c) DA . DB d) AD . BF
2° Calculate (–2u ).(4v ); (u + v ) ; (2u – v ) . → → → →
e) EA . AC f) CF . DA
→ →
3° Calculate t so that the angle of the two g) EB . ED .
→ → →
vectors u and (u + t v ) is acute.
→ →
4° Calculate x so that (u + xv ) is orthogonal A 4 B
→
to v . 4
F
21 Given the points A(2;3), B(9;4) and →
j
E
C(5;t). D→
i C
→ →
1° Calculate AC . BC in terms of t .
 
2° Calculate t so that ACB =  . 2° Find again these scalar products by using the
2 → → → 1 → → 1→
 system (D ; i , j ) with i = DC and j = DA .
3° Calculate t so that ACB is obtuse. 4 4

174
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

26 Given a square ABCD. E and F are two 28 ABC is a right triangle at A and ADB is an

points on [AB] and [BC] such that AE = BF. equilateral triangle D and C are each on a side

Show that (AF) is perpendicular to (DE) by two of [AB]. Designate by I the midpoint of [AB]

methods : and by J the orthogonal projection of D on (AC).

Let AB = 6 cm and AC = 2 cm.
1° Vectorially .
1° Calculate AJ .
2° Analytically by choosing a convenient → → → →
2° a) Calculate BD . BA and BD . AC .
reference. → →
b) Deduce BD . BC .

3° Calculate in radians the measure of angle

27 In the figure below A′ is the midpoint 
DBC .
of [BC].
C
29 ABC is a triangle such that AB = 4 cm ,
AC = 6 cm and BC = 8 cm . Let [AH] be the
height drawn from A .
 
A′ 1° Calculate cos ABC and deduce sin (ABC) .

J H 2° Calculate AH and deduce the exact value of

the area of triangle ABC .

A B 30 In the figure below :

I
→ → → • AB = BC = CD = 2 cm .
1° Express AB + AC in terms of AA ′ .
• MAB is an isosceles triangle with
2° Prove that MA = MB = 3 cm .
→ → 1 → → → →
AA ′. IJ =  (AB . IJ + AC . IJ ) . M
2

3° Justify the following equalities :

→ → → → → → → →
AB . IJ = AB . HA and AC . IJ = AC . AH .
A B C D
→ → 1 → →
4° Prove that : AA ′ . IJ =  BC . AH .
2

5° What can you deduce about lines (AA′) and 1° Calculate MC .

(IJ) ? 2° Deduce MD .

175
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE


31 ABC is a triangle such that AB = 3 cm , BC = 13 cm . and BAC = 60° . Let [AH] be the height
drawn from B .

Calculate AC and the median [AI] relative to side [BC] .

→ →
32 TIA is a triangle such that TI = 4 cm and TI . TA = 16 .
→ → →
1° Noting that TA = TI + IA , Show that TIA is a right triangle .

2° Calculate the median AL if TA = 5 .

→ →
3° Calculate TL . TI .

33 In the adjacent figure :

D C
• ABCD is a square .
x
• M and N are two points on [AB] and [AD] such that AM = DN = x . P
N
• AMPN is a rectangle .
→ →
Consider the orthonormal system (A ; AB , AD ) .
x
1° Find , in this system , the coordinates of the points of the figure . A M B
2° Show that (CP) and (MN) are perpendicular and that CP = MN .

34 In the adjacent figure :

• ADC is a triangle . E
I
B
• ABC and ADE are two right isosceles triangles .

• I is the midpoint of [BE] .

A

• CAD = α .
→ → → →
α
1° Show that AB . AD = AC . AE .
→ → → →
2° Deduce that (AB + AE ) . (AD – AC ) = 0 .

3° Show that the median issued from A in the triangle C D

ABE is the height issued from A in the triangle ACD .

176
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

35 ABCD is a rectangle such that AB = 6 cm and AD = 4 cm . I is the point of [AD] such that
DI = 1 cm and J the point of [AB] such that AJ = 1 cm .
→ →
1° Show that DJ . BI = – 18 .

2° Deduce the cosine of the acute angle formed by the two lines (DJ) and (BI) .

3° The perpendicular to (DJ) drawn from D intersects (BC) at E .

→ →
a) Caculate DJ . DE .
→ → → →
b) By decomposing DJ and DE and recalculating DJ . DE , calculate CE .

To go further

I ABC is a triangle such that AC = 7 cm , BC = 6 cm . I and J are the respective midpoints of [BC]
and [AB] . Given AI = 8 cm .
→ → 
Calculate AB , AB . AC , CJ and cos ACB .


II ABCD is a parallelogram with center I and such that AB = 6 , AD = 4 and BAD = 60° .
→ →
1° Calculate AB . AD .

2° Deduce :
→ →
a) AC . AD . b) BD . c) AI .
→ → → →
3° Designate by u = AB and v = AD .
→ → → → → →
Show that – ||u || . ||v ||  u . v  ||u || . ||v || .

III In the adjacent figure : D C

• ABCD is a square with side 12 cm .

→ 2→
• M is a point such that AM =  AB . N
3
→ 3→
• N is a point such that AN =  AD .
4

1° Without choosing a system , calculate in two ways

→ → 
the scalar product NM . NC , calculate cos (CNM ) .

2° Recalculate the preceeding result using the system

→ → → 1 → → 1 →
(A ; i , j ) where i =  AB and j =  AD . A M B
12 12

177
 SCALAR PRODUCT IN A PLANE

IV In the adjacent figure :

• ABCD is a rectangle with AD = 2 cm and AB = 4 cm . A B

• (C) is a semi-circle with diameter [CD] .

O
• O is the midpoint of [CD] . D C

• (OE) perpendicular to (CD) . (C)

→ → → → E
1° Calculate the scalar products : DA . OE and DC . DO .

→ → → →
2° Decompose the vectors DE and DB , calculate DB . DE

V In the adjacent figure :

A L D
• ABCD is a rectangle with sides AB = 4 cm and BC = 6 cm .

• K is the midpoint of [CD] .

• L is the midpoint of [AD] .

K
→ → → →
1° a) Decompose KB and KL , calculate KB . KL .
→ →
b) Recalculate KB . KL using E the orthogonal projection
of L on (KB) . B C
710
c) Show that KE =  .
10

→ → → 1→ → 1→
2° Consider the system (B ; i , j ) with i =  BC and j =  BA .
6 4
→ →
a) Justify that (B ; i , j ) is an orthonormal system .
→ →
b) Let N be a point on [BC] . Suppose BN = x . Noting that (x – 3)2 + 7 = x2 – 6x + 16 , calculate NA . ND in

terms of x and show that angle AND is never straight .

178
13
FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS
AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE
UNKNOWN
A brief history
The Greeks, the Egyptians, the Babylonians did not use any symbolism. The reasonings being written in letters and the progress were often
limited by the reference to the geometry.
The origin of the use of symbolic notations is attributed to diophantus (IIIrd century), but the symbolism does not permit translating the
operations.
François Viète (1560-1603) was the best in working with the foundations of modern operational symbolism and the principal rules of
calculation which permit treating with elementary equations.
The Babylonians manipulated the equations with amazing skills. They succeeded in obtaining relations such as (a+b)2 = a2 +2ab +b2 and
(a+b) (a-b) = a2-b2.
They could also solve the simultaneous equations of many types with two unknowns included generally a linear equation and an equation of
second degree.
The Egyptians solved the equations of the for x + ax = b ou x + ax + cx = b. The unknown «x» takes the name «aha» or «h».
The chinese solved equations of the form x2 = a, x3 = b, x2 +y2 =c2.
Brahmagupta, the great hindou mathematician of VIIth century, gave all the solutions of the equations ax +by = c and y2 =ax2 +1 where a is an
integer whose square root is irrational. The complete theory is not achieved until Lagrange’s work at XVIIIth century.
In the first half of IXth century, the arab mathematician Al-khwarizmi is the author of precision on the calculation of “Al-Jabr” and “Al-
Muquabala” where he called the unknown “the thing”. This calculation corresponds to the transposition and to the reduction used at the time
of resolution of an equation.
The word algebra came from al-Jabr. He succeeded in solving equations of the form ax2 = bx ; ax2 = c; bx = c; ax2 +bx =c; ax2 +c = bx and
ax2 = bx+c.
At the middle of XIXth century the work of DE MORGAN and of Boole gave the rules of the resolution of a system of equations and of
inequalities.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

A First degree equations in B First degree inequalities in one

one unknown unknown
1. Numerical coefficients 1. Definition
2. Parametric coefficients 2. Solution
3. Sign of ax + b
3. Equations changed to first degree
4. Inequalities changed to first degree
4. Situations leading to first degree 5. System of first degree inequalities
equations 6. Absolute value of first degree inequalities
7. Situations leading to first degree inequalities

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«If an equation is given, it can never be solved».

Paul Valery

179
 P reliminary activities
FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

Activity 1

1° Solve each of the following equations :

a) 7 (2 – x) – 3 (x + 4) = 17 + 5(2x + 1).
x 1 x 1
b)  –  =  –  .
3 2 2 3

2° a) Factorize the expression E = (x2 – 2x + 1) + (x – 1) (x + 5).

b) Verify that the solutions of E = 0 are 1 and – 2.

3° Solve the following inequality :

– 2(x + 1) + 2  7(1 – 2x) – 4 .

Activity 2

The unit of length is the centimeter.

A B
Let ABCD be a square of side 4 cm. M is a point on [BC] such that BM =
x. x
M
1° Verify that the area A 1 of triangle ABM is 2x .

2° Verify that the area A 2 of trapezoid AMCD is (16 – 2x) .

D C
3° Determine the position of M on [BC] to have :
a) A 1 = A 2 .
1
b) A 1 =  A 2 .
3
1
4° Find x so that A 1 <  A 2 .
2

180
 REMARKABLE IDENTITIES
a and b are real numbers.
• (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 .
• (a – b)2 = a2 – 2ab + b2 .
• a2 – b2 = (a – b) (a + b) .
• (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + b3 .
• (a – b)3 = a3 – 3a2b + 3ab2 – b3 .
• a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2) .
• a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2) .

A First degree equations in one unknown

1 EQUATION WITH NUMERICAL COEFFICIENTS

A first degree equation is any expression that can be simplified to the form of ax + b = 0 , where
x is the unknown, and a and b are real numbers with a ≠ 0 .

a and b are called the coefficients of the equation .

Solving the equation ax + b = 0 is to find the value of x which verifies it. The solution or the root
b
of this equation is x = –  .
a

EXAMPLE

3x 2x x 3x 2x x
The equation  –  =  – 3 can be written  –  –  + 3 = 0
5 7 2 5 7 2
42x – 20x – 35x + 210
or  = 0 , which means – 13x + 210 = 0 ,
70
210
hence x =  .
13

181
 2 EQUATION WITH PARAMETRIC COEFFICIENTS

In the equation ax + b = 0 , if a and b depend on a real parameter m (m is a variable), then

the equation is said to be parametric .

For example (m – 1)x – 2m – 5 = 0 is a parametric equation since a = m – 1 and b = – 2m – 5

are two variables depending on the parameter m .

Depending on the values of a and b, the equation may have one solution, no solution or an infinite
number of solutions. All these cases are summarized in the following table :

Equation of the form ax + b = 0

b
• If a ≠ 0 , then the equation has one solution, which is x = –  ,
a

 
b
S= –
a

• If a = 0 and b ≠ 0 , then the equation is no longer of the first degree and has no
solution, S = Ø

• If a = 0 and b = 0 , then the equation is no longer of the first degree and any number
is a solution, S = 

EXAMPLE

Solve the equation mx – 8m = x – 5 where m is a real parameter.

It is written : (m – 1)x – 8m + 5 = 0 or (m – 1) x = 8m – 5 .

* If m = 1, then 0x = 3 is not a first degree equation and has no solution , S = Ø .

 
8m – 5 8m – 5
* If m ≠ 1, then x =  and S =  .
m–1 m–1

182
3 EQUATIONS THAT CAN BE CHANGED TO FIRST DEGREE

1° Equations that can be factorized

They are equations that are not of the first degree but that can be written as a product of first degree
factors equal to zero. For this kind of equations, the following property is applied:
if A and B are real numbers, A.B = 0 is equivalent to A = 0 or B = 0 .

EXAMPLE

Solve : x2 – 1 = (x + 1) (2x – 5).

It can be written as : (x – 1) (x + 1) – (x + 1) (2x – 5) = 0 ,

(x + 1) (x – 1 – 2x + 5) = 0 ,
(x + 1) (–x + 4) = 0, so x = –1 or x = 4 , therefore
S = {–1 ; 4}.

2° Equations having the unknown in its denominator

They are equivalent to null fractions containing the unknown in their denominators.
For this kind of equations, the following property is applied :
A
if A and B are real numbers,  = 0 is equivalent to A = 0 and B ≠ 0.
B

EXAMPLE

3 2x 5x 2x
Solve : 2 –= 2 –.
x –1 x+1 x –1 x–1
This equation exists on condition that x ≠ 1 and x ≠ –1.

By reducing it to the same denominator, it is written as :

3 – 2x(x – 1) – 5x + 2x(x + 1) 3–x
 2 = 0 or  =0,
x –1 x2 – 1
so x = 3 , therefore S = {3}.

This value, different from the condition, is accepted.

183
 3° First degree equations with an absolute value.
It will be discussed with examples.

a) Solve |2x – 3|| = 5 .

This equation is equivalent to 2x – 3 = 5 or 2x – 3 = –5 which gives x = 4 or x = –1 , therefore S
= {–1; 4}.

b) Solve ⏐3x – 1⏐
⏐ = ⏐x + 2⏐
⏐.
3 1
This equation is equivalent to 3x – 1 = x + 2 or 3x – 1 = – (x + 2) which gives x =  or x = – 
2 4
 
1 3
, therefore S = –  ;  .
4 2

c) Solve ⏐x⏐
⏐ + ⏐2x + 1⏐
⏐=3.
1


– 2x – 1 if x < – 
2


–x if x < 0
⏐x⏐ = 1
0 if x = 0 ; ⏐2x + 1⏐ = 0 if x = –  .
2
x if x > 0
1
2x + 1 if x > – 
2
The table summarizes all the cases.

1
x –∞ –  0 +∞
2
⏐x⏐ –x –x 0 x
⏐2x + 1⏐ –2x – 1 0 2x + 1 2x + 1
⏐x⏐ +⏐2x + 1⏐ –3x – 1 x+1 3x + 1

 1
In –∞ ; – 
2  : –3x – 1 = 3 gives x = – 43 which is accepted since
 .
4 1
–   – ; – 
3 2

 1
 1
In –  ; 0 : x + 1 = 3 gives x = 2 which is rejected since 2  –  ; 0 .
2 2  
2 2
In ]0, +∞[ : 3x + 1 = 3 gives x =  which is accepted since   ]0 ; +[ .
3 3

 
4 2
Therefore , S = –  ;  .
3 3

184
 4 SITUATIONS LEADING TO FIRST DEGREE EQUATION

The analysis of such a situation is made of four phases :

1° the choice of the unknown that is suggested in the given and the definition of its domain.
2° translating the situation into an equation.
3° solving this equation.
4° verification of the solution.

EXAMPLE 1

Kamal has three more marbles than Nabil. If Nabil had twice more than he has, he would
have five more than Kamal.
How many marbles does each have?

If x is the number of Nabil’s marbles, then Kamal has (x + 3), with x > 0.
From the given we can write :
2x = (x + 3) + 5 , 2x = x + 8 and x = 8.
Nabil has therefore 8 marbles and Kamal has 11 marbles.

EXAMPLE 2

From Ancient Greece.

“Tell me, Pythagoras, how many disciples come to your school and listen to your
instructions”.
The philosopher answers: “half of them study mathematics, one quarter study music, one
seventh are quiet and three more women”. (We suppose that no disciple participates in
more than one activity).

Let x be the number of Pythagoras’ disciples. x is therefore a non zero natural number.
The given leads to this equation :
x x x
+++3=x,
2 4 7

 
1 1 1 3x
x  +  +  – 1 = – 3 , so  = 3 and x = 28 disciples.
2 4 7 28

185
 B First degree inequalities in one unknown

1 DEFINITION

A first degree inequality in one unknown is any writing of the form :

ax + b  0 , ax + b > 0 , ax + b  0 , ax + b < 0 , where a and b are two real numbers, and a ≠ 0 .

a and b are called the coefficients of the inequality .

5
For example : 3x – 5  0 ; 2x + 3 > 0 ; – x + 2  0 and  x – 3 < 0 , are first degree inequalities
2
in one unknown.

2 SOLVING

Given the first degree inequality ax + b  0 with a a non zero real number and b any number.

The solving method is summarized in the following table :

Inequality of the form ax + b  0

• If a > 0, then ax  – b , hence x  –  or x  –  ; +

b b
a a

• If a < 0, then ax  – b , hence x  –  or x   – ; –  .

b b
a a

Remark

The other forms can be solved using the same principle of reasoning.

186
 EXAMPLE

5x – 1
Solve the inequality 2x – 3 <  – 5.
4
By reducing to the same denominator, we obtain :

8x – 12 < 5x – 1 – 20 or 3x < – 9, so x < – 3 o x  ]– ; –3[

so S = ]–∞ , –3[ .

3 SIGN OF ax + b

Two cases are considered.

x –∞ – b +∞
b . a
• If a > 0 then ax  – b gives x  – 
a ax + b – 0 +
We can deduce that ax + b  0 for x  – b .
a
x –∞ – b +∞
b
• If a < 0 then ax  − b gives x  –  . a
a ax + b + 0 –
We can deduce that ax + b  0 for x  – b .
a
x –∞ – b +∞
The following table summarizes the two preceding cases. a
sign of sign of sign
ax + b –a 0 of a

Consequences
a) Sign of a product

Rule

To find the sign of a product, we find the sign of each factor and apply the rule of signs.

EXAMPLE

Sign of 25 – x2 .

25 – x2 is written (5 – x) (5 + x) .

187
 The following table summarizes the sign of 25 – x2 .

x –∞ –5 5 +∞
5–x + + 0 –
5+x – 0 + +
(5 – x) (5 + x) – 0 + 0 –

b) Sign of a quotient

Rule
To find the sign of a quotient, we find the sign of the numerator and of the denominator and
we proceed as for the product.

EXAMPLE

2–x
Sign of  .
x+5
This expression is null for x = 2 and does not exist for x = – 5 .

x –∞ –5 2 +∞

2–x + + 0 –

x+5 – 0 + +

2– x
 – + 0 –
x+5

4 INEQUALITIES LEADING TO FIRST DEGREE

1° Inequalities changed into a positive or negative product.

Solve the inequality x2 – 4  (2x + 3) (x – 2).

It is written : (x – 2) (x + 2)  (2x + 3) (x – 2) or
(x – 2) (x + 2 – 2x − 3)  0, so
(x – 2) (–x − 1)  0.

188
The following table gives the sign of (x – 2) (–x – 1).

x –∞ −1 2 +∞

x−2 – – 0 +

−x−1 + 0 – –

(x − 2) (− x − 1) – 0 + 0 –

Hence (x – 2) (–x – 1)  0 is verified for x ∈ [ –1 , 2] .

2° Inequality admitting the unknown in its denominator.

1 3
Solve the inequality  <  .
x–1 x

This inequality exists for x ≠ 1 and x ≠ 0 .

1 3 x – 3x + 3
It is written :  –  < 0 or  < 0
x–1 x x (x – 1)

– 2x + 3
so  < 0 .
x (x – 1)

– 2x + 3
The following table gives the sign of  .
x (x – 1)
3
x –∞ 0 1  +∞
2
− 2x + 3 + + + 0 –

x – 0 + + +

x−1 – – 0 + +

− 2x + 3
 + – + 0 –
x(x − 1)

Hence  < 0 is verified for x ∈ 0 , 1 ∪  , +∞ .

– 2x + 3 3
x (x – 1) 2

189
 5 SYSTEM OF FIRST DEGREE INEQUALITIES.

A system of two first degree inequalities in one unknown is made of two first degree inequalities
in one unknown.

To solve such a system is to find the values of x verifying simultaneously the two inequalities.


5
6x +  > 4x + 7
Solve the system 7
8x + 3
 < 2x + 25
2

 
42x + 5 > 28x + 49 14x > 44
, which gives x ∈  , +∞
22
This system is equivalent to or
8x + 3 < 4x + 50 4x < 47 7

and x ∈ –∞ ,  , so x   ;  .
47 22 47
4 7 4

We represent these two intervals on the real number line :

22 47
 
x′ 7 4
x

The set S of the solution of the system is the intersection of these two intervals, so S =  ,  .
22 47
7 4

6 FIRST DEGREE INEQUALITIES CONTAINING AN ABSOLUTE

VALUE

It will be treated by examples.

⏐3x – 5⏐
1° Solve the inequality⏐ ⏐ 7
This inequality is equivalent to –7  3x – 5  7 or –2  3x  12,
S = –  ; 4 .
2 2
so –   x  4 ;
3 3
190
 2° Solve the inequality ⏐2x + 3⏐
⏐>8

This inequality is equivalent to 2x + 3 < – 8 or 2x + 3 > 8, so x < –  or x >  ; S = –∞ ,

11 5
2 2
–  ∪  , +∞ .
11 5
2 2

3° Solve the inequality ⏐2x – 5⏐

⏐  ⏐x + 1⏐
⏐

This inequality is equivalent to (2x – 5)2  (x + 1)2.

It is written (2x – 5)2 – (x + 1)2  0 or (2x – 5 – x – 1) (2x – 5 + x + 1)  0, so (x – 6) (3x – 4)  0.

The following table gives the sign of (x – 6) (3x – 4).

4
x –∞  6 +∞
3

x−6 – – 0 +

3x − 4 – 0 + +

(x − 6) (3x − 4) + 0 – 0 +

Hence (x – 6) (3x – 4)  0 is verified for : x ∈ –∞ ;  ∪ 6 , +∞ .

4
3

7 SITUATIONS THAT CAN BE EXPRESSED IN A FIRST DEGREE

INEQUALITY

The analysis of such a situation is similar to the one of equations .

191
 EXAMPLE 1

Wissam is 40 years old and his son Ziad is 10 years. In how many years will Wissam’s age

be still more than triple of the age of his son ?

Let x be the number of years where Wissam’s age will still be more than triple Ziad’s age.

The following inequality translates the given :

x + 40 > 3(x + 10) or x + 40 > 3x + 30, so x < 5.

EXAMPLE 2

The unit of length is the centimeter. D C

8
ABCD is a right trapezoid such that
AB = 5 , CD = 8 and x
AD = x .
A B
ABMN is a rectangle such that AN = AD. 5

For what values of x will the area of trapezoid

N M
ABCD be greater than the area of ABMN
which is increased by 6 ?

(AB + CD) . AD 13x

The area of ABCD is  , or  .
2 2

The area of ABMN is AB . AN, or 5x .

The following inequality translates the given :

13x
 > 5x + 6 , or 13x > 10x + 12 so x > 4 .
2

192
 FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge
A. EQUATIONS

1 Circle the acceptable values of x. for each of the following equations.

1° x = 2 x=–4; x=4; x=2.

9
2°  = x x = 3 ; x = −3 ; x = 9.
x
3° ⏐x⏐ = 4 x = – 2 ; x = 4 ; x = – 4.

4° ⏐x − 3⏐ = − 2 x = 1 ; x = 5 ; no solution.

5° ⏐x − 4⏐ = ⏐−x +2⏐ x = 3 ; x = 0 ; no solution.

1 1
6° (x − 3) (2x − 1) = 0 x=3;x=–;x=.
2 2
3x – 5 5
7°  = 0 x = 5 ; x =  ; x = – 4.
x+4 3

2 State which reasoning is correct.

x2 − 4x + 4 = 0 x2 − 4x + 4 = 0
x2 − 4x = − 4 (x − 2)2 = 0
x (x − 4) = − 4 x = 2.
x=−4
or
x − 4 = − 4 therefore x = 0.

3 Solve in  each of the following equations :

3x – 16 5
1°  =  6° ⎟ x – 7⎟ =⎟ 5 + x⎟
x 3
5x – 5
2°  = 3 7° −3⏐2x + 7⏐ + 16 = 4
x+1
x – 2 12 – x 5x – 36 1
3°  –  =  – 1 8° x2 –  = 0
3 2 4 4
2x + 5 3x – 2
4° 10 – ⏐x⏐ = 4 9°  +  = 5
x+3 x
3x2 – 3x + 1 2 5
5° ⏐x + 4⏐ + 7 = 0 10°  =3+–.
x2 – 1 x+1 x–1

193
 FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

4 Solve each of the following equations B. INEQUALITIES

where m is a real parameter and x is the
unknown. Discuss the solution. 11 Circle the accepted values of x for each
1° mx = 5 inequality.
2° (m − 3) x = m 1° 7x − 1 – 3 (x + 2) < 6x – 5 x=0;x=5;
3° (2m − 1) x = 2m + 2 x = – 1.
4° (m − 2) x + m − 7 = 0 2° x − 3 > x x = 1 ; x = 0 ; no solution.
5° (m − 3) x = m2 − 9 .
3° x − 2 < x x = 4 ; x = 5 ; x = – 100.
x 4° ⏐x⏐ ≤ 2 x = 0 ; x = – 1,8 ; x = − 9,6.
5 Given the equation mx – 2 = –  where x
m 5° ⏐x⏐ > 5 x = −3,6 ; x = − 25 ; x = 0.
is the unknown and m a non zero real parameter.
6° ⏐4x + 7⏐  3 x = – 1 ; x = – 3 ; x = − 2,1.
1° Calculate m so that 1 is a solution for this 7° (x − 2) (x + 3) < 0 x = 0 ; x = 2,8 ; x = − 3,1.
equation.
2° Show that for any m ≠ 0 , this equation
admits a unique solution.
12 Indicate the correct reasoning.

6 2x + 3 > 8 (x − 1) 2x +3 > 8(x −1)

Ziad tells his son Marc : «This year my
2x + 3 > 8x − 8 2x +3 > 8x − 8
age is triple yours, but in 10 years, it will be the 2x − 8x > − 8 − 3 3 + 8 > 8x − 2x
− 6x > − 11 11> 6x
double». Find their ages.
–11 11
x > x<.
–6 6
7 Walid’s age is double Nadia’s age. In
11
5 years, the sum of their ages will be 70. Find x>.
6
Walid’s age.

8 1° Find a number, when divided by 5, 13 Solve in  each of the following

decreases by 100. inequalities :
7x 1 3x
2° Find a number when multiplied by 2 , 1°  –  >  – 5 ;
5 2 2
increases by 2.
5x 13 x 9 2x
2° –+>–;
7 21 15 5 35
9 We find half of a number by subtracting
3° 2x + 1 ≤ 2(x − 3);
33 from its double.
4° 3(2 – x) – 5(2x + 3)  x ;
What is this number ?
5° |4x – 1|  3 ;
10 Jihad was given this : 6° |2x – 1| > 4 ;
«Find five consecutive numbers knowing their 7° 2|2x – 6| + 5 > 17 ;
sum». He doesn’t remember any more if the sum 8° (2x + 1) (x – 7)  0 ;
was 657, 765 or 576. 9° (x2 – 4) (x2 + 1) > 0 ;
Help him find this sum. 10° x3 > x .

194
 FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

14 Solve in  each of the following 17 Answer by True of False.

systems: 1° There is no solution for the equation 3x = 0.


3 5
2x + 1 > x –  ,

2x + 1 > x – 1 , 2°  = 0 gives x = 0.
1° 6° 2 x
2x – 5  1 – x . 2x – 1 < 1 – 3x . 3 5
3°  x = 0 is the solution x =  .
5 3
4° 15x = 0 gives x = −15.


5
6x +  > 4x + 7 ,

2x + 1 > 0 , 7
2° 7° 5° Any real number is a solution of : 0x = 0.
3x – 10 < 0 . 8x + 3
 < 2x + 25 . 6° (x – 3)2 = – 5 is the solution x = 3 – 5
2
7° x (x + 5) = 2 gives x = 2 or x + 5 = 2, therefore


15x – 8
8x – 5 >  , x = −3.
2
3° − 1< 3x + 2 ≤ 7 . 8° 8° The equation ⏐5x − 3⏐ = – ⏐x⏐ − 1 has no
3
2(2x – 3) > 5x –  .
4 solution.


3x – 1 < 5 + 3x , 9° – 1 is a solution for the inequality :
4° 9° 16 ≤ 1 − x ≤ 19.
2x > 3 + x . −x − 1 < 3 + 2x.

10° There is no number verifying the inequality


x–1 2–x 1 0x  − 2.
 –  >  ,
5°

3 – x  –9x + 2 ,
2x + 9  0 .
10°
3 4
x–1 x–3 1
6
 –  <  .
11° Any real number verifies the inequality
10 5 2 x > x − 3.

12° ⏐5x − 3⏐ < 2 is equivalent to ⏐3 − 5x⏐ > −2.

15 By increasing the side of a square by 5,
13° For any real number x, ⏐x + 1⏐  1.
we obtain a new square whose area is included
between 4 times and 9 times the area of the 14° To solve the inequality (2x − 1) (x + 5)  0
original square. Find the possible values of the is to solve the system (2x − 1)  0 and (x + 5)  0.
length of the side of the first square.

16 The adjacent figure is A For seeking

made up of a right triangle
ABC and a rectangle BDEF. A. EQUATIONS
Given :
AB = 6 cm, BF = 2 cm, 18 Find the value of x in each of the
CD = 1 cm, BC = x. C D following :
B
Calculate x so that the area
of triangle ABC 1° 52x +1 = 125 3° 3x . 3 = 92x
is less than F E
1 43+x 1
that of the rectangle. 2° 3x+2 =  4°  x = .
9 2 8x

195
 FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

19 Solve in  :

1° |x2 + 2x – 3| = 2π – π2 . 3° 3x2 + 25 = 2x – 5 .
4
2°  = x – 1 . 4° (2x + 3)2 = |– x| .
x–1

2x + 1
20 Given A(x) =  .
4–x

1° Solve in  , A(x)  0 .

2° Write |A(x)| without the absolute value symbol .

21 Given B(x) = |– x + 2| + 3x + 5 .

1° Write B(x) without the absolute value symbol .

2° Solve B(x) = 5 .

22 Solve in  .

1° ⏐x⏐ – 2x + 1 = 4 2° ⏐2x + 1⏐ + x – 3 = 0 .

23 Given the expression E = 2⏐2x – 3⏐ – ⏐3 – x⏐.

1° Express E without the absolute value sign.
2° Solve in  , E = 3 .

24 Solve in  :

1° ⏐x⏐ + ⏐3x + 2⏐ + x = 2 . 2° |x| – 2|x + 3| – |2 – x| = 4 .

25 Discuss and solve each of the following equations where m is a real parameter and x is the
unknown.
1° (m2 − 4) x = m − 2;
2° mx − m2 = 4x − 16;
3° m2x + 50 = 5m +100 x
4° m2 (x – 1) + m (x – 2) = 2x notice that m2 + m – 2 = (m – 1) (m + 2).
5° m2x – 3x + 3 = m – 2mx notice that m2 + 2m – 3 = (m – 1) (m + 3).

196
 FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

26 A man decides to give his son 1,000 L.L. for every math exercise solved properly so as to

encourage him to study mathematics, but takes back 500 L.L. if the solution is wrong. After 30 exercises,

each has given and received the same amount. How many exercises did the son solve properly ?

27 Karim (22 years) tells his brother Ziad (8 years).

«I haven’t given you a gift for your birthday, but I’ll make it up to you. The year when my age will be

triple yours, I’ll give you a wonderful gift».

After making his calculations, Ziad tells his brother :
«It will cost you nothing». Explain why.

28 ABC is an equilateral triangle of side 20 cm. M is a point of ]AB[ such that AM = x. The parallel
from M to (BC) cuts (AC) at N.
Calculate x so that the perimeter of triangle AMN is equal to that of MNCB.

29 Solve in  the following inequalities :

(x – 5) (x + 2)
1° (x – 2) 2 < 1 5°  > 0
x–3
2° ⏐x2 – 2⏐ < 1 6° (x – 1) (2 – x)2 (3 – x) > 0

1 3
3° ⏐2x – 3⏐ > ⏐3x – 7⏐ 7°  < 
x–1 x

1 – 2x 1 2 –1
4°  > 1 8°  –    .
x–2 x+1 x x2 + x

30 Consider the polynomial P(x) = x2 – 3x + 4 .

 
3 2 7
1° Justify that P(x) = x –  +  then deduce the sign of P(x) .
2 4
2° Justify that (x – 4) (x + 1) = x2 – 3x – 4 .

2x2 – 6x
3° Solve in  the inequality  1.
x2 – 3x + 4

197
 FIRST DEGREE EQUATIONS AND INEQUALITIES IN ONE UNKNOWN

To go further

I In the table below , choose the solution for each inequality . Write down the number of each
question and give , with justification , the corresponding letter for your choice .

Solution set
N° Inequality
a b c d
(x + 3)2
1°  0  ]– ∞ , +∞[  – {– 3} {– 3}
2x2 + 3

x2
2° 2 1  ]– ∞ , +∞[  – {4} {– 4}
x +4

3° x(x – 2) > x ]3 , +∞[ ]2 , +∞[ ]0 , 3[ ]– ∞ , 0[  ]3 , +∞[

D C
II In the adjacent figure , the triangle ABC is drawn in the square AECD of
side x where x > 2 .
Determine x so that the area of triangle ABC is less than one third of the area of x
square AECD .
2
A B E

III Solve in  .

2x2 – x – 1 1 2 25x2 – 1
1°  =2–+ 2°   0
x2 – 1 x+1 x–1 1 – 2x

3° x3 > x 4° |3x – 1| – |4 – 2x| = 1

5° m2x + 5 = 25x + m (discuss according to the values of the real parameter m) .

IV 1° Expand : (x – 1) (2x + 5) and (x + 1) (x – 2)

5x – 1
2° Solve :  –2
x2 – x – 2

3° Solve : |1 – 2x|  |x – 2|


2x2 + 3x – 5
 0
4° Deduce the solution of the system : x2 – x – 2 .
|1 – 2x|  |x – 2|

198
14
MAPPING - BIJECTION

A brief history
The life of a philosophic soldier
From a well-off family, Descartes, born in 1596 is the student of the
«jesuites» brothers at the college of La Fleche. Then he travels over
Europe. He becomes first a military. 10 November 1619, in a room heated
by an oven, he conceives the «basis of a wonderful science». he tastes a
bit of a mundain life, but then retires in Holland, where he stays for
several years. He ends by accepting the invitation of queen Christine of
Suede in Stockholm, where he dies on the 11th of February 1650.

Scientific work
Descartes gives a geometric significance to the four operations of
arithmetic and the extraction of square roots. He hence establishes that
the euclidean geometry is based on the structure of real numbers and
contributes to the creation, of what will be called in the 1800, «analytic
geometry».
Descartes takes from Apollonus de Perga the use of a reference axis.
Geometry also contains a beautiful theory of solving algebraic equations,
where the author states «the number of roots is equal to the degree of the
equation.» Some roots could be imaginary.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. Mapping
«Descartes is certainly one
of the men responsible to the
2. Representation of a mapping
looks of the modern era». 3. Bijection
Paul Valéry
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Doing algebra, is not to do sports as a spectator.»

John Wiley

199
 P reliminary activities
MAPPING - BIJECTION

Activity 1

A family has four children: Samir, Tania, Marc and Yara who bought six books B1, B2, B3, B4, B5,
B6 . Samir read the book B2, Tania B3, Marc B2, and Yara read the book B5. Let E = {Samir, Tania,
Marc, Yara} = {S, T, M, Y} and F = {B1, B2, B3, B4, B5, B6}.
E F
The expression «read» defines a relation denoted by f
from set E into F. • L1
S •
• L2
1° Complete the opposite diagram.
T • • L3
2° What is the number of books read by each child ?
M• • L4
3° Who read the book B2 ? • L5
Y•
4° Complete the set Gf • L6
of couples of which its components are related by f.
Gf = {(S, L2) ; (T, L3) ; ... ; ... }
5° The element B2 of F is called image of S by f. S is the antecedent of B2. We write: B2 = f (S).
What is the image of T ? f (T) = ...
What is the antecedent of B5 ? of B6 ?

Activity 2 A relation f from a set A into a set B is B

8
represented by the adjacent cartesian system.
1° Write the sets A and B in extension. 6
2° Complete :
f(1) = ... ; f(2) = ... ; ... = 6 ; ... = 8 . 4
3° Write in extension the set Gf of couples
verifying f. 2
4° Can you define f in its linear form A
(f(x) = ax+b)? O 1 2 3 4

Activity 3 Let (C) be the circle of center O. We define the relation g which associates to
every point M of (C) the point M′ diametrically opposite to M : g(M) = M ′.
N a) Construct the points N′ and P′ the images of N and P by g. Are
M
the points N′ and P′ unique ?
b) Construct the antecedent R of R′ by g. Is the point R unique ?
(C) O c) Answer by True or False.
• Every point of (C) has one and only one image by g.
P
R′ • Every point of (C) has many antecedents by g.
M′

200
 1 MAPPING

A relation f between two sets E and F is called a mapping from E into F if, to every element x of
E we associate one and only one element y of F.
E is called initial set.
F is called final set.
y is the image of x by f denoted by : y = f(x) or f : x a y.
x is the antecedent of y by f.
The set Gf of couples (x,y) of E×F such that y = f(x) is called graph of f.

Remark

If E = F, f is said to be the mapping in E or in F.

EXAMPLES

1. In the set of humans the relation f : «has a father» is a mapping since each has a father.

Whereas, the relation g : «has a son» is not a mapping since some persons do not have sons.

2. Let E = {–2, 1, 2, 3, 4} and F = {1, 4, 9, 16}. The relation f : «has a square», from E into

F is a mapping, since each element of E has one and only one square in F. While the

relation g : «is the square» from F into E is not a mapping since, the element 4, for example, is

the square of 2 and –2.

3. Let (D) be a straight line in a plane E and f the relation which associates to every

point M of E which does not belong to (D) the point M′ of (D) such that [MM ′] is M

perpendicular to (D). f is a mapping since every point of E has one and only one

image.
M’ (D)

201
 2 REPRESENTATION OF A MAPPING

Consider the two sets E = {–4, –2, 1, 2, 3, 4} , F = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36}
and f the mapping from E into F defined by : f(x) = x2.

1° First representation of f : Venn Diagram.

-4• •1
-2• •4
1• •9
2• •16
3• •25
E 4• F •36

2° Second representation of f : cartesian system.

F y
36

25

16

1
E
–4 –2 1 2 3 4 x
Remark
The graph of f is : Gf = {(–4,16) ; (–2,4) ; (1,1) ; (2,4) ; (3,9) ; (4,16)} .
Gf is a subset of E × F.

202
3° Third representation of f : double entry table.

F
1 4 9 16 25 36
E
–4

–2

3 BIJECTION

A mapping f from a set E into a set F is said to be bijective or bijection if every element y of F
has one and only one antecedent x in E.

EXAMPLES

1. The mapping g defined in activity 3 is a bijection; where as the mappings defined in the
activities 1 and 2 are not bijections.

2. Consider the sets :

M′
E = {–1, 0, 2, 5} and F = {–3, –1, 3, 9} and f the mapping from E into F such that M
y = f(x) = 2x –1. f is a bijection.
O
3. Consider two circles (C) and (C′) of center O and of radii r and 2r. The mapping (C)
f which associates to every point M of (C) the point M ′ of (C′) such that M is the (C′)
midpoint of [OM ′] is a bijection.
(C) M
4. Let (C) be the semi-circle of center O and of diameter [AB]. The mapping f
which associates to every point M of (C) the point M ′ of [AB] such that [MM ′] is
perpendicular to [AB] is a bijection. A O M′ B

203
 MAPPING - BIJECTION

Exercises and problems

2
Test your knowledge 1° Complete the following table which
defines the relation g «is a city in ...».

1 Answer the following questions using the

given venn diagram of a relation f : 2° In which continent is Mexico found ? Cairo ?

3° Which city of set A is found in Africa ?

1•
•0
4° What is the initial set of g ? its final set ?
•3
2•
•6 5° Is g a mapping ? a bijection ? Justify.

3• •9
6° Represent g by a Venn diagram then by a

•14 cartesian system.

4•
•12

B
A B A Africa America Europe

1° Is f a mapping ? Justify.
London
2° Write in extension the initial set A and the
final set B.
Montreal
3° Write in comprehension the graph Gf of f.

4° What is the image of 4 ? of 3 ? Venice

5° What is the antecedent of 3 ? of 12 ? of 14 ?

6° Is f a bijection ? Mexico

7° Define the mapping f in the form f(x) = ax+b.

Cairo
8° Write in extension the graph Gf of f.

204
 MAPPING - BIJECTION

3 The cartesian system represents a relation 2° f, g and h are relations given by their
f from set A into set B. cartesian systems :

B
1° Write in extension the initial set A and the
final set B. 6
2° Is f a mapping ? Why ? 5
4
3° Complete : f(1) = ... ; f(2) = ... ; 3
f(4) = .... ; f(7) = ... . 2
1
4° What is the antecedent of 4 ? of 1.5 ?
1 2 3 4 5 6 A
5° Write in extension the graph Gf of f.
f
6° Is f a bijection ? Why ?
B
7° Define the mapping f in the form f(x) = ax+b.

B 6
5
4 4
3.5 3
3 2
2.5 1
2 1 2 3 4 5 6 A
1.5 g
1
0.5 B

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 A
6
5
4
3
4 Answer the following by True or False. 2
Justify. 1
1° Consider the sets 1 2 3 4 5 6 A
A = {–3, –2, –1, 4} and B = {–4, 1, 2, 3, 5}. h
Let f be a relation from A into B defined by
f(x) = –x . a) f is a bijection.

a) f is not a mapping since 5 has no antecedent. b) g is a mapping.

b) f is a bijection. c) h is a mapping.
c) f(–1) = 1 and f(4) = –4. d) f(2) = 2 ; h(4) = 3 ; h(5) = 3.
d) Gf = {(–3 ,3) ; (–2,2) ; (–1,1)}. e) The antecedent of 4 by h is 6.
f) Gf = {(1,1) ; (2,2) ; (3,3) ; (4,4) ; (5,5) ; (6,6)}.

205
 MAPPING - BIJECTION

For seeking

5 Consider the relation f defined by f(x) = 4x2.

1° Does every x in  admit one and only one image by f ? Justify your answer.
2° Is f a mapping ? Why ?
3° Does every y = f(x) in  admit an antecedent by f ? Justify your answer.
4° Is f a bijection ? Why ?
5° Complete : f(–2) = ... ; f(0) = ... ; f(2) = ... ; f(3) = ... .

6 Consider the mapping f defined on the set E = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} by :

f (x) = x – 1 if x ≠ 1 and f(1) = 5.
1° Write in extension the graph Gf of f.
2° Represent f by a cartesian system.
3° Is f a bijection ? Why ?

7 In a class of 32 students, the teacher handed in a mathematics test graded by natural numbers
from 0 to 20.
1° Prove that there exists a mapping f from the set E of students into the set F of integers.
2° Can f be bijective ? Justify.

206
15
GENERALITIES ABOUT
FUNCTIONS
A brief history
The idea of relations between quantities is very old. The babylonean tables that give
the square of a number and the astrologic greek tables are the first approaches of
functions.
Nicole Oresme (1323-1382) uses a diagram that gives the speed as a function of time.
In 1614, John Neper invents the first purely abstract function (logarithmic function).
Descartes’ analytic geometry links the curves with the functions.
Newton associates the functions to a movement where the variable x is associated to
time.
Leibniz calls function any line having a function in a figure.
In 1748, Leonard Euler treats the concept of function. He defines it as a variable
quantity : «an analytic expression composed of this same quantity and numbers, or
constant quantities».
He was the one to represent a function by f(x).
Ever since 1755, Lagrange discusses with Euler the calculations of the variations.
He presents several methods in his “Lessons on the calculation of functions” in 1799.
Fourier (1768-1830) widens the concept by introducing the arbitrary curves of
arbitrary functions.
During the XVIIIth century, the idea of a function isn’t yet a field oof its own.
The research of a definite definition is done by Cauchy (1789 - 1857), then Cantor
(1845-1918). Functions are defined from their properties, and not from their analytic
expression.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE
1. Definition 8. Representative Curve of a
2. Domain of definition function
3. Representative curve 9. Graphical resolution of equations
4. Even function - Odd function and inequalities
5. Sense of variation of a function 10. Graphical comparison of two
6. Extremum of a function functions over an interval
7. Graphical reading of a function and
table of variations

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«The poet has a serious function.»

Victor Hugo

207
 P reliminary activity
GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

The trajectory of a bat is given by the following graph :

y
6

1
xm
. . . . . . . . . .
O 25 50 100 150 160 200 250 275 300 350

On the axis of abscissas we represent the distance x travelled in meters by the bat, and on the
ordinate axis the height y in meters attained by this bat.
1° Verify, graphically, that for each distance covered corresponds one and only one height.
2° Can a line (D) parallel to the ordinate axis cut the curve in more than one point ?
3° What is the height attained by the bat when it covers a distance of 25 m ? of 100 m ?
4° At what distance the bat reaches a height of 1 m ? of 2 m ?
5° What is the maximum height and the minimum height reached by the bat ?
6° Indicate on the axis of distances the intervals where it ascends (increases) and the interval
where it descends (decreases).
7° Indicate the interval where it keeps the same height (constant).
8° Complete the following table by using the given graph.

x 0 100 200 275 350

y
1

9° a) Give the different distances travelled by a height of 3m.

b) Indicate the interval where the height is less than 3 m.
c) Indicate the interval where the height lies between 4m and 6m.

208
 1 DEFINITION

In the preceding activity, we notice that for each distance x covered in meters, between 0 and 350
(x  [0 ; 350]) ; corresponds one and only one height y. We say that this relation between the
distance and the height is a function, i.e. the height attained by the bat is a function of the covered
distance.

A function f is a mapping of a part I of  into . It associates to every element x of I one and

only one image by f denoted by f(x) or y .
• I is called the domain (set) of definition of f.

Notation : f: I → 
or x a f(x)
xa y

• In the writing y = f(x), y or f(x) is the image of x by f and x y

is the antecedent of y by f.
Attention : f designates the function and f(x) designates
the image of x by f.
y .
In the adjacent figure, y has two antecedents x1 and x2 in I
such that y = f(x1) = f(x2). .
The elements x1 and x2 of I have one image by f which is y.
x′ O
. I . .
• A function may be determined : x1 x2 x

- either by an explicit formula. For example, for any real x, y′

we associate half of its square, written :
f: →
x2
xa
2
- or by a dependent relation. For example, the perimeter and the area of a square which depend
on its side of length x are :
p(x) = 4x and A (x) = x2 .

209
 2 DOMAIN OF DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION

The domain of definition of a function f is a part I of  such that every element of I has only one
image by f.
This domain is sometimes given. If not, we should find it.
EXAMPLES
2x2 – 1
1. Let f be the function defined over I = [2,12] by f(x) =  .
x+1
Here the domain is given. The value x = –1 which does not have an image by f does not belong
to I.

3
2. Let f be the function defined by f(x) =  .
x–1
x = 1 does not have an image by f. The domain of definition of f is every real number different
from 1. I = ]–∞ , 1[ ∪ ]1, +∞[.

3 REPRESENTATIVE CURVE
→ →
The plane is referred to a system (O, i , j ). Let f be a function from a part I of  over .
f: I →
x a f(x)
The set of points M of the plane of coordinates (x, f (x)), where x moves in I, is called the
representative curve of f .
Since for every real x of I, its image f(x) is unique, then every parallel to the y-axis cuts the curve
of f in at most one point.

y y
• (C ′)
(C)
• •

→ →
j x′ j
x′ O →i I x O →i
I x
y′ y′
(C) represents a function (C ′) does not represent a function

210
 4 EVEN FUNCTION - ODD FUNCTION (PARITY)

→ →
(C) and (C ′) are the representative curves of two functions f and g in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ).

y y

(C)
M2 f(x) M1 (C ′)
→
g(x) M1
j →
x –5 –x j x
x′ –5 –x O i → x 5 O i → x 5
x′
M2 g(–x)

y′ y′

f is defined over I = [–5 , +5 ] g is defined over J = [– 5 ;+5] centered

centered at O. at O.

For every x of I we have : For every x of J = [– 5 ; +5], we have :

f(–x) = f(x). g(–x) = –g(x).

The y-axis is an axis of The origin O is a center of symmetry

symmetry of (C). of (C).
→ → → →
(In this case, (O ; i , j ) is (In this case, (O ; i , j ) could be any
orthogonal). system).

211
 f is a function defined over an interval I of  centered at 0.

• f is said to be even if f(– x) = f(x) for every x in I.

Its curve admits y′y as an axis of symmetry in an orthogonal system.

• f is said to be odd if f(– x) = – f(x) for every x in I.

Its curve admits the origin O as a center of symmetry.

EXAMPLES

1. f is defined over I = [−3 , +3] by f(x) = x2.

I is centered at 0 and for every x in I we have : f(–x) = (–x)2 = x2 = f(x).

f is then even and y′y is an axis of symmetry of the curve of f.

2
2. f is defined over I = [– 3 , 0[ ∪ ]0 , 3] by f(x) =  .
x


2 2
I is centered at 0 and for every x of I we have : f(–x) =  = –  = –f(x).
–x x

f is then odd and the origin O is a center of symmetry of the curve of f.

Remark

There exist functions which are neither even nor odd.

For example : f is defined over I = [– 4 , +4] by f(x) = x2 – x .

I is centered at 0 and for every x in I, we have :

f(–x) = (–x)2 – (–x) = x2 + x which is different from f(x) and – f(x). f is neither even nor odd.

212
 5 SENSE OF VARIATION OF A FUNCTION
(C), (C ′) and (C ″) are the representative curves of three functions f, g and h defined over I of  in a
→ →
system (O ; i , j ).

y y A y

(C) B (C ′)
.
M h(x1) = h(x2) A
(C″)
M B
f(x2) g(x1) • •
f(x1) M
. g(x2)
→ A →
B →
j j I
I x′ j I x′
x′ x1 x2
O →
i x1 x2 x O →
i
x1 x2 x O →
i x

y′ y′ y′

Going from A to B, Going from A to B, Going from A to B, M is

M «ascends» M « descends » on segment [AB] parallel
x1 < x2 and f(x1) < f(x2). x1 < x2 and g(x1)>g(x2). to x′′x
x1 < x2 and h(x1) = h(x2).

f is a function defined over an interval I of  ; x1 and x2 are two reals of I.

• f is said to be increasing over I if for x1 < x2 we have f(x1)  f(x2).
• f is said to be strictly increasing over I if for x1 < x2 we have
f(x1) < f(x2).
• f is said to be decreasing over I if for x1 < x2 we have f(x1)  f(x2) .
• f is said to be strictly decreasing over I if for x1 < x2 we have
f(x1) > f(x2).
• f is said to be constant over I, if for every x of I, we have f(x) = k where k is constant.

Remark

We can also study the sense of variations of a function f defined over an interval I of  by
f (x1) – f (x2) for all x and x in I such
studying the sign of the rate of change of f which is :t =  1 2
x1 – x2
that x1 ≠ x2 .

• If t  0 , then f is increasing over I .

• If t  0 , then f is strictly increasing over I .
• If t  0 , then f is decreasing over I .
• If t  0 , then f is strictly decreasing over I .
• If t = 0 , then f is constant over I .

213
 EXAMPLES

1. f is defined over I = [− 3,5] by f(x) = 2x + 5

1st method
x1 and x2 are two reals of I such that x1 < x2.
f(x1) = 2x1 + 5 and f(x2) = 2x2 + 5.
f(x1) − f(x2) = 2 (x1 − x2) < 0 since x1 < x2, so f(x1) < f(x2),
f is then strictly increasing over I.

2nd method
f (x1) – f (x2) = 2 > 0 , f is then strictly increasing over I .
t = 
x1 – x2

3
2. f is defined over I = [1,4] by f(x) =  .
x
1st method
x1 and x2 are two reals of I such that x1 < x2 .

3 3
f(x1) =  and f(x2) =  .
x1 x2

3 3 3(x2 – x1)
f(x1) – f(x2) =  –  =  > 0 since x1x2 > 0 and x2 – x1 > 0,
x1 x2 x1 x2

then f(x1) > f(x2) and f is strictly decreasing over I.

2nd method
–3
f (x1) – f (x2) = 
t =  < 0 , f is then strictly decreasing over I .
x1 – x2 x1x2

3. f is defined over I = [− 2,6] by f(x) = 4.

1st method
x1 and x2 are two reals of I such that x1 < x2.
f(x1) = 4 and f(x2) = 4 and f(x1) = f(x2),
f is a constant function over I.

2nd method
f (x1) – f (x2) = 0 , f is then constant over I.
t = 
x1 – x2

214
 6 EXTREMUM OF A FUNCTION (MAXIMUM OR
MINIMUM)

→ →
(C) is the representative curve of a function f in a system (O ; i , j ).
y y

f (a) (C) f (a) • (C)

f(x1) •
f(x)
f(x0) •

f (b) → • f (b) → •
j j
x′ O → a x0 x b x x′ O → a x1 b x
i i

y′ y′
f is defined over I = [a,b]. f is defined over I = [a,b].

• At x0, f ceases from decreasing to • At x1 , f ceases from increasing and

start increasing. starts decreasing.

f(x0) is the relative or local f(x1) is said to be the relative or

minimum of f over I. local maximum of f over I.

• f(b) is the smallest value reached • f(a) is the largest value reached by
by f over I . f(b) is the absolute f over I . f(a) is the absolute
minimum of f over I, f(x)  f(b) maximum of f over I, f(x)  f(a)
for all x in I. for all x in I.

7 GRAPHICAL READING OF A FUNCTION AND

TABLE OF VARIATION

Without knowing the expression f(x) of a function f defined over an interval I, its curve can give
us information about this function.

215
 Here’s an example.
(C) is the representative curve of a function f defined over [− 4;5] of .

y
3
2
1.5
1
→
–1,5 O j 2 3
x′ –4 –3 –2 –1 –0,5 →i 1 3.5 4 5 6 x
–1

–2
y′

• f is increasing over [− 4 ; −1.5] , decreasing over [−1.5 ; 2] then increasing over [2,5].
• f admits a maximum (relative and absolute) equals to 3 for x = −1.5 and a minimum (relative and
absolute) equals −1 for x = 2.
• f is increasing over [− 4 ; −1.5] , decreasing over [−1.5 ; 2] then increasing over [2;5].
• f has a maximum (relative and absolute) equals 3 for x = −1.5 and a minimum (relative and
absolute) equals −1 for x = 2.
We can represent this observation in the following table. It is called table of variations of f.

x –4 –1.5 2 5
f(x) 3 2
0 –1

8 DRAWING OF A REPRESENTATIVE CURVE OF A

FUNCTION

Case 1
Function given by a table of values
In this case, the table must have many values to be significant, since the drawing is done by joining
point by point.

216
EXAMPLE

The water volume in a container is given by V(t) = 10(10 – t)2 where t is the time in hours and
V the volume in liters.
Draw the curve representing V as a function of t over the interval [0 ; 10].

Here is the table of some values.

t 0 1 1,5 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8,5 9 10

V 1000 810 722.5 640 490 360 250 160 90 40 22.5 10 0

→ →
(O ; i , j ) is an orthogonal system. We took 1cm on the x-axis for 1h and 1cm on the y-axis for
100 l.

... . . . . . ... .

217
 Case 2
Function given by its table of variations

In this case the table is divided into intervals where the function is increasing or decreasing and in
which we figure out the extremums of this function.
There exist many functions that have the same table of variations.
To draw a curve representing the given table, we place the points indicated and we join them
representing the variations and the extremums.

Consider the following table of variations of a function f.

x –2 0 2 5
f(x) 4 3
–3 1

These two curves, for example, represent this table of variations.

y y

4 4

3 3

1 1
→ →
–2 j x –2 j x
→ →
x′ –1 O i 2 5 x′ –1 O i 2 5

–3 –3

y′ y′

218
 9 GRAPHICAL RESOLUTION OF EQUATIONS AND
INEQUALITIES

1° Sign of f(x)
To study the sign of f(x) we have to solve f(x) = 0, f(x) > 0 and f(x) < 0.
So, we should study the position of the curve (C) of the function f with respect to the x-axis of
equation y = 0.
In the following (curve of paragraph 7) ,
y
3
2 (D): y=2
1.5
1
→
–1.5 j 2
→
x′ –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 –0.3 O i 1 3 3.5 4 5 6 7 x
y′
we notice that :
• (C) cuts the x-axis at the points of abscissas – 4 ; 1 and 3.5 .
Then f(x) = 0 for x = – 4, x = 1 and x = 3.5 .
• (C) is above the x-axis over the intervals. ]– 4 ; 1[ and ]3.5 ; 5] where the ordinates of points
of (C) are strictly positive.
Then f(x) > 0 for x ∈ ] – 4; 1[ ∪ ]3.5 ; 5] .
• (C) is below the x-axis over the interval ]1 ; 3.5[ where the ordinates of points of (C) are strictly
negative.
Then f(x) < 0 for x ∈ ] 1 ; 3.5[ .

2° Resolution f(x) = k, f(x) > k and f(x) < k, where k is a constant

It is sufficient to compare the position of the curve (C) representing f to the straight line (D) of
equation y = k, (D) being parallel to the x-axis.
• The abscissas of the points of intersection of (C) and (D) are the solutions of the equation
f(x) = k.
• The intervals where (C) is above (D) are solutions of f(x) > k.
• The intervals where (C) is below (D) are solutions of f(x) < k.

219
 For example, solve graphically f(x) = 2, f(x) > 2 and f(x) < 2 where f is the function represented
graphically by the curve (C) of paragraph 7.
We draw the straight line (D) of equation y = 2 which is parallel to the x-axis.
• – 3 ; – 0.3 and 5 are the abscissas of the points of intersection of (C) and (D).
Then f(x) = 2 for x = – 3, x = – 0.3 and x = 5 .
• (C) is above (D) over the interval ]– 3 ; – 0.3[.
Then f(x) > 2 for x ∈ ] – 3 ; – 0.3[ .
• (C) is below (D) over the interval [– 4, –3[ and ] – 0.3 ; 5[.
Then f(x) < 2 for x ∈ [– 4 ; – 3[ ∪ ] – 0.3 ; 5[ .

10 GRAPHICAL COMPARISON OF TWO FUNCTIONS f

AND g OVER AN INTERVAL I IN 
(C) and (C ′) are the representative curves of two functions f and g over the interval [1,8] in a system
→ →
(O ; i , j ) of the plane.
y C
C′
f(x1)
g(x2)
A
f(x2)

g(x1)

→
j
O →
x′ i 1 x1 5 x2 8 x
y′

Comparing graphically f and g is to study the position of their representative curves (C) and (C ′)
over the interval [1,8] .
• (C) cuts (C ′) at a point A of abscissa 5 where f(x) = g(x) .
Then f(x) = g(x) for x = 5 .
• (C) is above (C ′) over the interval [1 ; 5[ .
For every real x1 of [1 ;5[, f(x1) > g(x1) .
Then f(x) > g(x) for x ∈ [1 ; 5[ .
• (C) is below (C ′) over the interval ]5 ; 8]
For every real x2 of ]5 ; 8], f(x2) < g(x2).
Then f(x) < g(x) for x ∈ ] 5 ; 8] .

220
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

1 Which of the following graphs represent a function ?

1° 2° 3°
y y y

x′ O x x′ O x x′ O x
y′ y′ y′

4° 5° y 6°
y y

x′ O x x′ O x x′ O x

y′ y′ y′

2 Determine the domain of definition of the following functions f defined by :

1 x2
1° f(x) =  7° f(x) = 

x+3
1–x 4° f(x) = 
x–5 |x – 2|
5 8° f(x) = |x
|–
4
x–1 5° f(x) = 
2° f(x) =  |x| – 1 9° f(x) = |x
|+
5
(x – 1)2 – 4
5x x–
2
6° f(x) =  10° f(x) = 
3° f(x) = 3
–x |x| + 1 x–4

3 Study the parity of each of the following functions f defined by :

|x| x2 + 2
1° f(x) = x2 + 4 3° f(x) =  5° f(x) = 
x x

2° f(x) = x3 – x 4° f(x) = x + ⏐x – 1⏐ 6° f(x) = x4 + x2 – 4.

221
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

4 Consider the function f defined over the interval [– 4 , 4] .

1° Complete the representative curve of f following the given indication.
2° Then, indicate the nature of the extremums thus obtained.

a) b) c) d)
y y y y
f is odd f is even f is odd f is even

→ → → → → → → →
j i j i j i j i
x′ O x x′ O x x′ O x x′ O x

y′ y′ y′ y′

5 Indicate the domain of definition of each function represented by a curve below. Determine the
intervals where each function is increasing or decreasing. Precise the nature of their extremums.

1° y 2° y 3° y
C E
A D
→
j A C B
→

x′ O→ x x′
.O
j
→
.. x x′
→
j
O
→
i
x
i i
D C
A
B B
y′ y′ y′

6 Given the representative curve of a function f over an interval I.

Set up its table of variations in each of the following cases.

1° y 2° y 3° y

3 3 3
2 2 . →
.
→ 1 → 1 j
x′ . j
–2 –1 O. i 1 → 2 3 4 x x′
–2 j
–1 O →i 1 2 3 x
.
x′ –2 –1 O→ 1
2 3
x
i
–1 -1
y′ y′ y′

222
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

7 –1
Complete the table of variations in each 10 Given the function f defined by f(x) =  .
x
of the following cases :

1° 1° Determine the domain of definition of f .

x 0 2 4 with f defined
f (x) 2 1 over [– 4 , 4]
and f is even. 2° Show that f is decreasing over ]– ; 0[ and
-3
over ]0 ; +[ .
2° x 0 2 4 with f defined
5 over [– 4 , 4]
f (x)
and f is odd.
0 2
11 A function f is defined for all real x such
that –5  x  6. Its curve is represented below.

8 Show that each of the following functions

is, either increasing, decreasing or constant over y
the indicated intervals. Draw then their table of
variations. 5 .
4
x
1° f : x a  + 4 ; I = ]–∞ ; +∞[ 3
2
2
2
2° f : x a ; I = ]–∞ ; +0[ and J = ]0,+∞[ x′ 1 5 6
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-1
3° f : x a ⏐x + 2⏐ ; I = ]–∞;–2] and J =[–2,+∞[
-2
4° f : x a x – 3 ; I = [3 ; +[

 
1
5° f : x a 2x2 + x ; I = –  ; + .
4 y′

1° Calculate the values of : f(–5) , f(–3)

and f(6).
9 Given the function f defined by f(x) = x2 + 1.

Designate by (P) its representative curve in an 2° Give the antecedents of 3 and 4.

→ →
orthonormal system (O; i , j ).
3° Solve graphically the given equations :
1° Determine the domain of definition of f . a) f(x) = 1 ; b) f(x) = 3 ;
c) f(x) = 6 ; d) f(x) = –2.
2° Show that f is decreasing over ]– ; 0] and

increasing over [0 ; +[ . 4° Find the values of x where the function has
the smallest and largest value.
3° Does f admit an extremum? What is its

value?

223
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

12 Answer by True or False.

For seeking
1° The function f given by f(x) = 1 
– x
2 is

 
1
defined over  , +∞ . 13 1° a) Verify that :
2
 
b 2 3
a2 + ab + b2 = a +  +  b2 .
2 4
2° The curve of the function f given by b) What is the sign of a + ab + b2 ?
2
x 2° Consider the function f defined over  by
f(x) =  passes through the origin.
x–1 f (x) = x3 .
a) Show that f(a) – f(b) = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2).
3° A function which is not increasing over an b) Deduce the sense of variations of f over  .
interval is decreasing over this interval.
14 f is a function defined over [–5 ; 10] and
4° A function which is not even is necessarily its table of variations is :

odd. x –5 –3 0 5 10
5 3
5° The curve below represents a function over f
[–2 , +2] –1 –2 1
Answer by true or false the following . Justify
y your answer .
1° f (1) > f (4).
2° f (–3) > f (–1).
3° f (–4) < 5.
-2 4° If x  [5 ; 10] then f (x) > 0 .


x′ O 2 x 1
5° If f (2) = 0 then f  < 0 .
2

15 In each of the following cases draw two

curves representing the function f having the
y′
indicated table of variation.
Then answer the given question.
6° The curve below represents an even function
1° x −∞ 3 +∞
over [–2 , 2] +∞ +∞
f(x)
y 1
Does the equation f(x) = –1 have solutions ?

2
2° x −∞ 1 3 +∞
–2
f(x) 1 +∞
x′ x
−∞ −2
If, in addition, f(0) = 0 and f(6) = 0 ,
y′ Can we have f(4) = –3 ? and f(7) = 1 ?

224
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

16 1° Given the function f defined by 18 The table of variations of a function f

f(x) = x2 – 2x . defined on  is :

a) Calculate f(1) . x –∞ –1 2 8 15 22 +∞
b) Show that f admits an extremum at 1. What is –3 2
its nature ? f 0 0
–10

2° Given the function g defined by 1° a) What are the maximums of f over

g(x) = – x2 – 4x + 2 . ]–∞ ; 8] ? What are their nature ?
a) Calculate g(–2) . b) What is the sign of f (x) over this interval ?
b) Show that g admits an extremum at – 2.

What is its nature ? 2° a) If x  22 , what can you say about the

sign of f(x) ?

b) What is the maximum of f over  ? Deduce

17 C f and C g are the representative curves of that the equation f (x) = 2 has no solution.
the functions f and g defined over interval
[–5 ; 3].

Determine graphically the set of the reals x such 19 The table of variation of f is given below :
that :
1° C f is above C g . x –9 –2 0 1 3 +∞
2° f (x) = g(x) .
–3 4
3° f (x) < g(x) .
f –1 –4
–5
y
1° What are the antecedents of 4 by f ?

2° Complete the following inequalities as

Cf
precisely as possible :

3 a) ...  f (2)  ...

1 Cg b) ...  f (–1)  ...

–5 –4 O 1 3 x 3° Is there a number in the interval [–9 ; –2]

whose image is – 4 ?

4° Solve the inequality f (x)  – 4 .

225
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

2
20 Given below the graphical representation (H) of a function f defined by f(x) =  – 3 .
x+1

–7 –6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 O 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
–1

–2

–3
(H)
–4

–5

–6

Part 1 : Using the graph

1° Precise the domain of definition D of the function f .

2° Set the table of variations of f .

3° Solve : –5 < f (x) < 1 .

Part 2 : By calculation

1° Solve : f (x) = –3 ; f (x) < –1 .

2° Let Δ be the representative curve of the function g defined by g(x) = x – 2 . Solve f (x) = g(x) .

3° Deduce the coordinates of the common points of (H) and Δ .

226
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

21 Let (C) be a semi-circle of diameter AB = 8cm, M is a point of [AB] such that AM = x cm.

1° Give the interval in which x lies.

2° The perpendicular to (AB) at M cuts (C) at P. Calculate MP in terms of x and deduce the area A (x) of triangle APB.

3° Fill the following table :

x 0 2 4 6 8
A(x)
→ →
4° Draw then, the curve representing A in an orthogonal system (O ; i , j ).

5° Deduce the position of M over [AB] such that A (x) is maximal. What is this maximum ?

22 Given the function f defined by f(x) = x2 – 2x over [–2 ; 4] and (P) is its representative curve in an orthonormal system
→ →
(O ; i , j ).

1° Show that f is decreasing over [–2;1] and increasing over [1;4].

2° Show that –1 is the minimum of f. What is the abscissa of this minimum?

3° Set up the table of variations of f.

4° Fill the table : x −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4

5° Sketch (P). f(x)

6° Use (P) to solve graphically :

a) f (x) = 0 b) f (x) = –1 c) f (x) = 3
d) f (x) < –1 e) f (x) > 0 f) –1 < f (x) < 3.

2
23 Let f be the function defined by f(x) = 2 where (C) is its representative curve .
x +1
1° Study the parity of f .

2° Study the sign of f . What can you deduce about the position of (C) ?

3° Show that f has 2 as a maximum.

4° Consider the two reals a and b . Calculate f (a) – f (b) then deduce the sense of variations of the function f over interval
[0 ; +∞[ .

5° Deduce the table of variation of f over  .

227
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

24 Consider a square ABCD of side 10 cm. L is a point on side [AB] and W the point of side [AD]
such that AL = DW = x cm. Then construct triangle CLW.
Name f the function in x  [0 ; 10] associated to the area of L
A B
triangle CLW.
1° a) Express in terms of x the lengths BL and AW.
b) Express in terms of x the area of triangles LAW, LBC
and CDW.
1 75
c) Deduce that f(x) =  (x – 5)2 +  .
2 2
2° Study the sense of variations of the function f over W
interval [0 ; 5].
3° a) Justify that , for all x in [0 ; 10], f (x)  37.5.
D C
b) Can we have f (x) = 37.5 ?
c) Is there a triangle CLW with minimum area ? If yes , precise the positions of points L and W.

25 A function f has the following table of x –5 –2 3 4

variations :
f (x) 5 0
Suppose that f(–1) = 4 and f(1) = 0. 3 –2

1° Determine the domain of f .

2° Describe the variations of f .
3° Specify the extremums of f over Df , then frame f (x).
4° Set the table of signs of f (x).
5° Solve the inequality f(x)  –2 .
6° Compare , with justification : f (– 4) and f (– 4.6) ; f (– 4) and f (3.5).

26 A function f has the following table of values : x –1 2 5 8 11

We know also that f is defined over  , increasing f (x) 0 3 0 –3 0
over ]–∞ ; 2] , decreasing over [2 ; 8] and increasing
over [8 ; +∞[ .
1° Set the table of variations of f .
2° Plot , in an orthonormal system , the representative curve (C) of f .
3° Let g be the function defined , over  , by : g(x) = – x + 5 .
a) Calculate the images by g of the reals 2 and 5 .
b) Plot , in the same system , the line (D) representing the function g .
c) Solve graphically : f (x) = g(x) ; f (x) – g(x) < 0.

228
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

27 (Cf ) and (Cg ) drawn below , are the representative curves of functions f and g .
y

Cg

Cf
1

O 1 x

1° Give the domain of definition of g , then set its table of variations .

2° Solve graphically with justification : a) f (x) = 0 ; b) g(x) > 2 ; c) f (x) < g(x) ; d) |g(x) + 1|  1.
3° Determine graphically the sign of g(x).
4° Solve graphically with justification : f (x) . g(x)  0 .

To go further
1
I Let f be the function defined by f (x) = x +  over I = ]0 ; +∞[ .
x
1° Show that 2 is a minimum of f over ]0 ; +∞[ for a value of x to be determined .
(a – b)(ab – 1)
2° a) a and b are two non-zero reals , show that : f (a) – f (b) =  .
ab
b) 
Study the variations of f over I =  1 ; 1 and over J = [1 ; 4].
4
c) Set the table of variations of f over I .
3° a) Verify that 4x2 – 9x + 2 = (4x – 1)(x – 2) .
1 9
b) Solve, over I, the inequality : x +   – x +  and give a graphical interpretaiton .
x 2

229
 GENERALITIES ABOUT FUNCTIONS

3
II Let f be the function defined over ]–∞ ; 3[  ]3 ; +∞[ by f (x) = 1 +  .
x–3
1° a) Show that f is decreasing over the interval I = ]3 ; +∞[ .
b) Show that , for all x in the interval I , f (x) > 1 .
2° In the figure below , we plotted the representative curve (H) of f and a parabola representing a
function g defined on  .
a) Solve graphically , then by calculation : f (x)  4 .
b) Let g be defined by g(x) = x2 + bx + c . Determine the reals b and c .
c) Solve graphically : g(x)  f (x) .

y
8
7
6 (P)
5
4
3
2
1
(H)
0
–6 –5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
–1
–2
–3
–4
–5
–6

III 1° ABCD is a rectangle , AB = 10 cm , BC = 6 cm. A E B

The points E, F, G, H are on [AB], [BC], [CD], [DA] respectively
such that AE = BF = CG = DH.
F
Suppose AH = x and let S(x) be the area of parallelogram EFGH.
a) Show that S(x) = 2x2 – 8x + 36. H
b) For what values of x , is S(x) defined ?
2° Let f be the function defined over  by f (x) = x2 – 4x + 18. D C
G
a) Show that f has 14 as minimum.
b) Specify for what value of x that minimum is reached .
3° a) What is the position of E that makes S(x) minimum ?
b) What is this minimum area ?

230
16
EQUATIONS OF
STRAIGHT LINES
A brief history
The idea of locating a point in a system of axes is previously presented by the
greeks (Apollonius).
But it is at XVIIth century, from the ideas of Viète (1540-1603), that the analytic
geometry was developed.
By choosing a unit system, René Descartes (1596-1650) one of the great
mathematicians of the XVIIth century, the calculation of dimensions over came
the calculation of the numbers.
He worked to prove the close relation between the algebraic calculation and the
pure geometry (of ancients).
He gave the appearance of analytic geometry.
This last took truly his expansion at XVIIIth century. At 1770, Louis de Lagrange
(1736 - 1813) introduced for space the three axes of coordinates and established
the equation of straight lines and planes.
In 1795, in his «Papers of calculus applied on the geometry», Gaspard Monge
(1746 - 1818) gave to the analytic geometry its modern form.
This branch of the geometry contributed to the development of the notion of
vector and of vector space at XIXth century.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE
1. Director vector of a 6. Parallelism condition of two
straight line straight lines
2. Parametric representation 7. Condition for the orthogonality
of a straight line of two lines
3. Cartesian equation of a 8. Straight line passing through a
straight line given point and given normal
4. Graphic representation of a vector
straight line 9. Distance from a point to a
5. Intersection of two straight straight line
lines 10. Locus of points
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Analytic Geometry is the ART of solving

geometry problems using calculations».

Descartes
231
 P reliminary activity
EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

→ →
Let (O ; i , j ) be an orthonormal system of the plane and (D) be the straight line of equation y =
2x − 3.

1° a) Find the ordinate of point B of (D) having a null abscissa.

b) Find the abscissa of point C of (D) having a null ordinate.

c) The following points belong to (D). Complete :

E ( – 2 ; ....) ; F (..... ; 5).

→ →
2° Find the coordinates of vectors BC and EF . What do you notice ?

→ →
3° a) Place point I of the plane such that OI = BC and deduce the coordinates of point I.

b) If H is the orthogonal projection of I on x′Ox and α = HOI , calculate tan α and say what
does this value represent for (D).

4° a) Represent the equation of line (D) in the form of ax + by + c = 0.

→ → →
− b , a) and compare it with vectors BC and
b) Find vector V (− EF .
y
c) Calculate the ratio  , where x and y are the coordinates of each of
x
→ → →
vectors V , BC and EF . What do you notice ?
Verify that this ratio is tan α.
→ →
d) Find the vector N (a ; b) and justify that N is orthogonal to the straight line (D) .

232
 1 DIRECTOR VECTOR OF A STRAIGHT LINE
→
A director vector V of a straight line (D) is a non zero vector having the same direction as (D).
→
Any non zero collinear vector to V is also a director vector of (D). →
→ → D V
For example vectors AB and CD are also director vectors of (D). C
(D)
B
A

2 PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A STRAIGHT

LINE
→ →
(O ; i , j ) is a system of the plane. y
Let (D) be the straight line passing through point A (xA;yA) and
→ →
of director vector V (a;b). We denote it by (A , V ). Any point
→ → →
M(x;y) of (D) verifies AM = t V where t is a real number, V
(D)
therefore :
x – xA = ta and y – yA = tb
A M
These two relations are written: →
j →


x = at + xA i
y = bt + yA where t   . x′ O x
They form a system of parametric equations of (D) since
they depend on a real parameter t. y′

Remarks
• In the parametric representation of a straight line (D), the coefficients of the parameter are the
coordinates of a director vector of (D).
• To find a point of (D) it is enough to give a value to the parameter.
• To know if a point belongs to (D), the system obtained by replacing x
and y by the coordinates of this point gives a unique value to the parameter.

233
 EXAMPLES
→ →
1. The straight line (D), defined by (A ; V ) where A(1;2) and V (– 2;3), is given by the relation
→ →
AM = t V where M(x;y) is any point of (D) and t a real number. Hence x – 1 = – 2t and


x = – 2t + 1
y – 2 = 3t, therefore :
y = 3t + 2
is a system of parametric equations (D).

2. If t = 2, then x = –3 , y = 8 is the point B(−3;8) of (D).

3. The point C(–1;5) is a point of (D) since by replacing x and y by –1 and 5 the equations –1 =
– 2t + 1 and 5 = 3t + 2 are obtained which give the same value t = 1.

4. The point E (–5;–1) is not a point of (D) since the system :

–5 = – 2t + 1 and –1 = 3t + 2 gives two different values of t that are 3 and –1.

3 CARTESIAN EQUATION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

1° A straight line defined by a point and a director vector

→ →
(O ; i , j ) be a system of the plane.
→
Let A(xA ; yA) be a point of the plane and V ( α ; β) a vector of this plane where α ≠ 0 or β ≠ 0.
→ →
The straight line (D) passing through A and of director vector V is denoted by (A, V ).
→ →
Any point M(x ; y) of (D) is such that AM (x – xA ; y – yA) and V (α ; β) are collinear, that is
β(x – xA) – α(y – yA) = 0
y (D)
which is written :
βx – αy – βxA + αyA = 0. → M
V
x – xA y – yA
If α ≠ 0 and β ≠ 0, we can write  = .
 
By letting : a = β, b = − α and c = αyA − βxA we obtain
: → →
j i A
ax + by +c = 0 where a and b are not simultaneously x′ O x
zero.
y′

234
 → →
This relation is called a cartesian equation of (D). We notice that V (α;β), that is V (–b ; a), is a
director vector of (D).

Any vector (– kb ; ka) with k a non zero real number is also a director vector of (D) .

EXAMPLE
→ →
Let (D) be the straight line defined by (A , V ) with A(–1 ; 3) and V (1 ; 2). Any point M(x,y) of
→ →
(D) is such that AM (x+1 ; y–3) and V (1;2) are collinear, so 2(x+1) – 1(y – 3) = 0, hence :
→
2x – y + 5 = 0. We notice that (–b ; a) is vector V (1 ; 2) which is a director vector of (D).

Remark

The cartesian equation of (D) : ax + by + c = 0 can also be written,

a c
y = –  x –  with b ≠ 0. It is of the form y = mx +p and is called reduced equation of (D), where
→
b b
u (1 , m) is a director vector m is called director coefficient of (D).

Particular straight lines .

y
• The straight line (D) parallel to the ordinates’
axis and passing through the point A(xA;yA) has (D)
→
j (0 ; 1). A cartesian equation of (D) is :

1( x – xA) – 0(y – yA) = 0 ,

A
therefore : x = xA . →
j x
x′
If A is a point of the ordinates axis, then xA = 0. O →
i
Hence the equation of the y′′y axis is : x = 0.

y′

235
 • The straight line (D) parallel to the abscissas’ axis y

and passing through A(xA ; yA) has for director vector

→
vector i (1 ; 0). A cartesian equation of (D) is : (D)
→ A
j x
0(x–xA) – 1(y–yA) = 0 , hence : y = yA x′
O i →

If A is a point of the abscissas axis, then yA = 0. Hence

y′
the equation of the x′′x axis is : y = 0.

2° Straight line defined by two points

→ →
(O ; i , j ) is a system of the plane. y
(D)

Let (D) be the straight line passing through the two distinct M
→
points A and B. AB is a director vector of (D). Any point
→ → B
M(x ; y) of (D) is such that AM and AB are collinear, with
A
→
AM (x – xA ; y –yA) and I
→ →
AB (xB – xA ; yB – yA). j α H α
x′ O → x
i
An equation of (D) is therefore :

(x – xA ) (yB – yA ) – (y – yA ) (xB – xA ) = 0 . y′

In the case where xB – xA ≠ 0 , this equation is written

 
yB – yA
y=  (x – xA) + yA ,
xB – xA
yB – yA
which is of the form y = mx + p with m =  , which is the director coefficient of (D).
xB – xA

236
Remark
→ → → →
If (O ; i , j ) is an orthonormal system and I is a point such that OI = AB then
I(xB – xA ; yB – yA) with xB – xA ≠ 0 .

In the right triangle OHI where H is the orthogonal projection of I on x′x , we have:
I
H y yB – yA
tan α =  = I =  = m where α is the angle formed between (Ox) and line (D).
H
O xI xB – xA

y
(D) (D)
α
α
O x O x

In this case, the director coefficient of (D) is called the slope of (D).

EXAMPLE

Find the equation of (D) passing through the two points A(2 ;1) and B(–1;3) in the orthonormal
→ →
system (O ; i , j ).

→ →
Any point M(x;y) of (D) is such that AM (x – 2 ; y – 1) and AB (–3 ; 2) are collinear , from

where: 2(x – 2) – (– 3) (y – 1) = 0, therefore :

2 7
2x + 3y – 7 = 0 that can be written as y = –  x +  .
3 3

2 yB – yA
The director coefficient or the slope of (D) is m = –  which is  .
3 xB – xA
→
yAB →
m is also the ratio →
where AB is a director vector of (D).
xAB

237
 3° Straight line passing through a point and whose director coefficient is
given
Let (D) be the straight line passing through A and having m as director coefficient. An equation of
(D) is : y – yA = m(x – xA) .
For example the straight line (D) passing through A(–1 ; 3) and having a director coefficient
m = 2 , has for equation : y – 3 = 2(x + 1) or y = 2x + 5 or 2x – y + 5 = 0 .

Remarks
• How to change parametric equations of a straight line to a cartesian equation ?
It is enough to eliminate the parameter figuring in the parametric equations.

EXAMPLE

y = t + 5
x = 2t – 3
Let (D) be given by where t   .

x+3


t = 
This sytem is equivalent to : 2
t=y–5
x+3
Therefore :  = y – 5 and x – 2y + 13 = 0.
2

• How to change from a cartesian equation of a straight line to a parametric representation?

Let (D) be given by ax + by + c = 0 .
• If a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 , let t be one of the coordinates and calculate the other in terms of t (t is a
real number).
If (D) has for equation x – 2y + 5 = 0 . By letting , for example , y = t , t   then x = 2t – 5 .

y = t
x = 2t – 5
A system of parametric equations of (D) is where t   .

t′ 5
Let x = t′ , t′   , then 2y = t′ + 5 and y =  +  .
2 2


x = t′
Another parametric system of equations of (D) is t′ 5 where t′   .
y =  + 
2 2
• If a = 0 and b ≠ 0 , an equation of (D) is by + c = 0 .


x=t
A system of parametric equations of (D) is c where t   .
y = – 
b
For example, a system of parametric equations of straight line () of equation 2y + 7 = 0 is


x=t
7 where t   .
y = – 
2

238
 • If b = 0 and a ≠ 0 , an equation of (D) is ax + c = 0 .
c


x = – 
A system of parametric equations of (D) is a where t   .
y=t

For example, a system of parametric equations of straight line (d) of equation3x + 1 = 0 is

1


x = – 
3 where t   .
y=t

4 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF A LINE

1° To construct line (D) given by its cartesian equation x – 2y + 2 = 0 y

→ →
in the orthogonal system (O , i , j ) , is enough to find two points of
this line :
(D)
A
for x = 0, y = 1 ; A(0 ; 1) ∈ (D) →
j
x′
for x = – 2, y = 0 ; B(–2 ; 0) ∈ (D). B O → x
i

y′

2° To construct line (D) given by its parametric equations y

y = – 2t + 3 t ∈ 
x=t–2
A
→ →
in the orthogonal system (O , i , j ) , is enough to find two points of
→
(D). j O
x′ → x
B i

t = 0 gives A(–2 ; 3) ∈ (D)

t = 2 gives B(0 ; –1) ∈ (D).
(D)
y′

239
 → →
3° To construct line (D) defined by (A , V ) with A(2 ; 1) and V (3 ; 2) in y
→ →
the orthogonal system (O , i , j ) , point B should be determined, where
→ → → → → (D)
(D) is the support of vector AB such that AB = V = 3i + 2j .
→ → B
To do so, place point C defined by AC = 3i . →
2j
→ → A
Point B is obtained by CB = 2j . → →
j 3i C
→ → → → → → x′ O → x
In fact : AB = AC + CB = 3i + 2 j = V . i

y′

5 INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES

If two lines (D) and (D′) intersect at I, then the coordinates x0 and y0 of I are the solution of the system
formed by their equations.

EXAMPLE

1. Given (D) and ( D′) of respective equations :

2x – y – 3 = 0 and 3x + y – 2 = 0.

→ →
A director vector of (D) is V (1 ; 2) and the one of ( D′ ) is V′ (–1 ; 3).

These two vectors being non collinear (1.3 – (–1).2 ≠ 0) , hence (D) and (D′) intersect at a point


2x – y = 3
I whose coordinates are the solution of the system : . Therefore I(1 ; –1).
3x + y = 2

240
 2. Given (D) and (D′ ) of respective parametric equations :

y = t – 3 y = 3t′
x = 2t – 1 x = – t′ + 5
t   and t′   .

→ →
The director vectors V (2 ; 1) and V′ (–1 ; 3) of (D) and (D′) are not collinear, hence (D) and (D′)
meet at a point I whose coordinates verify the equations of (D) and (D′). That is :

t – 3 = 3t′ t – 3t′ = 3
2t – 1 = – t′ + 5 2t + t′ = 6
(x = x and y = y) or which is equivalent to

Solving this system gives t = 3 and t′ = 0.

The coordinates of I are obtained by replacing t by 3 or t′ by 0 in the corresponding equations.

t′ = 0 gives I (5 ; 0)

or t = 3 gives also I (5 ; 0).

6 PARALLELISM OF TWO STRAIGHT LINES

ax + by + c = 0 and a′x + b′y + c′ = 0 are respectively two cartesian equations of two lines (D) and
→ → → →
(D′) of director vectors V (–b ; a) and V ′(–b′; a′) in a system (O , i , j ) .
→ →
(D) and (D′) are parallel if and only if V and V′ have the same direction.

Vectorial condition.
→ → → →
V and V′ have the same direction if there exists a real number α ≠ 0 such that V = αV′ that is :

– b = – αb′ and a = αa′

or αa′ (–b) = a (– αb′)

therefore : α (a′b – ab′) = 0 . Since α ≠ 0 , then ab′′ – ba′′ = 0.

241
 Remark
a = ta′′

The two lines (D) and (D′′) are confounded if b = tb′′
c = tc′′
t.

Analytic condition
If (D) and (D′) are given by their reduced equations y = mx + p and y = m′x + p′ , then the
→ →
director vectors are respectively : V (1 ; m) and V′ (1 ; m′).
→ →
(D) and (D′) are parallel, if and only if V and V′ have the same direction. That is 1 . m – 1 . m′ = 0 ,
therefore m = m′′.

EXAMPLES

1. Given (D) and ( D′ ) of respective equations :

2x – y + 1 = 0 (a = 2 , b = – 1)
and 4x – 2y + 7 = 0 (a′ = 4, b′ = – 2)

We have : ab′ – ba′ = 2 × (–2) – (–1) × 4 = – 4 + 4 = 0 .

(D) and (D′) are therefore parallel.

7
The reduced equations of these two parallels are : y = 2x + 1 and y = 2x +  .
2
We notice that (D) and (D′) have the same director coefficient 2.

2. The two lines (D) of equation x – y – 1 = 0 and (D′) of equation –3x + 3y + 3 = 0 are
confounded.

Application
Equation of a parallel to a given line passing through a given point.
→
The parallel from a point A to a line (D) has the same director vector V of (D). It is therefore
→
defined by (A, V ).

242
EXAMPLES

1. Given (D) of equation 2x + y – 5 = 0 and the point A(1 ; 1).

→
A director vector of (D) is V (–1 , 2).
→
The parallel (Δ) from A to (D) is defined by (A , V ).
→ →
Any point M(x ; y) of (Δ) is such that AM and V are collinear :
x–1 y–1
 =  , therefore 2x + y – 3 = 0 .
–1 2


x=t+2
2. Given (D) and point A ( 2 ; 3 ).
y = 3t – 1
→
A director vector of (D) is V (1 ; 3).
→
The parallel (Δ) from A to (D) is defined by (A , V ).
→ →
Any point M(x ; y) of (Δ) is such that AM and V are collinear :
→ → x–2=α x=α+2
AM = αV , α ∈  , therefore 
y – 3 = 3α
or 
y = 3α + 3 .

3. Given (D) of equation y = –3x + 1 and the point A(3 ; 5).

The parallel (Δ) from A to (D) has the same director coefficient as (D) so m = –3. Its equation is
: y – 5 = –3 (x – 3) or y = –3x + 14.

7 CONDITION FOR THE ORTHOGONALITY OF TWO LINES

Let (D) and (D’) be two straight lines of equations ax + by + c = 0 and

→ →
a′x + b′y + c′ = 0 respectively in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) .
→ →
The direction vector of (D) is V (–b,a) and that of (D′) is V ′(–b′,a′).
→→
The straight lines (D) and (D′) are orthogonal if their direction vectors are orthogonal, i.e. if V .V ′ = 0
which gives aa′ + bb′ = 0.

(D) : ax + by + c = 0
and are orthogonal if aa′′ + bb′′ = 0
(D′′) : a′′x + b′′y + c′′ = 0

243
 Remarks
→
• The vector V (–b,a) is a direction vector of the straight line (D) of equation ax + by + c = 0.
→ →
The vector N (a,b) is orthogonal to V , then to (D) since :
→
N (a,b) is called the normal vector to (D).

• If the straight lines (D) and (D′) are given by their reduced equations :
y = mx + p and y = m′x + p′, then their direction vectors are respectively :
→ → →→
V (1,m) and V ′(1,m′). The straight lines (D) and (D′) are orthogonal if V .V ′ = 0, so 1 + mm′ = 0
or mm′ = –1.

(D) : y = mx + p
and are orthogonal if mm′′ = – 1
(D′′) : y = m′′x + p′′

EXAMPLES

• The two lines (D) of equation 2x + 3y – 5 = 0 and (D′) 6x – 4y + 1 = 0

are perpendicular since :(2 × 6) + (3×( – 4)) = 12 – 12 = 0.

 
1 1
• The two lines (D) : y = 3x – 1 and (D’) : y = –  x + 5 are perpendicular since : 3 × –  = –1.
3 3

8 STRAIGHT LINE PASSING THROUGH A GIVEN

→
POINT A AND OF GIVEN NORMAL VECTOR N
→ → →
Consider, in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) the point A(1;3) and the vector N (2;–3) . Let (D)
→
be the straight line passing through A and of normal vector N . Every point M(x,y) of (D) verifies
the equation : →
→ → N
AM . N = 0, so
2(x – 1) –3(y – 3) = 0.
.M (D)
The equation of (D) is then
2x – 3y + 7 = 0.
.
A

244
 9 DISTANCE FROM A POINT TO A STRAIGHT LINE
→ →
(O ; i , j ) is an orthonormal system, (D) the line of equation ax + by y
+ c = 0 and A a point in the plane (A  D). →
N
→ A
The vector N (a,b) is normal to (D).

The distance from A to (D) , denoted by d(A,D) , equals AH where

H is the orthogonal projection of A on (D).
H
Since H belongs to (D), then : →
v x
axH + byH + c = 0, so x′ O →
j (D)
c = – axH – byH.
→ →
y′
Expressing AH . N in two different ways :
→→ → → → → → →
• AH .N = ||AH || . ||N || . cos(AH , N ) = AH . a2+
b2 . cos (AH , N ).
→ →
Since AH and N have same direction, their angle is 0 or π according to their sense. Then:
→ →
cos(AH , N ) = cos 0 = 1 or cos π = –1 , and
→ →
⏐AH . N ⏐ = AHa2+
b2 = d(A,D)a2+
b2. (1)
→
• AH (xH – xA; yH – yA).
→ →
AH . N = a(xH – xA) + b(yH – yA) = axH + byH – axA – byA = – c – axA – byA.
→ →
|AH . N | = |–c – axA – byA| = |axA + byA + c|. (2)

The relations (1) and (2) give :

|axA + byA + c||

(D) : ax + by + c = 0 ; d(A,D) = 
a2+
b2

EXAMPLE

The distance from A(2;3) to the straight line (D) of equation x + 2y −1 = 0

|2 + 6 – 1| 7
is : d(A,D) =  =  .
1+4 5

245
 10 LOCUS OF POINTS
→ →
1° Calculation of V . AM
→
Consider a non-zero vector V and a point A in the plane. Let B be the M
→ →
point such that AB = V .

For every point M in the plane :

→ → → → → → A → →
V . AM = AB . AM = AB . AH where H is the orthogonal projection i H V B
of M on (AB).
→ → →
B
In the system (A , i ), AB . AH = A.A
H
 = AB . A
H


Therefore :
→ → → →
V . AM = AB . AM = AB . A
H


Consequence.
→ →
Locus of points M in a plane such that V . AM = k, where k is a real number.
→ →
From the preceding relation, V . AM = k is equivalent to AB . A
H
 = k,
k
H
A =  = constant. The point H is then fixed on (AB).
AB
→
The locus of M is the straight line passing through H and perpendicular to (AB) , then to V .

Find again this locus analytically.

→ → →
Consider the vector V (a,b) and A(xA,yA) in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) .
→
For every point M(x,y), the coordinates of AM are : x – xA and y – yA.
→ →
The relation V . AM = k is equivalent to :
a (x – xA) + b (y – yA) = k, so : ax + by – axA – byA – k = 0
or ax + by + c = 0 with c = – axA – byA – k.

The point M varies on a straight line of equation ax + by + c = 0.

246
 EXAMPLE
→ → →
Given in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) the vectors V (3;–5) and A(1;2).
→ →
For every point M(x,y) such that V . AM = –3 we have :
3(x – 1) – 5(y – 2) = – 3 or 3x – 5y + 10 = 0.

The locus of M is the straight line 3x – 5y + 10 = 0.

2° Locus of point M such that MA2 – MB2 = k where k is a real number.

→ →
Consider in an orthonormal system (O; i , j ) the points A(1 ; 2) , B(– 3 ; 5) and M(x ; y) .

Find the set of points M in the plane such that MA2 – MB2 = 5 .

MA2 – MB2 = 5 equivalent to (1 – x)2 + (2 – y)2 – (– 3 – x)2 – (5 – y)2 = 5 , consider

4x – 3y + 17 = 0 .

Then the locus of points M is the straight line of equation 4x – 3y + 17 = 0.

247
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

In the following exercises, the system of the plane is orthonormal, unless indicated otherwise.

→
1 Calculate the coordinates of the director vector V of each of the following lines :

y = – t – 1 t ∈ 
x = 2t + 1 1
1° 2x – y – 1 = 0 3° 5° y = –  x + 4 7° y = 5
2
1


x = 
2y = – 5
2 x = 2m – 3
2° x + 3y = 4 4° t∈ 6° m∈ 8° x = 0 .
y=t+1

2 Write a system of parametric equations of (D) defined by the following conditions.

→
1° (D) passes through A(2 ; –3) and has V (–3 ; 2) as director vector.
→
2° (D) passes through the origin and has V (–1 ; –3) as director vector.

3° (D) passes through the points O and A(2 ; 4).

4° (D) passes through the points A(–3 ; 4) and B(4 ; –1).

→
3 Determine a cartesian equation of the line passing through A and which has V as director vector :
→ → → → → →
1° A(2;1) and V (5;−3) 2° A(−1;0) and V (2;1) 3° A(2;3) and V = j 4° A(1;2) and V = i .

4 Determine a cartesian equation of the line passing through A and B :

1° A (–1; 2) and B (3; 0) 2° A (2; 0) and B (0; 3) 3° A (1; 4) and B (2; 5).

5 Determine the director coefficient m of line (AB) in each of the following cases :

1° A(2;3) and B (1;5) 3° A 2 ; 1 and B –2 ; –1

2° A(0;2) and B (–3;1) 4° A 1 ; –3 and B –1 ; –3 .

248
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

6 Calculate the slope, if it exists, of each of 3° y

the following lines:
(D)

1° y
(D) →
j
x′ O → 2 x
A(3;3) i
B(–1;1) y′
→
j
4° y
–1 O → 3
x′ i x
(D)

y′
→
j α = 30º
x′ → x
2° y O i

y′
5° y
2 (D)
→
j
x′ O →
→ α = 120º
i x j
x′ →
O i x
(D)
y′
y′

7 Given (D) of equation 2x + 3y – 1 = 0.

Determine :
1° the director coefficient of (D), 4° two points E and F of (D) distinct from A and B,
2° point A belonging to (D) of abscissa 2, 5° a director vector of (D).
3° point B belonging to (D) of ordinate 5,

→ →
8 Give a direction vector V and a normal vector N to each of the following lines :
1° x + 2y – 5 = 0 3° x – 5 = 0 5° y = – x + 2


x = 2t – 3
2° y – 3x = 1 4° y + 2 = 0 6° t∈.
y=–t+1

9 For each of the following equations, find some points that verify them, and draw the
corresponding straight line.

 
x = 2t + 1 x=–m+4
1° y = – 2 ; 2° x = 5 ; 3° x + 2y – 1 = 0 ; 4° t ∈  ; 5° m∈.
y=–t+2 y = 3m – 1

249
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

10 In each case, write the parametric equations in the form of a reduced cartesian equation (t ∈  ) .

y = 4t + 1 y = – 5t + 5 y = 2t – 1 y = 2t – 3
x = 3t + 2 x = – 5t + 2 x=–t+2 x = – 3t + 2
1° 2° 3° 4°

11 In each case, write the cartesian equation in the form of parametric equations :
5x 2y
1° x – 2y + 1 = 0 3° x – 4 = 0 5°  +  – 1 = 0
17 17
2° 2x – 3y + 5 = 0 4° 2y + 5 = 0 6° y = 2x + 1 .

12 In each case, state whether the lines are parallel, confounded, or secant.

y = 2t – 1 t ∈ 
x=t+5
1° (D1) : x – y – 4 = 0 6° (D1) :

(D2) : y = x – 4 (D2) : x – 2y = 9

1
2° (D1) : x + y + 5 = 0 7° y = 2x + 1 and y = –  x + 5.
2
(D2) : 2x – y +1 = 0

3° (D1) : y = 4x +1 8° 2x + y – 3 = 0 and x – y + 5 = 0.
(D2) : y = 4x – 5

t ∈  and
y = – t + 5 and y = –2t′ + 4
x = 2t + 1 x = t′ + 3
4° (D1) : 2x – 3 = 0 9°
t′ ∈ 
(D2) : 5y + 4 = 0

y = – m + 5
x = 2m – 3
5° (D1) : m∈ 10° x = 4 and y = 5 .

y = – 2m′ + 3 m′ ∈ 
x = 4m′ + 1
(D2) :

13 Find the distance from point A to the straight line (D) in each of the following cases :

y = 2t + 3
x=t–1
1° A(4 ; –3) and (D) : 3x – 4y – 16 = 0 4° A(1 ; 3) and (D) : t∈

2° A(–2 ; 4) and (D) : 4x – 3y – 5 = 0 5° A(–1 ; 1) and (D) : x = 3

2 4
3° A(7–1 ; 2) and (D) : y = x + 6° A(2 ; 2) and (D) : y – 5 = 0
3 5

250
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

14 Find the distance between the two following parallel straight lines :
1° (D) : 4x + 3y – 8 = 0 and (D′) : 4x + 3y – 33 = 0
2° (D) : y = 2x – 1 and (D′) : y = 2x + 5
t ∈  and
y = –t + 2 and (D′) : y = – t′ + 3
x=t+1 x = t′ – 1
3° (D) : .
t′ ∈ 

y = t + 2
x = 2t + 3
15 1° Given the straight line (D) of equation 12x – 5y – 8 = 0 and (Δ) of equation: t∈

Determine the coordinates of the points of (Δ) where the distance from these points to (D) is 2.

4
2° Same question if (D) has the equation 12x – 5y – 8 = 0, (Δ) : x + y + 3 = 0 and the distance is  .
5

16 Given straight line (D) of equation 3x – 4y + 21 = 0 and A(8 ; 5).

1° Calculate the distance from A to (D).
2° Deduce that A is equidistant from (D) and the x-axis.

17 Determine a cartesian equation of the line passing through A and parallel to (D).

1° A(0;1) and (D) of equation : 2x – y +1 = 0

2° A3;1 and (D) of equation : x2 + y3 – 3 = 0

y = – t
x = 2t + 3
3° A(1;2) and (D) of parametric equations .

18 Write an equation of the line (D) in each of the following cases :

→
1° (D) passes in A (2 ; 1) and has a normal vector N (1 ; – 1) .
2° (D) passes in B (4 ; 0) and perpendicular to the line (D′) with equation x – 2y + 4 = 0 .

19 Line (D) is of equation (m – 1)x + (2m – 1)y + 5 – m = 0 where m is a real parameter.

1° Calculate m so that (D) :

a) is parallel to the x axis ; b) is perpendicular to the x axis ; c) passes through the origin O .

2° Show that (D) passes through F(9;– 4) for any value of m .

251
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

20 Give a parametric representation of line 23 y

(D) defined by the following conditions :
1° (D) passes through A (3 ; −2) and has .
2
m = –  as director coefficient .
3
.
. A(2,4)
1
 
2° (D) passes through A –  ; 2 and is parallel .
2 .
to (D′) of equations : y = – 3t + 1
x = – 2t + 1
t∈ . →
. . . . .O . . . . . . .
j
→
3° (D) passes through A(– 3;–2) and is parallel x′ .i x
to (D′) of equation : 2x – y + 5 = 0 . . B(4,–2)
4° (D) passes through A(2;0) and is perpendicular
to (D′) of equations x = 2t; y = –t + 1 where t  .
. (d 2 ) (d1)

y′
21 Calculate the coordinates of the point of
intersection I of the two lines : 1° Write a cartesian equation to each of the
1° (D) : x + 3 = 0 2° (D) : y = x – 4 straight lines (d1) and (d2).
(D′) : 4x + y + 3 = 0 (D′) : y = 2x +1
2° Trace line (d3) perpendicular to (d2) and


x=t–1 passing through point C(0;1).
3° (D) : t∈
y = 2t + 3
3° Give the cartesian equation of line (d3).

x = – t′ + 1
(D′) : t′ ∈ 
y = t′ – 2

4° (D) : 
x=–t+3
t∈
y = – 2t + 1
(D′) : x – 3y + 15 = 0 . For seeking
→ →
22 y 24 (O ; i , j ) is an orthonormal system, (D)
. the line of equation x – y – 1 = 0 and (D′) the line
A (–5,4)
. defined by the point A(5;0) and a director vector
. →
V (–2;1).
.
. 1° a) Give a parametric representation of (D)
. → and (D′) and a cartesian equation of (D′).
. . . . .O . . . . . . . x
j
→ b) Find the coordinates of the intersection
x′ .i
. points of (D) with the abscissas’ axis and with
.y′ B(7;–2) (d )
1
the coordinates’ axis.
c) Find the coordinates of the intersection point
1° Write the cartesian equation of line (d1).
of (D) and (D′).
2° Trace line (d2) perpendicular to (d1) and
2° Find the equation of line (Δ) passing through
passing through point C(–1,–3).
A and forming with [Ox) an angle of 45º.
3° What is the slope of (d2)?
4° Write the cartesian equation of (d2). 3° What can be said about (D) and (Δ) ?

252
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

→ →
25 Given the points A(1;–2), B(3;0) and 27 In an orthonormal system (O;i , j ). given
→ →
C(1;2) of the system (O ; i , j ). the points A, B and C such that :
• (AC) passes through the point H (–5 ; 2) and
→
1° Write a cartesian equation of line (Δ) passing admits u (3 ; 1) as director vector.
→ 3 11
through A and of director vector OC . • (AB) has for equation y = –  x +  .
2 2
Deduce a parametric representation of (Δ). • (CB) is parallel to (OA).
• B has for ordinate 1.
2° Write a parametric representation of line 1°Write a cartesian equation for (AC) and a
(BC). system of parametric equations for (AB) .
2° Determine the coordinates of A, B and C.
3° Show that (Δ) and (BC) are secant and
calculate the coordinates of their intersection → →
28 In an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) given
point I. (D) of equation : (2m – 1)x + (3 – m)y – 7m + 6 = 0
4° Write an equation of the height issued from A where m is a real parameter.
1° Calculate m so that (D) :
in triangle ABC .
a) passes through A(1;1)
5° Write a cartesian equation of the median b) passes through the origin O
c) is parallel to the x axis
relative to BC in triangle ABC.
d) is parallel to the y axis.
6° Write a cartesian equation of the 2° a) Calculate m so that the slope of (D) is
perpendicular bisector of segment [AB] . equal to a constant k.
b) Can m be calculated if the slope of (D) is
equal to 2 ?
3° Calculate m so that (D) is perpendicular to
line (d) with equation x – y + 3 = 0 .
26 ABC is a triangle situated in an 4° Show that (D) passes through a fixed point to
orthonormal system with A(0;1). The median be determined.
1
(D1) from B has an equation y = –  x + 2. →
2 29 Given the vector V (2;1) and point M(4;3).
The median (D2) drawn from C has an equation 1° Write the equation of line (D1) passing through
2x + y – 3 = 0. →
M and of direction vector V . Calculate the
1° Plot (D1), (D2) and the point A. distance from O to (D1).
2° Determine the equation of line (D2) passing
→
2° Find the coordinates of the center of through M and of normal vector V .
gravity G of triangle ABC. 3° Let (D) be the straight line of equation :
→ → (m – 3)x + (5 – m)y + m – 1 = 0 where m is a real
3° A′ is a point such that AG = GA ′ . Find the
parameter.
coordinates of A′. a) Calculate m so that (D) is perpendicular to
4° Write a cartesian equation of line (D′2) (D1).
→
b) Calculate m so that (D) admits V as a normal
passing in A′ and parallel to (D2).
vector.
5° Why B is the intersection of (D2 ) and (D1) ? c) Calculate m so that (D) is perpendicular to
Deduce the coordinates of B. the x-axis.
4° Is there a value of m such that (D) is
6° Find the coordinates of C. perpendicular to (D2) ?

253
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

30 Given the points A(4;–1), B(1;3) and 34 Given, in an orthonormal system

→ →
M(x;y). (O ; i , j ), the points A(– 2 ; 2) , B(– 1 ; 5) ,
1° Write the equation of the set of points M C(5 ; 3) and the line (D1) with equations
→ →

x=t
such that MA . MB = 50. , t.
y = 2t – 3
2° Write the equation of the set of points M such →→
1° Calculate AB . AC .
→ → 
that MA2 – MB2 = 12. Deduce (2AB ) . (– 3AC ) and cos BAC .
2° a) Write a cartesian equation of line (BC) .
31 Given the points A(–2;1); B(2;3); C(1,2) b) Calculate the distance from A to (BC) and
→
and M(x,y). calculate ||BC || .
1° Find a relation between x and y so that (BM) c) Deduce the area of triangle ABC .
and (BC) are perpendicular. Deduce the locus 3° Write a cartesian equation of (D2) passing in
of M. A and parallel to (D1) . Deduce a system of
2° Find the equation of the set of points M such parametric equations of (D2) .
that MA2 + MB2 = 20.
4° Let (Δ) be the line with equation x + y = 6 .
Find the coordinates of L the intersection point
32 Given the points A(−7;8) ; B(−5;− 6) ; of (D1) and (Δ) .
C(4;6) and D(−2;3).

1° Calculate the coordinates of D′ the 35 Let (D) be the line with equation y=mx+3,
→ →
symmetric of D with respect to line (Δ) of m ≠ 0 , in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) .
equation : x – y + 3 = 0. 1° Show that (D) passes in a fixed point to be
determined .
2° Find the equation of the height [AH] in
→
triangle ABC and find the coordinates of point H 2° Find the value of m and y0 if V (2 ; y0) is a
the orthogonal projection of A on (BC). normal vector of (D) .
3° Calculate m so that (D) is parallel to line (d)
3° Calculate the length of [AH].
with equation x – 2y = 0 .
4° Find this length in another method. 4° Let B(1 ; 1) . Find the set of points M in the
plane such that MA2 – MB2 = 7 .
33 1° Determine the equation of line (D1) 5° Determine a system of parametric equations
passing through point A(2;−3) and having a of line (Δ) passing in E(2 ; 4) and perpendicular
→
normal vector V (2;1). to (d) . Deduce a cartesian equation of (Δ) .

2° Determine the equation of line (D2) passing 6° Write the cartesian equations of the bisectors
of the angles formed by (d) and (Δ) .
through B(−1;3) and C(4;−1).
7° Let C be the point on line (D) with
3° Let (D) be the straight line of equation :
ordinate 5 . Find the coordinates of a director
(m–1)x + (m+3)y – (m –2) = 0, where m is a real →
vector V of (D) if the distance between the
parameter. Is there a value of m such that (D1), points A and C is 13 cm .
(D2) and (D) are concurrent at the same point ?

254
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

→ →
36 The plane is referred to an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) .

x = 2t – 3
Let (D) be the line defined by the system of parametric equations : ; t   and (dm) the
y = 3t – 1
line defined by the equation (m – 1)x + (m – 2)y + 3m – 5 = 0 , where m is a real parameter .
1° Show that (dm) is a line for all values of m .
2° Determine m so that :
a) (D) and (dm) are parallel .
b) (dm) has a positive director coefficient .
3° Write a cartesian equation of line (D′) passing in A(3 ; 2) and parallel to line (D) .
4° (Δ) is the line defined by the equation x – 2y + 1 = 0 . Determine the coordinates of I intersection of
(D) and (Δ) .
5° B is the point on (D) with abscissa –1 . Determine the coordinates of J so that AIBJ is a parallelogram.
6° Show that the line (dm) passes through a fixed point E whose coordinates to be determined .
7° Determine m so that (dm) makes an angle of 45° with x′Ox .

To go further
I In the table below , only one answer is correct , give your choice with justification .
Answers
N° Questions
A B C
The line with equation
parallel to parallel to passing in

1° x=4
is x-axis y-axis A(1 ; 4)
y = 2m – 1 , m  
The line with equation 3x – 6y + 1 = 0 has as → → →
2° N (6 ; 3) N (3 ; 6) N (1 ; –2)
normal vector

The line with equation – 3x + y + 1 = 0 has 1

3° a=–3 a= a=3
as director coefficient 3
The line (D) :


3x = t + 1 → → →
3 ; 5  3 ; 5 
has as V 1(1 ; 2) 1 2 –1 2
4° 5y = 2(t + 1) , t   V2 V3
director vector
x = t1 + 5
The lines (D1) :  y = 2t1–1
, t1  
t1 = 20 and
20
t1 =  and
20
t1 = –  and
and 3 3
5° x = t2 – 3 22
(D2) :  y=t 2+5
, t2   have a t2 = 
3
22
t2 = 
3
22
t2 = – 
3
common point for :

255
 EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES

→ →
II Given the points A(0 ; 2) and B(– 3 ; – 2) in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) .
1° a) Write an equation of line (AB) .
b) Calculate the distance from O to line (AB) .
c) Calculate the area of triangle OAB .
2° Consider the point M (x ; 0) .
→→
a) Calculate in terms of x the scalar product p(x) = AM . BM .
b) Show that p(x) is divisible by (x + 4) , then factorize p(x) .

c) Determine x so that the angle AMB is obtuse .
3° Let I be the midpoint of [AB] .
→ → → →
a) Find the set (E) of points N such that : (NA + NB ) . (NA – NB ) = 0 .
b) Give an equation of (E) .

→ →
III Given the points points A(6 ; 2) , B(1 ; 7) and C(– 2 ; – 2) in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) .
1° Plot A , B and C .
2° Write a cartesian equation of the perpendicular bisector (d) of [BC] . Plot (d) .


x=k+2
3° Consider the line (D) with equations k   . Verify that (D) is the perpendicular bisector
y=k+3
of [AB] . Plot (D) .
4° Calculate the coordinates of J center of circle (C) circumscribed about triangle ABC as well as its
radius and draw (C) .
5° Write a cartesian equation of the tangent (T) to (C) at C .
6° Let M(x ; y) be a variable point . Write an equation of the set of M such that MA2 – MB2 = 20 .
7° Let P(x ; y) be a variable point . Find a relation between x and y when P moves on the circle with
diameter [AB] .

→ →
IV In the plane of an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) , given the points A(0 ; 1) , B(3 ; 5) and the line

x = 4t
(d) defined by the system (t  ).
y = 3t – 2
1° a) Give a cartesian equation of (d) .
b) Calculate the distance from B to (d) .
2° Determine the cosine of the acute angle formed by (d) and (AB) .
3° M is a point on (d) . Find the coordinates of M so that triangle BAM is right at A .
4° a) Write a cartesian equation of the perpendicular bisector (Δ) of [AB] .
b) Let E(m ; 0) . Calculate m so that E is the vertex of isosceles triangle BEM .
5° Let F be the point on (d) with abscissa 4 . Write a cartesian equation of the line (d ′) passing in F and
perpendicular to (d) .
6° Determine an equation of the set (D) of points P(x ; y) such that PA2 – PB2 = 1 . What can you
conclude about (D) and (d ′) .
7° Let T(x ; 5) with x ≠ 0 . Calculate x so that T belongs to circle with diameter [AB] .

256
17
LINEAR SYSTEMS

A brief history
History is full of problems that can be solved using a system of two (or
more) equations in two (or more) unknowns.
Since the IIth century B.C , the chinese have discovered a method of
resolution.
A swiss mathematician, Gabriel Cramer (1704-1752) , presented in 1750
the general formula of solving any system of equations (said linear). But
this method is unpractical, for to solve 10 equations having 10 unknowns,
300 million operations should be done.
Ever since, mathematicians have put methods to reduce the number of
operations.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

A A system of linear equations (2 × 2) of two

equations in two unknowns
1. Definition
2. Solving and graphical interpretation
3. Algebraic methods of solving
4. Parametric system of linear inequalities

B Linear systems (2 × 2) of first degree inequalities

in two unknowns
1. Plan regioning
2. Graphical solution
3. Solved exercise
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Every system is an enterprise

of the spirit against itself.»

Paul Valéry
257
 P reliminary activities
LINEAR SYSTEMS

Activity 1

mx – y = 2m
4x – my = 6 + m
Given the system where m is a real parameter.

1° a) Solve the system for m = 1 .

b) By associating to these two equations the lines (D1) and (Δ1) , show that the coordinates of the
point of intersection I of (D1) and (Δ1) is the solution of the system.
2° a) What happens to the system if m = 2 ?
b) Show that the two ordered pairs (0 ; – 4) and (1 ; –2) are solutions of this system.
c) Give another solution for this system.
3° a) What happens to the system if m = –2 ?
b) Does this system have a solution ?

Activity 2

→ →
In the orthonormal system (O ; i , j ), line (D) of y (D)
equation x – y – 1 = 0 divides the plane in two
I
regions denoted by I and II.
1° Verify that the points (1,0) and (2,1) belong to
(D).
2° a) Place the points A(–1;2) and B(0;2).
b) In which region are they located ?
c) Which sign is obtained when the coordinates of A
→ →
j i
then of B are substituted in the equation of (D) ?
d) Deduce the inequality that is verified by any point
x′ Ο x

M(x;y) of region I. II

3° Can the inequality verified by any point N(x;y) of y′

region II be determined?
4° Cut off the part of the plane that does not verify x – y – 1 > 0.

258
 A system of linear equations (2 × 2) of two
A
equations in two unkknowns

1 DEFINITIONS

• Any equation of the form ax + by = c, where a , b and c are real numbers, and a and b are non
zero, is a linear equation in two unknowns x and y.

• A system of two linear equations in two unknowns x and y , is any system that can be written in

the form of : ax + by = c

a′′x + b′′y = c′′
where a, b, c, a′, b′ and c′ are real numbers .

2 SOLVING AND GRAPHICAL INTERPRETATION

Given the system axa′x++byb′y==cc′ (1)

(2)
Two lines (D1) and (D2) are associated to these equations in
→ → y
the system (O ; i , j ). To say that the ordered pair (x0 ; y0) (D1)
is a solution of the system means that the point I (x0 ; y0)
belongs to (D1) and (D2).
I
Solving the system is to study the relative position of lines →
x′ j x
(D1) and (D2). Ο→
i
(D2) y′
→ →
The vectors V 1 (–b;a) and V 2 (–b′;a′) are the director
vectors of (D1) and (D2) .

259
 Two cases arise :
→ →
• If V 1 and V 2 are collinear, then ab′′ – ba′′ = 0.
In this case (D1) and (D2) have the same direction.

y (D1) y
(D1)
(D2) (D2)
→ →
j j
x′ x x′
O→i O→i x

y′ y′
The system has no solution The system admits an infinite number
S=Ø of solutions : S = {(x,y) / ax + by = c }
→ →
• If V 1 and V 2 are not collinear then ab′′ – ba′′ ≠ 0.
In this case, lines (D1) and (D2) are secant in a point I (x0 ; y0). The system admits a unique solution
(x0 ; y0) .
S = {(x0 ; y0)}.

3 ALGEBRAIC METHOD OF SOLVING

Case where ab′′ – ba′′ ≠ 0

To solve algebraically a linear system (2 × 2), one of the following methods can be used :

1° Substitution method
Given the system x2x+–3yy == 5–1 (1)
(2)
Since ab′ – ba′ = (2 × 3) – 1 × (–1) = 7 ≠ 0, then the system admits a unique solution.
To find it, we calculate y in terms of x in (1) and we replace it in (2).
Equation (1) gives y = 2x – 5.
Equation (2) becomes x + 3 (2x – 5) = –1 or 7x = 14 or x = 2.
Therefore y = 2 × 2 – 5 = –1
The unique solution of the system is the ordered pair (2 ; –1).

260
2° Comparison method
Given the system 2x3x –+ y3y==42 (1)
(2)

Since ab′ – ba′ = (3 × 3) – (– 1) × 2 = 11 ≠ 0, then the system admits a unique solution.

To find it, we calculate y in terms of x in equations (1) and (2) and we compare the two values.
Equation (1) gives : y = 3x – 4
– 2x + 2
Equation (2) gives : y = 
3
– 2x + 2 14
Therefore : 3x – 4 =  or 9x – 12 = –2x + 2, hence 11x = 14 and x =  .
3 11
By replacing x by its value in y = 3x – 4, for example, we obtain :
14 –2
y=3×–4= .
11 11

 
14 – 2
The unique solution of the system is the ordered pair  ;  .
11 11

3° Addition and combination method

This method consists in eliminating one of the unknowns by combining the two equations.
Given the system : 4x – 2y = 3
2x + 3y = 5
(1)
(2)

Since ab′ – ba′ = (4 × 3)− (− 2) × 2 = 16 ≠ 0, then the system admits a unique solution.
To eliminate for example y, equation (1) is multiplied by 3 and equation (2) by 2 . we obtain

12x – 6y = 9
4x + 6y = 10

We add both sides of these two equations and we deduce that :

19
16x = 19 and x =  .
16
By replacing x by its value in equation (2) we obtain :
19 7
 + 3y = 5, therefore y =  .
8 8

 
19 7
The unique solution of the system is the ordered pair  ;  .
16 8
Case where ab′′ – ba′′ = 0
• Given the system 3x – 2y = – 4 (1)
6x – 4y = – 7 (2)

261
 Since ab′ – ba′ = –12 + 12 = 0, then the system does not have a unique solution.
By multiplying equation (1) by 2 the system becomes :

6x – 4y = – 8
6x – 4y = – 7
– 8 being different from –7, then the system has no solution, S = Ø .

• Given the system x3x––3y9y==––13 (1)

(2)
Since ab′ – ba′ = – 9 + 9 = 0, then the system does not admit a unique solution.
By multiplying (1) by 3, we obtain : 
3x – 9y = – 3 (1)
3x – 9y = – 3 (2)

This system is reduced to a unique equation 3x – 9y = –3 or x – 3y = – 1 that admits an infinite

 
x+1
number of solutions of the form x ;  .
3

4 PARAMETRIC SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

The system axa′x++byb′y==cc′ is called parametric when at least one of the real numbers a, b, c, a′,

b′ and c′ depends on a parameter.

To solve this system, the value of ab′ – ba′should be studied.
• If ab′ – ba′ ≠ 0 , then the solution admits a unique solution.
• If ab′ – ba′ = 0 , then the system is impossible where it admits an infinite number of solutions.

EXAMPLE
Study and solve the system : (mmx +– ym)x= m+ my = m – 1
2
(1)
(2) 2

where m is a real parameter.

2 2
ab′ – ba′ = m – (m – m) = m .

262
 1st case : If m ≠ 0, the system admits a unique solution.
By multiplying equation (1) by –m the system becomes :

– m2x – my = – m2
(m2 – m)x + my = m2 – 1

Combine by addition these two equations :

1
–mx = –1 and x =  .
m
Equation (1) gives : y = m – mx = m – 1

 
1
For m ≠ 0, the unique solution of the system is  ; m–1 .
m

2nd case : If m = 0, the system becomes : y0 == 0– 1 (1)

(2)
impossible.

For m = 0, the system does not admit a solution.

Linear system (2 × 2) of first degree inequalities in

B
two unknowns

1 DIVIDING THE PLANE IN REGIONS

→ →
(O; i , j ) is a system of the plane. a,b and c are real numbers such that a and b are non zero.
The set of points M(x;y) such that ax + by + c = 0 is a line (D).
(D) divides the plane in two semi planes or semi regions.
The set of points M(x;y) such that ax + by + c > 0 is one of the semi planes.
The set of points M(x;y) such that ax + by + c < 0 is the other semi plane.

Remarks
• The set of points M(x;y) such that ax + by + c  0 is a semi plane that contains line (D).
• To know the sign of the semi plane, replace x and y in the expression ax + by + c, by the
coordinates of a point chosen from this semi plane and not belonging to (D).

263
 EXAMPLES

1. Solve graphically the inequality x  − 2 .

Let (D) be the line of equation x = − 2.

(D) divides the plane in two regions R1 and R2.

O(0 ; 0) does not belong to (D) and its coordinates

y
verify the inequality x  − 2 (0  − 2) . x=−2

R1 : x  − 2
The region R1 , containing O and (D) is the set of
points M(x;y) of the plane such that x  − 2.
→
R2 j
Ο → x
i

(D)

2. Solve graphically y − 1 < 0.

Let (D) be the line of equation y − 1 = 0 or y = 1.

(D) divides the plane in two regions R1 and R2.

R2
O(0;0) does not belong to (D) and its coordinates (D)
y =1 →
verify the inequality y – 1 < 0 (0 – 1 < 0).
j
Ο →
The region R1 containing O and excluding (D) is the i
solution. R1: y – 1 < 0

264
3. Solve graphically x + 2y – 2  0.

The line (D) of equation x + 2y – 2 = 0 divides the

y
plane in two semi planes R1 and R2.

O(0;0) does not belong to (D).

By replacing x and y by 0 in x + 2y – 2 , we obtain
R2 : x + 2y − 2 > 0

(D
–2 which is negative; the region R1 containing O

):
x+
2y
and line (D) verify the given inequality.

−2
=
0
→
x′ j x
O →
i

R1 : x + 2y + 2 < 0

y′

4. Solve graphically 2x – y > 0.

Line (D) of equation

y
2x – y = 0 and passing through O divides the plane in
two semi planes R1 and R2.

Point A(1;0) of region

0
y=

R1 verifies
–
2x

2x – y > 0 since R2 : 2x − y < 0

:
(D)

2 – 0 = 2 > 0. R1 : 2x − y > 0
→
j x
Region R1 excluding line (D) is the set of points x′
→
O i A(1;0)
M(x;y) of the plane such that 2x − y > 0.

y′

265
2 GRAPHICAL SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF FIRST DEGREE
INEQUALITIES IN TWO UNKNOWNS

 Method
To solve graphically a system of two first degree inequalities in two unknowns is to solve
separately each inequality. The set of solutions of the system will be the intersection of the sets of
solutions of the inequalities.

EXAMPLES
1. Solve the system : 5xx ––yy+>30< 0 (1)
(2)

Let (D1) be the line of equation 5x − y = 0. The region containing point

A(1,0) verifies inequality (1) since 5 – 0 > 0.

Mark by red the region that does not correspond.

Let (D2) be the line of equation x − y + 3 = 0.

The region containing A does not correspond

since 1 − 0 + 3 > 0. (D1)
R
We mark this region by blue .
(D2)

Part R colored in yellow and

excluding (D1) and (D2) is the set of points (x,y)
of the plane verifying the given system.
.
.
.
→
.
. . . jΟ → . . .
i A(1,0)

266
2. Find the system of inequalities that define the interior of triangle
ABC where A(1;1) , B(–1;3) and C(–1;0) are in the orthonormal system
→ →
(O ; i , j ).

The equations of lines (AB), (BC) and (AC) are y

respectively :
x + y – 2 = 0,
x + 1 = 0 and B

x – 2y + 1 = 0.
I A
→
 
1
Let point I –  ; 1 be inside the triangle ABC. j
2 C Ο →
i
x

• By replacing x and y in x + y – 2, by the coordinates of

I, we obtain :
1 3
–  + 1 – 2 = –  < 0 therefore x + y – 2 < 0 is the wanted region.
2 2

1 1
• Similarly by replacing in x + 1, we obtain –  + 1 =  > 0 where
2 2
x + 1 > 0 in the interior of triangle ABC.

1 3
• For x – 2y + 1 , we obtain –  – 2 + 1 = –  < 0, where x – 2y + 1 < 0
2 2
is the wanted region.

The system of inequalities that define the interior of triangle ABC is


x+y–2<0
therefore : x+1>0 .
x – 2y + 1 < 0

267
 3 SOLVED EXERCISE

Nadim would like to offer his mother a bouquet of roses.

The white rose costs 1,500 L.L. and the red one 2,000 L.L. Nadim would like at least 5 red
roses more than the white roses without paying more than 24,000 L.L.

1° By denoting by x the number of white roses and y the number of red roses, justify why x
and y should be positive integers.

2° Explain why the ordered pair (x;y) should be the solution of the system :

yx+5
1,500x + 2,000y  24,000

3° Find by simplification, an equivalent system.

→ →
4° a) Draw in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) the lines (D1) and (D2) of respective
equations : y = x + 5 and 1.5x + 2y = 24.

b) Determine the region R of the plane verifying this system .

5° Give two possible bouquets.

6° Is it possible for him to give her a bouquet of 8 red roses and two white ones ?

Solution
1° x and y should be positive integers since they represent the number of roses.

268
2° The first inequality translates the fact that the number of red roses is 5 more than the number of
white roses.
The second inequality translates the fact that Nadim cannot pay more than 24,000 L.L.

3° The system 1,500x

yx+5
+ 2,000y  24,000
is equivalent to the system

1.5x
yx+5
+ 2y  24

4° a) Notice the adjacent figure.

b) The set of solutions is represented by the

Red roses
points having their coordinates integers in
(D1)
the interior of the region noted (R) and
limited by the border of ABC. B
12

5° A bouquet of two white roses and 7 red R A

roses, and a bouquet of 3 white roses and 8
red roses, are two possible bouquets since (2 ,
7) and (3 , 8) are in (R). 5C

6° Since (2 , 8) is in (R), a bouquet of 8 red (D2)

→
j
roses and two white roses is a possible
Ο→ 16 x
i
bouquet. White roses

269
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

Exercises and problems

3
Test your knowledge Find a system of two equations in two
unknowns having the ordered pair as solution.
1° (−2 ; 1) 2° (0 ; 4) 3° (3 ; − 1)
A. Linear systems of equations

1 Solve graphically each of the following 4 Discuss and solve each of the following

systems : systems where m is a real parameter.

x + 2y = 1
(m + 1)x + y = 3
 
x=3 2x + 3y = 0 1°
1° 4°
y+1=0 4x + y – 10 = 0

x – 8my = 7
x (m + 1)x + 2y = 1


y =  2° .


y–4=0 2
2° 5°
y=–2 y = – 2x – 5


x + 2y – 5 = 0

y – 2x = – 1
3° 6° 2x – 3y = – 4 .
y–x=2
y=x+1 B. Linear systems of inequalities

5 Color the region of each of the following

inequalities :

2 Solve each system by the method of your 1° y < 1 3° y  2x

choice.
x y
2° 5x + 6  3x +2 4°  +   0.
2 3

20y – 5x = 4 2x + y = 4
10x + 4y = 3 x – 4y = – 1
1° 4°

6 Represent graphically each of the systems


x – 3y = 1 and color the solution region.

– 6x + y = 8
2° 3x 5°
 – y = 2 – y + 10x = – 10
y – 2 > – 3 
3° y – x – 1  0
4 x+6<2
1°
y+x–20

x y


 –  = 3

4x – 3y = 0 2 3
x > 3 2x + y + 2 > 0
3° 6° . x–y<0 x – 3y + 10 > 0
5x – 4y = – 3 2x + 3y = – 1 2° 4° .

270
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

7 Answer by True or False .

1° The ordered pair (2;3) is a solution of the system 5x − 2y = 4 and x – y = 1.
2° The solutions of the equation in two unknowns, 3x − 2y = 2 are represented by the straight line of
equation y = −3x + 2.
3° The system x − 2y = 4 and 2x − 4y = 8 admits an infinite number of solutions.
4° The system 3x −y = 1 and 6x − 2y = 1 admits an infinite number of solutions.
5° The system 2x + y = 1 and 4x + 2y = − 1 has no solution.
6° If the perimeter of a rectangle is 440 m and its width is 100 m less than its length, then the dimensions


x – y = 100
of its sides x and y verify this system .
x + y = 440
x


 – 5y > – 4
2
7° The ordered pair (0;0) is a solution of the system
3x + y < 2

8° To solve graphically the inequality x + 3y > 6 , we

x 2
draw the straight line (D) of equation y = –  + 2 and we
3
take the points situated in the colored region.
→
j 6
O →
i

For seeking
A. System of linear equations

8 Solve each of the following systems :


6 2


 +  = 3 x + 7y = 8
3x2 – y = 11

x y
1° 3 4 3° 5° 2x – y = 5
 –  = – 1 2x2 + 3y = 0
x y x+y=7


3


 + 2y = 3 2x + 5y = 5
2° 
5x + 4y = 21
4x + y = 8
4°
x–1
2
 – 3y = – 1
6° 3x – y = 16
2x + y = 9
x–1

271
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

9 Discuss and solve each of the following systems where m is a real parameter .

(2m + 6)x + y = 2m + 1 x + (m – 1)y = 4

4x – my = m – 4 mx + 2y = 8
1° 3°

mx – y = 2m 2x + (2 – m)y = – 2

4x – my = 6 + m (7 – m)x + 3y = 1
2° 4°

B. System of linear inequalities

10 In an orthogonal system represent graphically each of the systems and color the solution region.

x y


 +  – 1 > 0
1°
3 2
y – 2x – 6 > 0
2° y – x > 0
x <2
3° y – 1 < 2
x < 1
 

11 Give for each graph an inequality whose set of solution corresponds to the colored region.

1° 2°
y y

x′ x
x′
O 1 O x

y′ y′
3° 4° y
y

2 1

1
x′ –2 O 1 x

x′ O 1 2 x

y′ y′

272
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

→ →
12 Characterize by a system of linear 13 The system (O; i , j ) is orthogonal.

inequalities the colored region of the plane. (The 1° Find the system of inequalities that define the

included lines are traced in green). interior of triangle ABC where A(2;2), B(−1;3)

1° and C(−2;0).
y (D1)
2° Write the system of inequalities that define
the interior of quadrilateral ABCD such that
A(1;0), B(0;1), C(−1;0) and D(0;−1).
1
(D2)
Problems - Situations
x′ O 1 2 3 x
14 An urn contains 18 red and black balls. If

–2 4 red balls and 2 black ones are taken out, then

y′
the black balls will be double than the red balls.
2° Find the number of each.
y

3 (D1)

15 A two digit number is 9. When the

number is permuted, the sum of the digits of the
1
obtained new number is nine more than four
times the first. Find this number.
x′ O 1 2 x

(D3) 16 18 years ago, Kamal’s age was double

y′ (D2)
Nabil’ age. In 9 years Kamal’s age will only be
3° y 5
 Nabil’s age. Find their actual ages.
4
3
17 Find the dimensions of a rectangle
knowing that if the width is increased by 1 cm
1 and the length decreased by 2 cm, the area will
not change. But if the width is increased by 3 cm
x′ x
–3 O 1 3 and the length decreased by 1 cm, then the area
y′ will increase by 23 cm2.

273
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

18 A mixture of phosphorus and oxygen has a mass M = 284g. The analysis of a sample of this
mixture shows that for two atoms of phosphorus there are 5 atoms of oxygen. What is the formula of this
mixture? (Write it in the form of PxOy)

19 250 “smoking” persons and 175 “non smoking” persons are going to be transported in trains of
type T1 and T2.
The available trains of type T1 are 8 and of type T2 are 5. T1 can hold 50 ”smokers” and 35 “non
smokers”, while T2 can hold 25 “smokers” and 70 “non smokers”.
The goal of this problem is to know the different ways to organize this transportation.

1° Let x be the number of trains of type T1 and y of trains T2. Explain why the ordered pair (x;y) should
0<x8


verify the following system :
0<y5
50x + 25y  250
35x + 70y  175

2° Simplify this system.

3° Determine, in the plane, the region R verifying this system.

4° Point (6;3) is in R. Verify effectively that 6 trains of type T1 and 3 of type T2 can realize this
transportation. Is it the same for 3 trains of type T1 and 6 trains of type T2 ?

5° Give 4 other possibilities.

20 Nadine thinks she can buy two table tennis balls of brand X and two others of brand Y for a
maximum of 14 dollars.

But at least 30 dollars are needed to buy 6 balls of brand X and 4 balls of brand Y.

1° Translate this situation in a system of inequalities in two unknowns.

2° Determine graphically the region of the plane verifying this system.

21 A salesman sells more cars than vans. He sells between 3 to 5 cars per week.

1° By denoting by x the number of sold cars, and y the number of sold vans, write the system of
inequalities corresponding for this situation.

2° Determine graphically the region of the plane verifying this system.

3° Give all the possibilities of this sale.

274
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

22 A person has 3.2 m of blue cloth and 1.8 m of white cloth to make bears and dogs. For making
the bear, 80 cm of blue cloth and 20 cm of white cloth are needed, while 40 cm of blue cloth and 60 cm
of white cloth are needed for the dog.

1° If x is the number of bears and y the number of dogs, write the system of inequalities verifying this
situation.

2° Determine graphically the set of solution (x,y).

23 The unit of length is the centimeter.

ABCD is a square of side 6 cm, M and N are two points of [AD] and [BC] such that AM = x and BN = y.

1° Write the system that x and y should verify so that x is 1 more than y, and that the perimeter of AMNB
is greater than that of MNCD.

2° Determine the solution region of the plane for this system.

3° Determine the positions of M and N corresponding to all the solutions of x and y.

To go further

I In an orthogonal system, represent graphically each of the following systems and color the
solution region.


y0
1° y  2x + 10
2y  – x + 5
2° y – 2 > 3
x > 1
 

II Write a system of inequalities whose solution

(D) : x – y + 3 = 0
4
A
is the interior of triangle ABC . 3

→
–3
j 4
B O → C
i
(D′) : x + y – 4 = 0

275
 LINEAR SYSTEMS

2x + 3y = 9 .
x + 2y = k
III 1° Let k be a real number . Given the system

a) Determine the solutions of the system in terms of k .

b) Determine the values of k for which these solutions are positive .


(m – 1)x – 1 = (m – 1)y
2° Solve the system and discuss according to the values of the real
2(x + 1) = (m + 2)y
parameter m .

IV

Given the system (S) 4x – my = 6 + m where m is a real parameter .
mx – y = 2m

1° Solve the system for m = 1 .

2° Verify that 2m2 – m – 6 = (m – 2)(2m + 3) .

3° For what values of m the system (S) has :

a) infinite number of solutions and specify its form ?
b) no solution ?

4° For what values of m , the system (S) has a unique solution to be calculated in terms of m ?

V Sami has a maximum budget of 250,000 LL to buy disks for his computer for 7,000 LL each , and

video cassettes for 12,000 LL each . He wants to have at least 20 pieces which must include at least

5 cassettes .

1° Denote by x the number of discs and y that of cassettes . Explain why the couple (x ; y) verifies the


7x + 12y  250
system x + y  20 x   and y   .
y5

2° Determine graphically the number of discs and number of cassettes that Sami can buy .

276
18
STATISTICS

A brief history
THE GOAL of statistics is counting, the study and the analysis of hypotheses
relative to same phenomena. At first, the statistics has the goal of gatherring and
studying all the informations concerning (STATUS).
The egyptians registered detailed representations of territorial properties from
its value, range and situation.
The chinese made a list for agricultural population.
The Emperor Cesar ordered a list for warior population.
At some time, they were limited on collecting informations by giving them
descriptive characteristic. Here are some examples :
• In 1570 Cardan worked on the duration of human life.
• In 1662 Graunt estabished the tables of mortality in London.
• In 1693 Halley studied the life-insurances.
• In 1800, Napoléon Bonaparte founded in Paris the first bureau of statistics
which is actually “the National institute of the statistics and of economics
studies” (INSEE), one of the greatest centers of research in the earth.
At 1900, the study of mathematics of statistical phenomenon commences.
Actually the field of application of statistics is widened to counting and to the
analysis of hypotheses in all the domains : physics, biology, psychology, industry,
economy, medecin, social science, agronomy, linguistic, etc...

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. Statistical vocabulary 4. Characteristics of position

2. Exercise 5. Characteristics of dispersion
3. Graphical representations 6. Use of a calculator
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«There are three types of lies : lies, damned lies, and statistics».

Marc Twain

277
 P reliminary activities

Activity 1
The number of children in 50 families is given by the following list :

1 2 0 1 3 2 4 0 1 2

3 0 5 2 2 1 3 4 5 1

0 3 3 4 0 1 1 2 3 2

1 4 5 0 2 3 2 2 0 1

2 4 3 3 3 5 1 2 2 3

1° Complete the following table :

Number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5

Number of
7 10
families

2° What is the number of families having 4 children ? at least 2 children ?

at most 3 children ?

3° Complete the following table :

Number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency
14 10
(in %)

4° What is the percentage of families having 4 children ? at least 2 children ? at most 3 children ?

5° What is the most frequent case? the least frequent ?

Activity 2
A teacher hesitates between two students, Sami and Layla, to represent their class during a
mathematics competition. He analyses the grades, over 20, of their last six tests.

Grades of Sami 14 9 11 7 16 15

Grades of Layla 12 8 2 16 15 19

278
 P reliminary activities

1° The teacher wants to choose the student with the better average.
a) Calculate the average of grades of Sami and Layla.
b) Can the teacher choose ?

2° So, he decides to choose between them by comparing the regularity of the values of the two
series. He proposes to calculate the mean deviation e between each grade and the average (e =
grade – average), then to calculate the average m of the absolute values of these mean deviations.
The following table gives the absolute values of the mean deviations of the grades of Sami :

Grades of Sami 14 9 11 7 16 15

Mean deviation “e” 2 –3 –1 –5 4 3

Absolute value
2 3 1 5 4 3
of “e”

a) Then calculate the average m1 of these absolute values of grades.

b) Do the same for the grades of Layla.

c) The smallest value between these two averages corresponds to the series of grades which
is more regular.

Does this criterion allows the teacher to make a choice ?

3° The teacher proposes another method other than absolute values. It consists of calculating the
average of the squares of mean deviations then take the positive square root of this result.
The following table gives the squares of the mean deviations of the grades of Sami.

Grades of Sami 14 9 11 7 16 15

Squares of mean
4 9 1 25 16 9
deviation
a) Calculate the average of the squares of mean deviations of grades of Sami then take the positive
square of this value.
b) Do the same for the grades of Layla.
c) Which student does the teacher choose?

279
 1 STATISTICAL VOCABULARY

1° Population - Individual.
• Population: is the set of all possible measurements or observations that might be of interest.
• Every element of this set called individual.

EXAMPLES

1. The habitants of a country constitute a population. Each habitant is an individual.

2. The employees of an enterprise form a population. The individual is each one of these
employees.
3. The books of a national library form a population. The individual is each one of these books.

2° Character or variable.
In a population, a common aspect among all the individuals is called a character or individual.
For example : the height of students in a class, the age of teachers in a school, the color of eyes
of students...
• When we record data from the different elements of a population, we are classifying or
measuring each element in some way. The data we collect are either qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative variables are defined by some name or description in words. (not measurable).
(example: sex of a person, color of eyes etc...).
Whereas, quantitative variables are measured on a numerical scale. (ex: number of children in a
family, height of a person etc...).
Quantitative variables can be considered as either discrete or continuous. A “Discrete variable” is
restricted to taking only specific values (example: number of children in a family).
A continous variable can take any value within a given range. (example: height of a student).
This variable is grouped into intervals called classes.

280
3° Frequency and relative frequency.
a) Frequency
If X is a variable (qualitative or quantitative) of type or value Xi , the natural integer denoted by ni
indicating the number of times that Xi has been observed is called frequency of the type or value
Xi .

EXAMPLE

The assessment of 2478 cars according to their mileage is given by:

Xi
annual mileage in 4 8 12 16 20 30
thousands of km
ni = frequency
228 634 821 475 233 87 Total 2,478
(numbr of cars)

The corresponding value 8 , for example, is for 634 cars.

b) Total frequency

The sum of frequencies is the total frequency of the population denoted by N :

k
N =  ni (read “sum of ni for i running from 1 to k″ ).
i=1
k
For the preceding example : N =  ni = 2,478 cars.
i=1

c) Relative frequency
In order to compare the statistical data , it is convenient to calculate the ratio of the frequency ni
of value Xi to the total number N of observations.
This ratio is called the relative frequency fi of value Xi :
n
fi = i (with 1  i  k) .
N

The relative frequency has a value between 0 and 1. It is often given in percentage .

281
 The following table gives the relative frequencies of the values of the preceding example :

Annual mileage in
thousands of km 4 8 12 16 20 30

0.092 0.256 0.331 0.192 0.094 0.035 Total

Relative frequency 1
fi or or or or or or
or
9.2% 25.6% 33.1% 19.2% 9.4% 3.5% 100%

From the definition of relative frequency :

k

k  ni N
 fi = 
i=1
N
==1.
i=1
N

4° Statistical series
The given about a population, of a variable and a frequency (or a relative frequency) is called a
statistical series that is denoted by (Xi , ni).
Xi : variable
ni : frequency

5° Increasing cumulative frequency - Increasing cumulative relative

frequency

• If the variable is quantitative, we can order its different values from the smallest to the largest.
The increasing cumulative frequency corresponding to the value Xi of the variable is the number
of individuals having a value less than or equal to Xi.

In the preceding example, the number of cars that travelled at most 12,000 km is: 228 + 634 + 821
= 1,683.

• The increasing cumulative relative frequency corresponding to value Xi of a variable is the sum
of the relative frequencies less than or equal to that of Xi .

The increasing cumulative relative frequency of the value 12,000 km is :

0.092 + 0.256 + 0.331 = 0.679 or 67.9%.

282
The following table summarizes, for the preceding example, the increasing cumulative frequency
and the increasing cumulative relative frequency .
Mileage in thousands
4 8 12 16 20 30
of km

Frequency 228 634 821 475 233 87

Increasing cumulative
228 862 1,683 2,158 2,391 2,478
frequency
Increasing cumulative relative
0.092 0.348 0.679 0.871 0.965 1
frequency

6° Sample - Survey.
• When the population to be studied is very large, or scattered, a part of it is chosen randomly,
called sample and partial knowledge of the population is obtained.

• The procedure of investigation is called a survey. Our investigation must be complete and
important aspects must not be neglected.

For example, to anticipate the results of the future elections in a country, we carry on statistics on
a hazardously chosen group of citizens.

2 EXERCISE

Here is the number of books owned by 20 students of the first secondary.

58 60 48 48 52 48 60 45 48 56
45 48 60 52 52 56 45 60 48 52

1° The population is the set of students of the first secondary.

• Individual: the student.
• The variable: number of books of each student. This variable is quantitative (discrete).

283
 2° The given results are recorded in this table.

Number of
books
45 48 52 56 58 60

Frequency 3 6 4 2 1 4 Total 20

Relative 3 Total
frequency  = 0.15 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.2 1
20

• Each relative frequency is between 0 and 1.

• The sum of relative frequencies is 1.

3° This table gives the increasing cumulative frequencies and increasing cumulative relative
frequencies:

Number of books 45 48 52 56 58 60

Frequency 3 6 4 2 1 4

Increasing cumulative
3 9 13 15 16 20
frequency

Increasing cumulative
0.15 0.45 0.65 0.75 0.8 1
relative frequency

• The cumulative frequency of the value 56 is : 3 + 6 + 4 + 2 = 15. This means that : 15 students
have at most 56 books .

• The cumulative relative frequency of the value 56 is 0.75; this means that 75% of the students
have at most 56 books .

284
 3 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATIONS

We have seen that a statistical series is represented by a table. We can represent it graphically.
Although it is less precise than the table, the graphical representation has the advantage of being
more expressive.

Similarly, a graphic shows the essential statistical distributions and allows to compare between
them.

The graphical representations are often used in magazines and newspapers to illustrate data.

1° Line diagram

This diagram is mainly used to illustrate data that corresponds to a discrete quantitative variable.
It is obtained in the following way :

- on the abscissa axis, each value of the variable is marked.

- on the ordinate axis, an arithmetic graduation is marked (equal divisions) representing the
frequency (or relative frequency or percentage).

- at each point of the abscissas axis corresponding to a value of the variable, we draw a line parallel
to the ordinate axis representing the frequency (or relative frequency) of this value.

We can represent the cumulative frequency or cumulative relative frequency by a step line
diagram.

EXAMPLE

The table below gives the series of the shoe size of 20 children.

Shoe size 25 28 32 40

Frequency 5 10 3 2 Total 20

Relative frequency 0.25 0.5 0.15 0.1 Total 1

285
 It is represented by a line diagram as follows:

frequency relative frequency

10 . 0.5 .
8 0.4

4
. 0.3

0.2
.
2
. . 0.1
. . Shoe
Shoe size size
20 25 28 30 32 35 40 20 25 28 30 32 35 40

The broken line joining the vertices is called the frequency polygon or
relative frequency polygon.

2° Circular diagram (Pie-chart).

This diagram is used to represent mainly qualitative variables (or quantitative discrete). It
consists of dividing a disc into sectors where the angles are proportional to the frequencies (or to
relative frequencies). If α is the angle degrees of a sector representing a value Xi of a variable of
frequency ni, then :
°° n
 = i (N is the total frequency).
360°° N
In case we have the relative frequency fi of Xi in percentage, then :
°° fi
=
360°° 100

EXAMPLE

The table below gives the partition of 1855 students according to their study level:

First Second Third

Level Technical
secondary secondary secondary
Total
Frequency 610 545 590 110
1,855

286
 The total number of students is represented by a complete disc, i.e. a sector of measure 360°.

The angle α of the sector representing

the first secondary is :
 610
 =  , then α = 118°.
360° 1,855
118°
106°
The angle β of the sector representing 21°
115°
the second secondary is :
 545
 =  , then β = 106°.
360° 1,855

Similarly the angle of sector representing 3rd secondary is 115° and that for technical is 21°.

Remark

If we divide these students into two sections, academic and technical, the table of frequencies
becomes :

Level Academic Technical

Frequency 1,745 110

The circular diagram is :

339°
21°

287
 4 CHARACTERISTICS OF POSITION

The graphical representation of a data constitutes a first stage in the statistical study. But this study
is not sufficient.
Suppose you want to compare two statistical series. We should have for each of these series, a
number which is representative or typical of the data. The representative values are called
“measures of location, measures of central tendency” .
This number is chosen in a way that the terms of the series are gathered around it. The main
characteristics are:
The mode, the median and the mean.

1° The mode
The mode of a statistical series is the item of the data that appears more frequently (value of the
variable which has the highest frequency).
Graphically, in the line diagram, the mode is the value that corresponds to the longest line.

EXAMPLES

• In the series :
1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 5 5 6
The mode is 3 since it appears four times, which is the most occuring.

• A merchant who wants to establish a stock of shoes needs to know the most frequent shoe size,
which represents the mode of the shoe size series.

• During a collection, the most frequent sum of money donated by the public, constitutes the
mode of this statistical series.

288
Remarks

• The mode is not necessarily unique :

1 2 2 2 3 4 4 4 7 8 8
There exist two modes : 2 and 4. This distribution is bimodal.
If there exists more than two modes, the distribution is multimodal.
• Some series have no mode. In this case, all the values have the same frequency.

2° The median
The median is the middle value of the ordered data. It is denoted by Me. 50% of data is below this value
and 50% is above it.

Case of a serie of values not grouped in a table.

N+1
a) If the total frequency N of a serie is odd, the median is the value of the series of rank  .
2

EXAMPLES
N+1
1. In the series : 3 5 8 9 11 14 17 , N = 7 and  = 4 .
123 14243 2
↑
3 values 3 values
Me
The median is the fourth value of this series, Me = 9 .

N+1
2. In the series : 8 8 8 12 14 , N = 5 and  = 3 .
123 123 2
↑
2 values 2 values
Me
The median is the 3rd value of this series, Me = 8 .

N N
b) If N is even, every value lying between the two values of the series of ranks  and  + 1
2 2
is a median value. In general, the median is the average of these two values.

In this case, the median is not necessarily a value of the series.

289
 EXAMPLES
1. In the series : 5 7 8 8 10 11 13 14 14 16 ,
14243 1442443
↑
5 values 5 values
Me
N N
N = 10 ,  = 5 and  + 1 = 6 .
2 2
10 + 11
Then, the median is the average of the 5th and 6th value of this serie, so Me =  = 10.5 .
2
Here, Me = 10.5 is not a value of the series.

2. In the series : 8 9 10 11 11 12 13 15 ,
14243 1442443
↑
4 values 4 values
Me
N N
N = 8 ,  = 4 and  + 1 = 5 .
2 2
11 + 11
The median is the average of the 4th and 5th value of this serie, so Me =  = 11 .
2
Here, Me = 11 is a value of the series.

Case of series of values grouped in a table :

In this case, we find the increasing cumulative frequency.
Whatever the total frequency N ,

N
• if  lies between two cumulative frequencies corresponding to two values xi and xi+1 , then
2
the median is the value corresponding to the larger cumulative frequency, so Me = xi+1 .

N
• if  equals one of the increasing cumulative frequencies which corresponds to a value xi ,
2
xi + xi+1
then the median is the average of the values xi and xi+1 , so Me =  .
2

290
EXAMPLES

1. Consider the series of grades of 13 students given by the table:

Grade 6 8 12 15 16 18

Frequency 1 1 3 4 2 2

Increasing cumulative
1 2 5 9 11 13
frequency

N
The total frequency is N = 13 ;  = 6.5 lies between the two cumulative frequencies 5 and 9
2
corresponding to the values 12 and 15, therefore the median is Me = 15 .

2. Let the series of grades be for 12 students :

Grade 5 7 11 13 14 17

Frequency 2 1 3 2 3 1

Increasing cumulative
2 3 6 8 11 12
frequency

N
The total frequency is N = 12 ;  = 6 is equal to the cumulative frequency of the value 11 : so
2
11 + 13
median Me =  = 12 .
2

Remarks
• The median is determined easily. It is not influenced by the terms of the series.
Here, the two series have the same median 40.
First series: 33 35 40 43 47
Second series: 8 32 40 43 80

• We use the median in a certain number of cases :

- determination of median life duration,
- determination of median price or median salary.

291
 3° The mean (arithmetic)
The mean of a series is the quotient of the sum of all the scores of the quantitative variable studied
by the total number of these scores. Every number in a series of data affects the value of the mean.
Consequently, the mean is generally a good representative measure of central tendency. However,
the mean can be considerably influenced by extreme values.

a) Case of a series of values not grouped in a table

Given the series of grades of a student : 7 6 8 14 15 15 .

7 + 6 + 8 + 14 + 15 + 15
The mean, denoted by x , is : x =  = 10.83 .
6

b) Case of a series of values grouped in a table

Given the series of values in the following table :

Value x1 x2 ........ ........ xk

Frequency n1 n2 ........ ........ nk Total N

n1x1 + n2x2 + ... + nkxk

The average x is : x = 
N
k
where N = n1 + n2 + ... + nk ,
 nixi
so x = 
i=1
N

In this case , x is called weighted arithmetic mean .

Remarks
k
n
• Since the relative frequency is fi = i , then x =  xi fi .
N i=1

• The mean is not necessarily a value of a term of the series.

292
 EXAMPLE

The grades (over 20) of math tests of a student of the first secondary are given by the following
table:

Grade 8 10 12 14 15

Frequency 1 2 4 1 2 Total 10

Relative frequency 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.1 0.2 Total 1

The average of grades is :

1×8 + 2×10 + 4×12 + 1×14 + 2×15
x =  = 12 .
10
or x = 0.1 × 8 + 0.2 × 10 + 0.4 × 12 + 0.1 × 14 + 0.2 × 15 = 12.

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF DISPERSION

The characteristics of position (central tendency) locates the series around a central value but do
not indicate anything about the variability of data around this value.
Consider two families of 5 children where their ages are the following :
11 13 14 15 16
2 5 14 23 25

These two series have the same median (Me = 14) and same mean (x =13.8). However, they are
not identical. The terms of the second series are much dispersed (scattered) than the first.

This simple example proves the necessity of calculating new characteristics for finding the
variability of the terms of a series around its central value. They are called “Measures of
dispersion”.

1° Range
The range of a statistical series is the difference between the largest value and the smallest
value of the variable.
For example: the range of the series : 2 3 3 5 5 8 10 12 is 12 – 2 = 10.

293
 2° Mean deviation
The mean deviation denoted by e is the mean of the absolute values of the
deviations from the mean:
k where N is the total frequency,
 ni  xi – x  xi value of variable,
e = 
i=1
N ni frequency of the xi ,
x mean.

This deviation gives a good idea about the variability of the values around
the mean.

EXAMPLE

Take the two series of ages of children in two families.

First series 11 13 14 15 16.
Second series 2 5 14 23 25.

The mean of each series is 13.8.

The mean deviation e1 of the first is :

(13.8 – 11) + (13.8 – 13) + (14 – 13.8) + (15 – 13.8) + (16 – 13.8)
e1 =  = 1.44.
5
The mean deviation e2 of the second is :
(13.8 – 2) + (13.8 – 5) + (14 – 13.8) + (23 – 13.8) + (25 – 13.8)
e2 =  = 8.24.
5
The terms of the first series are much concentrated around the mean than
the terms of the second.

3° Variance and standard deviation

If we find the mean of the squared deviations, we have another measure of variation, called the
k
variance:

2
ni xi – x
V = 
i=1
N

Practically, we use the following formula to calculate the variance :

1 k
V =   nixi2 – x2 .
N i=1

294
The unit of the variance is the square of the unit of the variable. To keep the same unit, we find the
positive square root of V called the the standard deviation denoted by σ (read sigma) : 
= V


Take again the preceding example : First series : 11 13 14 15 16

Second series : 2 5 14 23 25

The standard deviation σ1 of the first series is :

(13.8 – 11)2 + (13.8 – 13)2 + (14 – 13.8)2 + (15 – 13.8)2 + (16 – 13.8)2
σ1 =  = 1.7.
5

The standard deviation σ2 of the second series is :


(13.8 – 2)2 + (13.8 – 5)2 + (14 – 13.8)2 + (23 – 13.8)2 + (25 – 13.8)2
σ2 =  = 9.2.
5

Interpretation

- The standard deviation is the most important and widely used measure of dispersion. It helps comparing
the variability of values of two series. In the preceding example: σ1 < σ2 : the first series is more regular
than the second.

- The largest number of values of one series is found in the interval [x – σ ; x + σ].

For the first series [x – σ1 ; x + σ1] = [12.1 ; 15.5]. The values of this series which are 11, 13, 14, 15 and
16 are lying in this interval except 11 and 16, so 60% of the values belong to[x – σ1 ; x – σ1].

- If we take the interval [x – 2σ1, x + 2σ1] = [10.4 ; 17.2], we notice that all the values of this series are
lying in this interval (100%).

6 USING CALCULATORS

Suppose we want to calculate the mean and the standard deviation of the series of grades (over 20)
represented in the following table :

Grade 3 5 9 13 19

Frequency 3 2 5 7 4

295
 1° Casio fx 95 MS
• Press MODE to access the mode SD .

• Before any calculation, clear memory by

SHIFT Clr 1 = .

• Enter data in this way :

3 SHIFT , 3 M+ The machine posts up n = 3

5 SHIFT , 2 M+ The machine posts up n = 5

9 SHIFT , 5 M+ The machine posts up n = 10

13 SHIFT , 7 M+ The machine posts up n = 17

19 SHIFT , 4 M+ The machine posts up n = 21

To obtain the mean, press SHIFT 2 1 =

and standard deviation, SHIFT 2 2 = .

You get x = 11 and  = 5.2 .

2° Casio fx 95/570 ES plus

MODE → 3 → 1

• Start by putting frequency on

SHIFT → MODE → ↓ → 4 → 1

3 = 5 = 9 = 13 = 19

• Move to next column to fill frequencies

3 = 2 = 5 = 7 = 4

• Press AC SHIFT 1 → 4
2 → x = 11

• Press AC SHIFT 1 → 4
3 → 6 = 5.2

296
 STATISTICS

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

1 In each case, indicate the population and individual under study.

Precise the nature of the variable (character).

1° The grades obtained by the students of the 1st secondary of a physics test.

2° The number of persons employed by a set of firms in a region.

3° The sports’activities practiced by the students in a school.

4° The color of eyes of teachers in a school.

5° The preferred music of employees in a company.

6° The speed of set of computers.

7° The status life of employees in a factory.

2 Complete the following statistical tables :

1° 3°

Type Red Green Yellow Black Blue Pink Value 1 2 3 4 8 9

Frequency 2 5 8 11 6 4 Frequency 12 22 27

Relative Increasing
frequency cumulative 29 51 132
frequency

2° 4°

Value 2 5 8 10 11 14 Value 0 1 2 3 4 5

Relative
5 17 12 34 28 4 Frequency 24 33 12 21 58 47
frequency in %
Total Relative
Frequency
900 frequency
Increasing
cumulative
relative
frequency

297
 STATISTICS

3 Complete the table using the graphical representation :

1°
Frequency Value 1 2 3 4 5 6

50
40
Frequency
30
20
10
Relative
frequency
1 2 3 4 5 6 Value in %

2°
Relative Frequency in %
Type A B C D E F
60
50
40 Relative
frequency
30 in %
20
10
Total
A B C D E F
Frequency
Type 50

3°
Blue

White 36° Yellow

Type Pink Blue Green White Yellow
108° 72°

90°
54° ƒ in %
Pink
Green

298
 STATISTICS

4 A survey taken from the students of the 1st secondary to choose the day of the week (only one

day) in order to do their test, gives the following information:

Day of the week Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday

Frequency 155 65 34 30 12

1° What is the population and its frequency ?

2° What is the individual of this population?

3° What is the variable studied? its nature?

4° What is the frequency and relative frequency of Monday? Friday? Interpret the results.

5° Draw the table of cumulative frequencies.

5 Given the following diagram :

Relative frequency

0.26
0.2
0.14
0.1
Value of
variable
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

1° Draw the table of relative frequencies and increasing cumulative frequencies.

2° If the total frequency is 100, draw the table of frequencies.

3° Determine the mode and the median of this series.

299
 STATISTICS

6 Given the following table of relative frequencies fi and of values xi of a certain variable.

Value xi 1 2 3 4 5 6

Relative frequency fi 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.2

1° What is the nature of the variable studied ?

2° Construct the circular diagram of this series.

7 A group of students travelled to Italy during the vacation.

The following circular diagram summarizes their distribution according to their accomodation.
Give the percentage of each distribution.

Parents or
friends

155°

58° 22° Others

ts 35°R
Ten 45° 45° esid
ncee
n
tio

Hotel
ca
Lo

8 In a college we obtained the following information concerning the sports activities practiced by

the students.

There are 24.4% who play tennis, 60.6% football, 13% ping-pong, and 2% skiing.

1° What is the population of this series? the character and its nature?

2° Represent this distribution by a circular diagram.

300
 STATISTICS

9 1° For each series of grades, calculate the 1st series Grade 8 10 12

mean and the standard deviation.
Frequency 1 1 1

2nd series Grade 7 10 13 3rd series Grade 0 10 20

Frequency 3 1 2 Frequency 4 4 4

2° Which is the most regular series? the most dispersed ?

10 We registered the number of books read by a group of 100 students.

We obtained the following results :

Number of books read 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Frequency 23 36 17 14 4 4 2

1° What is the population of this series ? the individual ?

2° What is the variable studied and its nature ?

3° What is the mode ?

4° What is the median ? Give an interpretation of this result.

5° What is the range ?

6° Calculate the mean x and standard deviation σ.

7° We add the number 2 to the number of books read. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the
new series formed. Conclusion.

8° We multiply by 3 the number of books read. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the new
series formed. Conclusion.

301
 STATISTICS

11 The competitors in a rally were asked about the distance travelled by each one of them. The results
were grouped in the following table :

Distance
200 400 600 800
travelled in km

Frequency 9 30 6 5

1° Draw the table of cumulative frequencies and cumulative relative frequencies.

2° Calculate the relative frequency of the competitors having travelled :
a) 400km and less b) 600 km and more.
3° Represent the cumulative relative frequency polygon.
4° Calculate the average distance travelled and the standard deviation.

12 The same test of maths is given to three sections of 1st secondary. This test is corrected by
the same teacher. The following table gives, for each class, the average and standard deviation of the
grades.

Class x 

1st secondary A 10.8 1.6

1st secondary B 12.3 1.2

1st secondary C 13 2.8

Give an interpretation about the level of each class. Is it then homogeneous ?

13 Answer by True or False.

1° A quantitative variable is discrete if it has a small frequency.

2° We use a line diagram to represent a discrete quantitative variable.

3° The range and standard deviation are measures of dispersion.

4° The standard deviation is the positive square root of the mean deviation.

5° For two series having the same variable, the one with the smaller standard deviation is the more
regular series.

6° The median depends on extreme values of the series.

7° If we add a quantity k to each value of the variable, the mean is also added by k .

302
 STATISTICS

For seeking

14 A company produces jeans of brand “007”. A survey was done on a number of families which
wear this brand. The following table summarizes the number of persons in each family who wear this
brand of jeans.
Number of persons who wear
0 1 2 3 4 5
this jeans

Number of families 30 82 98 86 51 24

1° What is the mean ?

2° They asked the persons wearing this jeans to indicate its size. They obtained the following results :

Size 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

Relative frequency
17 25 8 12 25 7 4 2
(in %)

The manager of this company didn’t wish to know the mean of this statistical series, but he was
interested in the table of relative frequencies. Can you explain why?

15 The five grades over 20 obtained by Karim on fives maths tests are:
10 , 13 , 8 , 12 and 11.

1° What is the mean grade ?

2° What grade should be obtained on a sixth test to get :

a) a mean strictly less than 10 ?
b) a mean greater than 11 ?
c) a mean greater or equal to 14 ?

16 In a class of 28 students :
• the average of the grades of the boys is 10 ,
• the average of the grades of the girls is 12 ,
• the average of the class is 11.5 .

How many boys and girls are in this class ?

303
 STATISTICS

17 The cumulative frequency

Increasing cumulative frequencies
polygon of a series concerning the price
of an article picked up in 45 points of sale
is given by the figure below :

45
40
34
30

20
1° Draw the table representing the 18
cumulative relative frequencies. 10
2° Calculate the average price of this
article and the corresponding standard
60 70 75 80 90 95 100 Price in $
deviation.

18 We throw two dice 30 times and we are interested in the obtained

sum Frequency
sum of the two faces which appear. The results are given by the
following table: 2 2
3 1
1° What is the studied character and nature ?
4 3

2° Draw the table of cumulative frequency and of cumulative 5 4

relative frequencies in %. 6 5
7 3
3° Represent this series by a bar diagram. 8 4
9 3
4° What is the relative frequency in % obtaining a sum :
10 2
a) equals to 5 ? d) greater than or equal to 8 ?
11 2
b) equals to 10 ? e) even ?
12 1
c) smaller than or equal to 7 ? f) divisible by 4 ?

5° What is the mode of this series ?

6° Calculate the median and the range.

7° Calculate: the mean, the variance and the standard deviation of these sums.

304
 STATISTICS

19 The grades over 20 obtained from an entrance

Grades 6 8 10 12 16 18 20
exam of a faculty by students of 3rd secondary are
summarized by this table. (The students whose grades
Frequency 4 8 14 16 14 6 4
are less than 10 are not accepted).

1° Draw the table of cumulative frequencies, the relative frequencies and the cumulative relative
frequencies in %.
2° Represent graphically the relative frequencies and cumulative relative frequencies in %.
3° Calculate :
a) the number of refused students,
b) the percentage of accepted students,
c) the number of students having a grade strictly less than 18,
d) the percentage of students having a grade between 10 and 16.

20 The following table summarizes the relative Number of

1 2 3 4 5 7
hours
frequencies of number of hours of studying in the
week-end of a group of students : Relative
frequency in %
2.2 8.1 28.1 20.3 19.4 21.9

1° Knowing that the total frequency of this population is 227, find the frequency distribution.
2° Calculate the mean h and the standard deviation σ .
3° Calculate the percentage of this population for which the number of hours is in the interval
[ h - σ ; h + σ].

MACHINE A Diameter
21 In a factory, two machines A and B 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
in mm
manufacture the same kind of wheels. We
Frequency 5 16 25 22 18 8 6
measure with precision the diameter in mm of 100
MACHINE B Diameter
wheels produced by each of these two machines. 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
in mm
The results are given by the following two tables :
Frequency 0 14 18 20 32 8 8
1° Calculate the average diameter d of wheels
produced by each of these two machines.

2° Calculate the variance V and the standard deviation σ of diameters of wheels of each of the two
machines.

3° Which machine is more regular in its production? Explain.

4° Find the percentages of the diameters which lie in [d – 2σ ;d + 2σ] for each of the machines A and B.

305
 STATISTICS

22 In a club of shooting with a bow, Fadi and

Zone 0 2 4 6
Samir are in competition for the presidency of the
club. For this, they perform 100 shootings on a Number of times
14 24 30 32
target which contains 4 zones permitting of having (Fadi)
6 points, 4 points, 2 points, 0 point. The results are
Numbre of times
summarized by the adjacent table : 6 26 50 18
(Samir)

1° Calculate the average mark of a shoot for Fadi then for Samir.
2° Calculate the mean deviation and the standard deviation of points of Fadi and of Samir.
3° Which one of them will be the President ?

23 A company manufactures pencils of length 25 cm. The controler measured the lengths of 100
pencils produced, and he obtained the following results:

Length in cm 24.1 24.3 24.5 24.7 24.9 25.1 25.3 25.5 25.7 25.9

Frequency 0 5 13 24 19 14 20 8 5 2

1° Calculate the mean length x and standard deviation .

2° The production is judged «good» if the series of these lengths verifies these conditions :
a) x  [24.9 ; 25.1]
b)  < 0.4
c) at least 90% of total frequency lie in [x – 2 ; x + 2].
Prove that the production is «good».

24 The following table summarizes the grades (over 20) obtained by 80 students on a statistics test.

Grade 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 18

Frequency 2 2 5 10 9 10 12 10 7 5 5 1 1 1

1° Calculate the mean x and the standard deviation  of this series.

2° The test is «normal» if 28% of the grades lie in the interval [x –  ; x + ] and 5% is out of the interval
[x – 2 ; x + 2] .
Is this test «normal» ?

306
 STATISTICS

25 A machine fills automatically bags of spices. The following table gives the distribution of masses
of bags.

Mass in grams 38.5 39.25 39.75 40.25 40.75 41.25 41.75 42.25 42.75 43.75

Frequency 3 5 10 13 20 18 15 11 4 1

1° Calculate the mean x of this statistical series.

2° Calculate the standard deviation  of the distribution of masses of bags.
3° The production of the machine is considered «good» if this series of sample of measures verify the
following three conditions :
a) x  [40.5 ; 41]
b)  < 2
c) at least 90% of the total frequency must lie in the interval [x – 2 ; x + 2].
Is the production of the machine considered «good» ?

To go further
I A. A student has the following grades on a semester exam :

Subject French Maths Arabic Science

Grades 10 x 11 13

Coefficient 2 4 2 3

x is an integer .
To pass the exam , an average of 10 is needed .
What is the minimum grade he should get to pass the exam ?

B. A survery on the number of children per family carried out in a village of 500 families , gave the
following results :

Number of children 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Number of families 106 138 98 62 48 32 10 4 2

1° Determine the percentage of families having :

a) less than 3 children .
b) at least 3 children .

2° Find the median and the mode of this data . Interpret these numbers .

307
 STATISTICS

II To assess the quality of a certain kind of soap , a score between 0 and 5 was given . The results
were summarized in the following table :

Score 0 1 2 3 4 5

Frequency 1 10 24 8 5 2

1° Complete the table of the increasing cumulative frequencies and the increasing cumulative relative
frequencies in percentage .
2° Construct the polygon of the increasing cumulative relative frequency .
3° Find the mean score and the median score .
4° Define another series of scores having median 4 .
5° We manufacture these soaps in two shapes : circular shape and square shape .
The cost of production of a circular shape is 3 dollars and that of a square shape is 2 dollars . The average
daily cost of production is 2.8 dollars .
Knowing that the daily production is 10,000 soaps , what is the number of soaps of circular shape and
that of square shape that should be manufactured daily ?

III Frequency
For two different groups, A
of 90 students and B of 120 27
students, a statistical study is done
on the number of CD’s bought by 18
each student during a period of 6
months. 9
1° What is the variable studied ? Number
of CD’s
its nature ?
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 bought
2° The following diagram
represents the frequencies obtained by group A. Set the table of increasing cumulative frequencies.
What is the median Me1 of this series ? the mean x1 ? standard deviation 1 ?
3° The following table
Number of CD’s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
represents the frequencies
obtained by group B. Set relative frequency 0.1 0 0.2 0.4 0 0.1 0 0.2
the table of increasing
cumulative frequencies of this series. Determine the medianMe2 of this series, its mean x2 and standard
deviation 2 .
4° We consider that a group is «normal» if, at least 95% of the total frequency lie in [x – 2 ; x + 2]
where x is the average number of CD’s bought and  is the standard deviation.
Between the two groups A and B , which one is considered «normal» ?

308
19
COUNTING

A brief history
Counting was certainly one of the first activities in mathematics.
Aristotle and his school were interested in the notion of hazard and in throwing
dice.
In 1494, Luca Pacioli (1445-1514) published Summa de Arithmetica in which he
discussed the games of hazard.
In his manual of player entitled Liber de Ludo Aleoe, published in 1663, Jérôme
Cardan (1501-1576) stated some valid rules to solve dice problems.
This work has been continued by Galileo Galilei (1564-1642). Tartaglia
(1499-1557), Jacques Bernouilli (1654-1705) and Leibniz (1646-1716) who sees
in counting and the calculation of probabilities the possibility of a “new logic”.
In 1654, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) and Pierre Fermat (1601-1665) establish the
bases of counting and the calculation of probabilities after having been appealed
by the chevalier de Méré to dice problems. Pascal related this study to arithmetic
triangle known under the name of Pascal triangle.
Very late, Condorcet (1742-1794), Laplace (1749-1827), and Poisson (1781-1841)
tried to give, with the most poweful mathematical tools, “a quantitative expression
to give ways for the discussion of calculation related to hazard”.
At XXth century the rules of calculation on the counting and the probabilities are
defined in 1933 by Kolmogoroff (1903-1987).

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

1. Product principle
2. Application of the product principle
1° p-lists or p-uplets
2° Arrangements
3° Permutations
3. Sum principle

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«Not being able to trust my reasoning, I memorized all the possible results
of all the possible multiplications.»
Eugène Ionesco

309
 Activity 1

Head or Tail (H or T)
By throwing two coins, the following results shown by the tree are obtained.

1st coin 2nd coin Possibilities

P PP

P
F PF
P FP
F

F FF

The possibilities are : HH, HT, TH and TT ; they are four.

In fact, there are two possibilities for the first and two possibilities for the
second, hence 2 × 2 = 4.
By following the same procedure find all the possibilities of outcomes when
throwing three coins.

Activity 2
Parking.
A shop disposes, for its clients, three parking places denoted by A, B and C.
The following tree indicates the possibilities of parking two cars in this
parking.
1st car 2nd car Possibilities
B AB
A
C AC
A BA
B
C BC
A CA
C
B CB

310
The possibilities are : AB, AC, BA, BC, CA and CB ; they are six.

In fact there are three possibilities for the first car and two possibilities for the
second car, hence 3 × 2 = 6.

By following the same procedure, complete the following tree that indicates the
possibilities of parking three cars in this parking lot.

1st car 2nd car 3rd car Possibilities

B C ABC
A

C ..........

A ..........

C ..........
A ..........

B ..........

Activity 3

A survey done on 1,000 persons concerning the reading of a social magazine

and a political one, showed that 400 persons read the first one, 380 read the
second one, while 40 persons read both.
1° Translate this given by a diagram.
2° What is the number of persons that read :
a) the social magazine only ?
b) the political magazine only ?
c) neither ?

311
 Counting the possibilities of a given situation is giving the number of possible
outcomes. In some situations it may be easy, but in other cases, some principles are
required.

1 PRODUCT PRINCIPLE

The product principle is a simple counting procedure that can be applied to various situations.

This principle is used when it is possible to imagine the situation in a tree whose branches are the
possible choices that could be taken.

EXAMPLE

The goal of this example is to know the number of possible ways for a boat to pass from M to N
by crossing once an opening in each bridge as indicated in the figure :

A B C

p1

q1 r1
M . p2 .N
q2
r2
p3

q3
p4

There are four possibilities to cross bridge A, three possibilities for B and two for C.

312
 This situation can be represented in the following tree :
The
possibilities
A B C ↓
r1 p1 q1 r1
q1
r2 p1 q1 r2
r1 p1 q2 r1
p1 q2
r2 p1 q2 r2
r1 p1 q3 r1
q3
r2 p1 q3 r2
r1 p2 q1 r1
q1
r2 p2 q1 r2
r1 p2 q2 r1
p2 q2
r2 p2 q2 r2
r1 p2 q3 r1
q3
r2 p2 q3 r2
r1 p3 q1 r1
q1
r2 p3 q1 r2
r1 p3 q2 r1
p3 q2
r2 p3 q2 r2
r1 p3 q3 r1
q3
r2 p3 q3 r2
r1 p4 q1 r1
q1
r2 p4 q1 r2
r1 p4 q2 r1
p4 q2
r2 p4 q2 r2
r1 p4 q3 r1
q3
r2 p4 q3 r2

Therefore there are 24 possibilities to travel from M to N,

hence 4 × 3 × 2 = 24.

In general, if in a situation three choices should be made successively, the first can be made
in p diferent ways, the second in q different ways, and the third in r different ways (p, q
and r  2), then there are p × q × r ways to accomplish this situation.

313
 2 APPLICATIONS ON THE PRODUCT PRINCIPLE

1° p-lists or p-uplets
In how many ways can you put two pens in three boxes? (a box can hold 0, 1 or 2 pens).
Using the product principle there are three choices for the first pen and three choices for the
second, so 3 × 3 = 32 = 9 possible choices.
We can get this result using the choice tree by denoting the three boxes by b1 , b2 and b3.

The
Choice of 1st pen Choice of 2nd pen possibilities
↓
b1 b1 b1

b1 b2 b1 b2

b3 b1 b3
b1 b2 b1

b2 b2 b2 b2

b3 b2 b3
b1 b3 b1

b3 b2 b3 b2

b3 b3 b3

These different possibilities are called 2-lists or 2-uplets in which there is a repetition of choices,
for example b1b1, b2b2, and b3b3.
The different possibilities of putting p pens in n boxes is called
p-lists or p-uplets.
There are n ways to put the 1st pen
n ways to put the 2nd pen

and n ways to put the pst pen ,

p
n × n × ...... × n = n choices to put the p pens .
so 1442443
p times

In general : A p-list or p-uplet of a set E of n elements is an ordered list of p-elements of E, not

necessarily distinct.
p
The number of p-lists or p-uplets than can be formed in E is n .

314
2° Arrangements
How many words of two distinct letters can be formed using the letters of the word mai ? (a
word that may or may not have a meaning).
Using the product principle there are three choices for the first letter and two choices for the
second, that is 3 × 2 = 6 possible words.
Using the choice tree :

The
Choice of the 1st letter Choice of the 2nd letter possibilities
↓
a ma

i mi
m am

i ai
m im

a ia

These different possibilities are called arrangements (without repetition) of two chosen letters
among the three letters of the word mai.
To obtain the number of arrangements of p distinct elements chosen from n elements (p ≤ n) we
proceed in the following manner :
there are n ways to choose the 1st element
n – 1 ways to choose the 2nd element
n – 2 ways to choose the 3rd element

n – (p – 1) = n – p + 1 ways to choose the p element.

Using the product principle, there is therefore :
p
n (n – 1) (n – 2) ... (n – p + 1) arrangements ; this number is denoted A n.
1444442444443
p factors
p
A n = n (n – 1) (n – 2) .... (n – p + 1)

315
 In the preceding example :
2
A3 = 3 (3 – 1) = 3 × 2 = 6 possible words.

Remarks
• In an arrangement the order of the elements is important.
• Two arrangements differ either by their elements or by the order of their elements.

3° Permutations
How many three digit distinct numbers can be formed with the digits 1, 2 and 3 ?
Using the product principle to form a three digit distinct number, there are :
3 choices for the first digit.
2 choices remain for the second digit,
and only 1 choice for the third digit.
So 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 possible numbers.
We can notice this result using the following tree :

Choice of Choice of Choice of The

1st letter 2nd letter 3rd letter possibilities
↓
2 3 123

3 2 132
1 3 213

3 1 231

1 2 312

2 1 321
These different possibilities are called permutations of the three digits 1, 2 and 3 which are also
arrangements of three chosen digits among the three digits 1, 2 and 3.

316
The number of permutations of n elements, denoted by Pn , is equal to the number of arrangements
formed of n distinct elements , that is :
n
Pn = An = n (n – 1) (n – 2) ....... (n – n + 1)

Pn = n (n – 1) (n – 2) ....... 1 .
144424443
n factors

Remark

The product n (n – 1) (n – 2) ... 1 is denoted by n! which is read n factorial, so Pn = n! .

In the preceding example, there are : P3 = 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 possible numbers.

3 SUM PRINCIPLE

The sum principle is a second simple procedure of counting applied to certain situations. This is
an example;

During the world football cup, a television channel diffused the match between Brazil and Italy
twice: Thursday at midnight and Friday afternoon.

A survey showed that 300,000 persons watched the match at midnight and 500,000 the following
afternoon.

• If the spectators that watched it at midnight did not see it again during the afternoon (that is at
midnight or in the afternoon), the total number of spectators will be : 300,000 + 500,000 = 800,000
as illustrated below.

300,000 500,000
persons persons

at midnight in the afternoon

317
 • Knowing that there are 80,000 persons who watched the match twice (that is at midnight and
during the afternoon), then the total number of persons who watched the match will be :

( 300,000 + 500,000 ) – ( 80,000 ) = 720,000 , as illustrated below :

80,000

at midnight, 300,000 persons in the afternoon, 500,000 persons

The principle used in this example is called the sum principle.

If A designates the set of persons who watched the match at midnight and B the set of persons who
watched the match during the afternoon, we get : Card(A) = 300,000 and Card(B) = 500,000.

• In the first case, A ∩ B = Ø and Card(A∪

∪ B) = Card(A) + Card(B).

• In the second case, A ∩ B ≠ Ø with Card(A∩B) = 80,000, therefore

∪B) = Card(A) + Card(B) – Card(A∩
Card(A∪ ∩B).

Remark

When several choices in a situation should be considered :

• a product is applied when consecutive choices should be done.

• a sum is applied when either of two choices is considered...

318
 COUNTING

Exercises and problems

4
Test your knowledge An urn contains three balls: white (W),
black (B) and red (R).
We draw these three balls successively (without
1 A test consists by answering three
replacement).
questions with a yes (Y) or a no (N).
1° Give with the help of a tree, all the
1° Give the meaning of the answer NNY.
possibilities.
2° Complete the choice tree and write all the
2° Find directly, the number of these
possibilities.
possibilities.

1st question 2nd question 3rd question

Y 5 1° How many four letter words can be
Y
formed using the letters of the word SAMI ?
Y

2° a) With the help of a choice tree, find the

N number of words formed of two different letters
Y
N
from the word SAMI.
b) Find, directly, the number of these words.
3° Find the number of possibilities in a different
method.
3° a) With the help of a choice tree, find the
number of words formed of two letters.
2 By using a choice tree.
b) Find, directly, the number of these words.
1° give the possibilities of the children of a
family with two children.
2° Give the possibilities of the children of a 6 Given set E = {3 ; 5 ; a ; b}.
family with three children.
1° Find the number of arranging 3 out of 3 of
3° Can the number of possibilities, in each case,
the elements of E .
be found by another method?
Write three of these arrangements.

3 1° With the help of a choice tree give all 2° What is the number of the 2-lists ? Write
the possible two distinct letter words that can be three of these 2-lists.
formed with the letters of the word LION.
2° Can we obtain this number in another 3° What is the number of permutations ? Give
method? three permutations.

319
 COUNTING

7 For his snack, Omar has the choice

For seeking
between bread (b), biscuit (B) or a toast (t) on
which he could spread jam (j) or honey (h).
10 1° How many four distinct words can be

1° Give, with the help of a tree, the number of formed using the letters of the word M A T H ?
different snacks.
2° How many four distinct letter words starting
2° Calculate directly this number.
with a vowel can be formed using the letters of

the word M A T H ?
8 A sports club has 320 members. A survey
showed that 180 persons play tennis and 120 do
horseriding. Moreover, 70 persons do both.
11 An urn contains four numbered balls 1, 2,
3 and 4. We draw successively and without
replacement two balls to form a two digit
1° What is the number of persons who just play
number denoted by du where d is the number of
tennis? Who just do horseriding?
the first ball and u that of the second.

2° Find the number of persons who practice Give, with the help of a tree, all the possibilities
either tennis or horseriding. to get :

3° Find the number of persons who practice 1° an even number;

neither the tennis nor the horseriding.

2° a multiple of 3.

9 Answer by True or False .

12 A dice is thrown three times.

1° A p-uplet is made of p elements. 1° Find, with the help of a tree, the possibilities
of having, by order, an even digit, an odd digit,
2° The sum principle consists in adding all the and a digit greater than 4.
possibilities.
2° Find the number of these possibilities in
3° The product principle consists in multiplying another method.
the number of possibilities.

4° (a ; b ; c) and (a ; c ; b) designate the same 13 A class is formed of 5 boarding students, 8

arrangement. external students and 10 semiboarding students.

5° There are 24 possibilities to park four cars in In how many ways can two delegates having a
a parking containing four places. different status, be chosen?

320
 COUNTING

14 Out of the 2,500 habitants of a Lebanese village, 1,200 persons speak french, 715 speak english
and 223 speak both.
How many persons do not speak french nor english ?

15 1° In how many ways can two socks be placed in five drawers ?

2° In how many ways can five socks be placed in two drawers ?

16 In a first secondary class, there are 9 boys and 11 girls. 3 boys and two girls are going to be chosen

to play respective roles in a play. Such a group is called a “troop”.

1° In how many ways can the 3 boys be chosen knowing that each will play a specific role ?

2° Same question for the girls.

3° Deduce the number of possible troops.

17 A class contains 45 students of which 15 girls, all external, and 30 boys from which 10 are
external. 3 students are to be chosen as delegates; a president (boarding student), a secretary (girl) and a
treasurer (boy or girl). Find the number of possible groups.

18 3 acitivities are proposed for the 1st secondary

class: music, painting and theater.

Music Painting
18 practice the three activities,

25 practice painting and theater,

53 practice music and theater,

18
70 practice theater,

78 practice music,

35 practice painting of which 23 also practice music.

Theater
1° Complete the following diagram .

2° What is the number of each group ?

321
 COUNTING

19 How many three distinct digit numbers can be formed with the digits 0 , 1 , 2 and 3 ?

To go further

I A 1st secondary class contains 30 students. Among them, 20 practice football, 15 ping-pong and

10 students practice both.

Determine the number of students that practice neither football nor ping-pong.

II Using the digits from 0 to 9 :

1° How many six-digit numbers can you form ?

2° How many six-digit numbers can you form knowing that the first digit is odd and then alternates
parity ?

3° Using the digits 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 5 and 6 , how many 5-digit distinct numbers greater than 40,000 can you
form ?

III Four girls and three boys want to sit on a bench .

1° What is the total number of possibilities ?

2° In how many ways they can sit :

a) if the girls and boys are alternating ?

b) if the girls sit next each other and so do the boys ?

IV A door is provided with a device with buttons 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 5 ; 6 ; A ; B ; C .

The door opens with a code formed of 3-digit distinct numbers followed by a letter .

1° Determine the number of possible codes .

2° Determine the number of codes if the three digits are odd .

322
20
CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

A brief history
Space geometry offers a place to describe, represent and study solid
bodies that make up the usual shapes of our industrial and
architectural environment.
Since ancient times, men have represented space objects in the
plane.
The first rules are the ones of artistic perspective, used by the
painters of the XVIth and XVIIth century.
Cavalier perspective was invented between the XVth and XVIIIth
century, due to applications of mathematical research on arts, war
and navigation.
Little by little, this domain started to spread.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

COURSE

1. The principle rules of cavalier perspective

2. The cube in cavalier perspective
3. Other solids in perspective

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

The above drawing represents

Cheops pyramid in cavalier
perspective
«Vision is the art of seeing invisible
Note : This being a regular
things.» pyramid with a square base of side
 m and a height of  m

Jonathan Swift
323
 Everyone is aware of the difficulties facing him in representing the geometric figures of
the space in a plane. Some strategies permit realizing such representations. In particular,
we will use cavalier perspective for representing solid figures on a plane. It gives visual
impression of the studied figure and helps developping a reasoning and establishing
properties. It is also useful to the imagination of objects in space.

In solid geometry, a plane may be visualized by the surface of still water, the
surface of a table, the board, etc...

A plane is not limited. It is represented

by a parallelogram. In general, we
designate the plane by capital letters P,
P
Q, R...

The plane facing us is called the frontal plane.

1 THE PRINCIPLE RULES OF CAVALIER

PERSPECTIVE

1° The full lines are seen by the observer.

2° The dotted lines are hidden with respect to the observer. They give a clear and complete idea
of the solid’s form.
3° Two parallel straight lines are represented by two parallel straight lines (parallelism is
preserved).
4° Every segment lying in a frontal plane is represented by its true dimension. (according to a
scale).
5° Every right angle is represented in a frontal plane by a right angle, and in every other plane it
is not.
6° The midpoint of a segment is represented by the midpoint of a segment drawn (midpoint of a
segment is preserved).
7° The ratio of segments having the same direction is preserved.

324
Remarks
. Circle
• A circle in a non frontal plane is represented by an Rectangle
ellipse. frontal plane
Circle
• A rectangle in a non frontal plane is represented by a Rectangle
.
parallelogram.
non frontal plane

2 THE CUBE IN CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

The parallelism is preserved.

H
G

J
The midpoint
is preserved
E I
F

Non hidden
Hidden edge
edge

In reality
AD = AE. In this D C
drawing AD is
shorter than AE.

The right angle is not

preserved in the non
A frontal plane (BCGF).
B

The right angle is preserved

in the frontal plane (ABFE).

325
 3 OTHER SOLIDS IN CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

1° The right prism. J

F I
It is the solid obtained from two congruent polygons lying in two
parallel planes and whose faces are rectangles. G H

The two polygons ABCDE and FGHIJ are the bases of the prism.

The segments [FA], [GB], [HC], [ID] and [JE] are the lateral E
edges. A D

The height of the prism is the distance between the two parallel B C
planes. Here for example [FA] is a height.

2° The rectangular parallelepiped or right paving H G

stone. E F
D C
It is a right prism where the polygons of the bases are rectangles.
A B

3° The pyramid.

It is the solid obtained from a polygon and a point outside its plane. Its lateral faces are any
triangles.

It is called regular if the polygon is regular and the faces are isosceles triangles.

It is called tetrahedron if the polygon is a triangle.

326
 Cours
This tetrahedron is called regular if all the faces are equilateral triangles.

A E
A

E B C
B F H
D E
C D G

pyramid regular pyramid tetrahedron

4°
. O′

. O
. O . O

Cylinder of Cone of revolution Sphere

revolution

327
 CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

1 Answer by True or False.

1° In cavalier perspective, a square should be represented by a rhombus.

2° Two parallel straight lines are not necessarily parallel in cavalier perspective.

3° To represent a circle in cavalier perspective we do not need a compass.

4° Two perpendicular lines are not necessarily perpendicular in cavalier perspective.

5° The right angles of a rectangle are seen right in a frontal plane.

2 The adjacent figure is a right paving

stone represented in cavalier perspective. H G
I
E F
J

C
1° How many faces and vertices does this figure D

have? A B
2° Is :
a) I the midpoint of [EG] ?
b) J the midpoint of [BG] ?

3° Indicate the hidden edges and faces.

4° Are lines (AH) and (BG) parallel ?

5° Is face BFGC a square ?

 
6° What is the exact measure of angles FBC and FGH ?

7° Name the segments that have, in reality, the same length as [AB] ? as [BC] ?

328
 CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

3 Indicate the committed errors on the following representations in cavalier perspective.

1° 2° J I

A D G F

H
G
C E H

E D

B F I

A
B C

4 Complete the following drawings in a way to obtain a representation in cavalier perspective :

a) A paving stone ABCDEFGH b) A regular pyramid SABCD of a square base.
S
D
E C

A B A
B

c) A cube ABCDEFGH.
E
E G
F
C

A C
B A
B

For seeking

5 Here is a pile of identical cubes.

Give the number of cubes.

329
 CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

6 ABCDEFGH is a cube. H G
1° Draw each of the segments [KI] , [DI] ,
I
[IJ] , [JL] and [KL].
2° Name the face represented in the frontal
E F
plane.

3° What is the true measure of angle CJB ?

D C

J
K

A L B

7 The opposite figure represents in cavalier G H

perspective a right prism having a right trapezoid
for base. I

1° Draw the segments [AH], [BI], [IL], [BF], [JT] F

E
L
and [JM]. M
A
2° Put an X mark in the corresponding case. B

D C
T

Face or edge Hidden Not hidden

[DF]

[FE]

[BC]

ABHG

GFEH

ABCD

330
 CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

8 In the figure below, (P) is a plane, A , B , C , D , E and F are given points.

Complete the following table :

A
C F
E

P
D

Property
belongs to (P) does not belong to (P) we cannot know
Point

331
 CAVALIER PERSPECTIVE

To go further

I 1° Complete the following cavalier perspectives and draw with full lines the seen elements and
with dotted lines the hidden elements .

a b c d

2° Specify, for each figure, the number of vertices, faces and edges.
Figure a : .......................................................... Figure c : ...............................................................
Figure b : .......................................................... Figure d : ...............................................................

II For each solid represented in cavalier perspective, indicate the non-respected rules .
1° A rectangular parallelepiped with ABF as frontal plane. The points I and J are the midpoints of edges
[EF] and [FG].
2° A cube with CGH as frontal plane.
3° A cylinder. The two discs with same radius are frontal planes.

1 2
H G 3
H G
J E F
I D C B
E F
D C
A
A B A B

III O I
Consider the cube POINTUES represented below.
1° Give the number of vertices, the number of edges and the number P
N
of faces of this cube.
2° What is the nature of face PNST ?
U
3° What is the nature of face POIN ? E
4° What are the hidden faces of this cube ?
5° Name all the edges that have the same length as edge [PO]. T S
6° How many edges are hidden ? Name them.

332
21
STRAIGHT LINES
AND PLANES
A brief history
GEOMETRY was born from practical problems faced by the ancient
civilizations, mostly the egyptians around 2000 years B.C.
Plato (427-347 B.C) born in Athens, a disciple of Pythagoras, is the first
to prove that there are only five convex regular polyhedrons : the cube, the
tetrahedron, the octahedron, the dodecahedron and the icosahedron.
Around 377 B.C , Plato founded a philosophical school “THE
ACADEMY” and wrote above its entry: “let him not enter he who is not
a geometer”.
Bonaventure Cavaliéri (1598-1657), student of Galileo, developped the
method of comparing solids by comparing their surfaces.
Since the dawn of time, man used plane configurations to represent space
objects.
Gaspard Monge (1746-1818) published in 1799 a notion about
descriptive geometry allowing to characterise a space object with the help
of two plane views.
The masters of the Renaissance are the first to expose the principe of a
conic perspective.
The florentine architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) had the idea to
represent three dimensional objects in a plane. But the first perspective
study is done by Leon Battista Alberti (1404-1472) followed by Pierro
della Freancesca (1410-1492).

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE
1. Basic rules 5. Relative positions of two planes
2. Determination of a plane 6. Intersection of a line and a plane
3. Relative positions of a 7. Section of a solid cut by a plane
straight line and a plane 8. Commentary exercises
4. Relative positions of two
lines in space
EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

“One day the earth will be a blind space that turns.”

Jules Supervielle

333
 ABCD is a tetrahedron. A

1° List all the lines that we can get with the points A,B,C and D.

There are ........... straight lines.

B D

2° BCD is a face of this tetrahedron. I

C
List all the other faces.

There are .......... faces.

3° Answer by True or False.

• Point A belongs to face BCD.

• Point I belongs to face ACD.

• Segment [BC] is included in face ABD.

• Segment [AI] is not included in face ABC.

• The two faces ABC and BCD have a common segment [BC].

• The two straight lines (AB) and (CD) are concurrent.

• The two segments [AD] and [BC] are not in the same face.

4° Complete :

• The intersection of [AC] and face BCD is ...............

• The intersection of [BD] and face BCD is ...............

• The intersection of the two faces BCD and ACD is ...............

5° Name two faces containing segment [AB].

334
 1 BASIC RULES

1° All the results in plane geometry are applied in space

geometry.
•
2° Through two distinct points A and B of the space one and only one line B
can be drawn (denoted by AB). •
A

3° Through three non-collinear points A,B and C in the space one and only one plane can
pass denoted by (ABC).

• C

A•
• B

The points that belong to the same plane are called coplanar.

The lines contained in the same plane are called coplanar.

4° If A and B are two points in space, all the planes passing through A and B contain line
(AB).

P
Q R

335
 A

In the following, all the properties will

be illustrated by using tetrahedron I K

ABCD where I, J and K are the

J
respective midpoints of [AB], [AC] and
B D
[AD].

(fig.1) C

2 DETERMINATION OF A PLANE

A plane may be determined by :

1° three non-collinear points : for example the plane (ABC), plane (IJK) (fig1).

2° a straight line (D) and a point O not on (D). This plane is

denoted by O , (D).
O .
In (fig 1) , the point A and line (BC) determine plane (ABC). (D)

3° two intersecting straight lines. This plane is denoted

by (D) , (D′) . (D′)

In (fig 1) , (AD) and (AC) determine plane (AD) , (AC)

(D)
.
I
which is plane (ACD) .

4° two parallel straight lines (D) and (D′′). This plane is

denoted by (D) , (D′) .
(D)
In (fig 1), (IJ) and (BC) are parallel. They determine plane (D′)
(ABC).

336
 3 RELATIVE POSITIONS OF A LINE AND A PLANE

1° A straight having two of its points in a plane lies completely in this plane
(included in the plane). (fig.2)
- (D1)  (P).
- In (fig1), (JK) is contained in plane (ACD).
2° A straight line which has one common point with a plane is said to be a
line which cuts or pierces the plane. The common point is called the
intersection of the line and the plane.
- (D2) cuts plane (P) at I. (fig.2) (D2)

- In (fig1) (AB) cuts plane (BCD) at B. (D3)

3° A straight line which has no points in common with a plane

is said to be a line parallel to this plane.
- (D3) // plane (P). (fig.2) I• × (D1)
[we write (D)  (P) = ] × B
P A
- In (fig1) , (IK) is parallel to plane (BCD).
(fig.2)

4 RELATIVE POSITIONS OF TWO STRAIGHT LINES

IN SPACE

Two straight lines in space can be:

1° coplanar (situated in the same plane).
They are intersecting or parallel :

(D) (D)
(D′) (D′)

I
P P

337
 2° non coplanar (they are not in the same plane). (D′)

(D) and (D′) are not intersecting and not parallel.

(D)
(They are called skew lines)
•I
P

On (fig1) :
- (AD) and (KJ) are intersecting in K and are in the plane (ACD).
- (JK) and (CD) are parallel and they are in the plane (ACD).
- (AB) and (CD) are not coplanar. Similarly for (AD) and (BC), and for (AC) and (BD).

5 RELATIVE POSITIONS OF TWO PLANES

Two planes (P) and (P′) in space may be :

1° parallel : they have no point in common. P

P′

2° confounded : all points in one are found in the other. It is

sufficient that they have three non-collinear points in common.
•Α •C
P •Β
P′

3° intersecting : they have a straight line in common. Two x

distinct planes that have a point in common are intersecting and
A
their intersection is a straight line passing through this point.

P y P′

In (fig1) :
- planes (IJK) and (BCD) are parallel.
- planes (AJK) and (ACD) are confounded.
- planes (ACD) and (BCD) are intersecting along (CD).

338
Remarks
1° To prove that three points in space are collinear, it is sufficient to prove that they belong to
two distinct planes.
2° The intersection of three planes may be a point or a straight line.
x

P Q

I
•
Q
R y R
P

The intersection is point I. The intersection is line (xy).

3° Three straight lines are called non- coplanar if they are not in the (D3)
same plane. Moreover, if they intersect in pairs, then they are
concurrent in one point.
(D1)
In (fig. 1), the lines (BA), (BD) and (BC) are non-coplanar and they
intersect two by two; their intersection is point B.
I
P (D2)

6 INTERSECTION OF A STRAIGHT LINE AND A

PLANE
To find the intersection of line (d) with plane (P) :
Q
• We choose a plane (Q) which contains line (d) and that intersects
(d)
plane (P) along a straight line (Δ) .
• The intersection I of the two straight lines (d) and (Δ) in the plane
(Q) is the intersection of (d) with plane (P) . (Δ)
In the case of a solid , the plane (Q) is often a face of this solid and (d) is
an edge .
I
P

339
 EXAMPLE

ABCD is a tetrahedron , M is a point on [AD] and N a point of face ABC A

. Find the intersection of line (MN) with plane (BCD) . M
In plane (ABC) , (AN) cuts (BC) in L .
N
• We choose plane (AMN) which contains (MN) and which cuts (BCD)
B D
along (DL) .
I L
• In plane (ADL) , (MN) and (DL) intersect in I. I is the intersection of line C

(MN) with plane (BCD) .

7 SECTION OF A SOLID CUT BY A PLANE

To obtain the section of a solid limited by its faces and cut by a plane (P) :
• we determine the intersection lines of plane (P) with the plane of every face in the solid .
• we preserve the segments included in these faces .

EXAMPLE

ABCD is a tetrahedron , M is a point on edge [AC] , N on [AB] A

and P in face ACD. Determine the section of the tetrahedron cut N
by plane (MNP). .PI
M
• The planes (MNP) and (ABC) are intersecting along line (MN) .
B D
• M and P are two distinct points of two planes (ACD) and ( MNP)
so (MP) is their line of intersection . The two lines (MP) and (AD)
are in the same plane (ACD) , and they are not parallel, so they C

intersect at I .
• The segment [MN] is the intersection of (MNP) with face (ABC) .
• The segment [MI ] is the intersection of (MNP) with face (ACD) .
• The segment [NI] is the intersection of (MNP) with face (ABD) .
The section of the tetrahedron ABCD cut by plane (MNP) is triangle NMI .

340
 8 COMMENTARY EXERCISES

EXERCISE 1
Let ABCD be a tetrahedron.

1. Are lines (AB) and (CD) intersecting ?

A
2. Let I be a point on [AC] distinct from A and C, and J a point
on [BD] distinct from B and D .
a) Show that I and J are distinct. I
b) Are lines (IJ) and (AB) coplanar?
c) Same question for lines (IJ) and (CD) . B J D

SOLUTION
Remember that, from the definition of a tetrahedron, the vertices A , B , C , and D do not belong
to the same plane.

1. If lines (AB) and (CD) are intersecting, then they will be coplanar and this will make the four
points A , B , C and D coplanar also. (AD and BC are also skew)...
Similarly, it is clear that the two straight lines (AC) and (BD) on one hand and the two straight lines
(AD) and (BC) on the other hand are not coplanar.

2. a) The two points I and J are distinct otherwise the two straight lines (AC) and (BD) would
intersect, i.e coplanar.
b) If the two lines (IJ) and (AB) are coplanar, then the four points A, B, I, and J are in the same
plane (P ). So (BJ)  (P ) and (AI)  (P ).
Since (BJ) = (BD) and (AI) = (AC) , then points A, B, C, D lie in plane (P ); therefore ABCD is
not any more a tetrahedron. Hence, lines (IJ) and (AB) are non coplanar.
Similarly, lines (IJ) and (CD) are non coplanar.

341
 EXERCISE 2 A
In the plane of triangle ABC , the straight lines (PQ) and (BC) intersect
at M. What is the intersection of planes (BCD) and (PQD) ? P

SOLUTION B
We write:
C
M  (BCD) M
M  (BC) and (BC)  (BCD) then then (DM)  (BCD)
D  (BCD)
Similarly:
M  (PQ) and (PQ)  (PQD) then
M  (PQD)
D  (PQD) } then (DM)  (PQD)

CONCLUSION : the planes (BCD) and (PQD) intersect in line (DM).

EXERCISE 3
ABCD is a tetrahedron, I and J any two points on the edges [AD] and A
[AC]. The line (IJ) intersect (BCD) at K.

1. Show that points C , D and K are collinear. I

2. Determine and construct the intersection of the two planes (BIJ) J

and (BCD).
B

K
SOLUTION
1. To prove that C , D and K are collinear it is sufficient to prove that they belong to two
intersecting (distinct) planes.
K , C and D belong to plane (BCD).
Moreover, K , C and D belong to plane (ACD) [since K  (IJ) and (IJ)  (ACD).
So, the points K , C and D lie on the intersection of the two planes (BCD) and (ACD) which is a
straight line; therefore K , C and D are collinear.

342
 2. The two planes (BIJ) and (BCD), have point B in common, so they intersect along a line passing
through B.
Also, point K is another point which belongs to these two planes [since K  (BCD) (proved) and
K  (IJ)  (BIJ)].
Therefore, the intersection of (BIJ) and (BCD) is straight line (BK).

D
EXERCISE 4 H G
Trace the section of the
parallelepiped ABCDEFGH cut by
plane (PQR) where P belongs to E R
F
[EA], Q belongs to [AB] and R a D
P C
point of the face BCGF.

A Q B

SOLUTION
• In plane (ABFE), I is the intersection of (BF) and (PQ) and J is the intersection point of (EF) and
(PQ). The segment [PQ] is the intersection of (PQR) and face ABFE.
• In plane (BCGF), (IR) intersects (BC) , (CG) and (FG) in L , K and M respectively.
The segment [LK] is the intersection of (PQR) and face BCGF.
• In plane (EFGH), (MJ) intersects (HG) and (HE) respectively at N and T .
• The segment [NT] is the intersection of (PQR) and face EFGH.
• The segment [TP] is the intersection of (PQR) and face ADHE.
D • The segment [QL] is the intersection of (PQR) and face ABCD.
• The segment [KN] is the intersection of (PQR) and face DCGH.
The section cut by plane (PQR) is the hexagon PQLKNT.
M

H N
G

E K
J
F
R
P D C

A Q B

343
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

Exercises and problems

Test your knowledge

1 Consider the four non-coplanar points A,B,C and D.

1° Show that any three of these points are not collinear.

2° How many distinct planes can be determined by these 4 points taken three by three ?

3° Given three non-coplanar semi-straight lines [Ox), [Oy) and [Oz). Indicate the different planes
determined by these semi-lines taken two by two.

2 Given the right paving stone ABCD D′ C′

A′B′C′D′. E and F are the midpoints of [AB] and
[CD] respectively. A′ B′
O
1° Complete by ∈, ∉, ⊄, or  : D F
C
E .... (ABCD) C′ .... (ADD′A′)
D .... (ABB′A′) O .... (BC′D)
A E B
(AD) .... (D′DCC ′) (AB) .... (A′B′A)

2° Among the lines (A′C′ ), (AF), (EF), (A′D) and (DC ′) which one cuts the plane (BCC′B′) ?

3 Consider the cube below. The points H J G

indicated are the vertices and the midpoints of
some edges.

E I L
F
Study the relative positions of the straight lines :

1° (MK) and (DG). D C

K
2° (EH) and (KL).
N O
3° (EJ) and (KG).
A
4° (HB) and (AG). M B

344
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

4 Given below the tetrahedron ABCD. I is the midpoint of A

[BD] and J that of [AB]. K and L are any two points on [AC] and
[AD] respectively.
L
J

Answer by True or False.

K
1° I, J and K determine a plane. B D
I
2° I, K and L are collinear.

3° (AB) and (CD) are parallel. C

4° (IJ) and (AD) are coplanar.

5° (CB) and (DJ) are non-coplanar.

6° Point I belongs to plane (ACD).

7° The planes (AIJ) and (ABD) are confounded.

8° The lines (AB), (AC) and (AD) are coplanar.

9° (IJ) and (CD) are intersecting.

10° (JK) cuts plane (ACD).

11° The two planes (IJK) and (ABC) intersect along (JK).

12° The two planes (JKL) and (BCD) do not intersect.

5 SABCD is a pyramid of square base S

ABCD.

M is the midpoint of [SD] and N is a point on

N
→ 3→
[SB] such that SN =  SB . M
4
A B
Show that the straight lines (BD) and (MN) are

intersecting at a point L .

Draw this intersection point. D C

345
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

6 ABCD is a tetrahedron. A′ and B′ are the respective centers of gravity of faces BCD and ACD.
Show that (AA′) and (BB′) are coplanar and intersect at O.

7 Let ABCD be a tetrahedron. Designate by I and J the respective midpoints of [AC] and [AD].

1° Complete :
• (ACD)  (ABC) = ..................
• (BIJ)  (ACD) = ..................

2° Are the lines (AB) and (CD) intersecting ? Justify.

→ 1→
3° E is a point on (AB) such that AE =  AB .
3
a) Prove that (EI) and (BC) are intersecting in L and (EJ) and (BD) in T.
b) Deduce the intersection of (EIJ) and (BCD).

8 Two straight lines (D) and (D′) in a plane (P) intersect at O. A is a point outside (P). Determine
the intersection of the two planes A,(D) and A,(D′).

9 Let (D) and (Δ) be two non-coplanar straight lines. A is a point on (D) and B a point on (Δ).
Determine the intersection of the two planes A,(Δ) and B,(D).

10 (P) and (P′) are two intersecting planes at (xy). P

B
A and B are two points of (P), and C a point of (P′). A
x y
Determine the intersection of (ABC) with each of the
C
planes (P) and (P′). P′

11 ABCD is a regular tetrahedron of edge 8 cm.

Designate by I and J the respective midpoints of [CD] and [AB].

1° What is the nature of triangle of ABI ?

2° Calculate IJ.

3° Determine the intersection of the two planes (ABI) and (CDJ).

346
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

12 1° Construct in cavalier perspective a cube ABCDEFGH.

2° Determine the intersection of the two planes (BEG) and (AFC).

13 Show that, on the adjacent figure, (B′C′) and (BC) are intersecting A
at I, (B′D′) and (BD) are intersect-ing at J, (CD) and (C′D′) are
C′ D′
intersecting at K. B′
B
Deduce that I, J and K are collinear. D
C

14 Place, with justification, the intersection M

of (MB) with plane (P). A

I
O

15 Find the error in representing each of the following figures.

1° A 2° A 3° P

C′ (D)
y
D′
B D B C
A′
D F
P′
C x
I

347
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

16 Answer by True or False .

1° Three distinct points determine a plane.

2° A line and a point not on this line determine only one plane.

3° Through a point only one plane can pass.

4° Through 2 points, infinite planes can pass.

5° There exists only one plane containing two parallel lines.

6° Two straight lines in space which are not intersecting are parallel.

7° Two non-coplanar lines do not have common points.

For seeking

17 Construct, with justification, the intersection of the planes given in each of the following:

1°
A
G
E

F
B D

C
(EFG) ∩ (BCD) =........

2° 3° S
A

E
F
B D A B
D I
C
(E ∈ (ABC), F ∈ (ACD) C
(AEF) ∩ (BCD) = ... (SAD) ∩ (SBC) = ... and (SAC) ∩ (SBD) = ...

348
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

18 Construct, with justification, the 20 ABCD is a tetrahedron, E and F are the

intersection of line (EF) with plane (BCD) in respective midpoints of [AB] and [AC].
each of the following : 1° Determine I the intersection of line (EF) with
1° A plane (BCD).

2° Deduce the intersection of planes (EFD) and

E (BCD).
F
B 21 ABCD is a tetrahedron, E is the midpoint of
D
[AB] and G is the center of gravity of triangle ACD.

C 1° Determine the intersection I of (EG) and

plane (BCD).

2° Prove that the quadrilateral BDIC is a

2° A parallelogram.
F∈(ACD)
E
22 Given a plane (P). A, B and C are three

F non-collinear points not in (P) such that (AB),

B D (AC) and (BC) cut (P) at E, F and K respectively.

C Show that E, F and K are collinear.

23 ABCD is a tetrahedron. E,F and G are the

midpoints of [BD], [BC] and [CD] respectively.
3° A Show that the three planes (ABG), (ADF) and
E∈(ABC) and F∈(ACD) (ACE) have one line in common. Construct this
line.
E

F 24 Let (D) be a fixed line and a point A not

B D on (D). Determine the set of lines (Δ) passing
through A and (D).
C
25 Let (D) and (D′) be 2 lines and A a point
neither on (D) nor on (D′). Construct, if possible,
the line passing through A cutting at the same
19 ABCDEFGH is a cube and L is the
time (D) and (D′) in each of the following two
midpoint of [GH]. cases :
Determine point T the intersection of line (AL) 1° (D) and (D′) are coplanar.
and plane (BCGF). 2° (D) and (D′) are non-coplanar.

349
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

26 Construct in each of the following cases the section of the tetrahedron ABCD cut by plane (MNP).

1° 2°
A A

N
B D B D
P P

C C

3° 4°
A A

N
M
M
D P D
B B

P N

C (M and N are in C (M is in
face ACD) face ACD)

350
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

27 Construct in each of the following cases the section of the cube ABCDEFGH cut by plane (MNP).

1° 2°
H G H P G

E F E F
N
M

M
D P D
C C

A B A B

3° 4°
H G H N G

M M

E F E F

N P
D D
C C

A B A B

351
 STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

To go further

I Consider a cube ABCDEFGH of edge 3cm.

1° What is the position of lines (CE) and (AG) ?

2° Show that BDE is an equilateral triangle.

II ABCD is a tetrahedron. M, N and P are three points on [AD], [AC] and [AB] such that
→ 2→
AM =  AD .
3
→ 3→ → 1→
AN =  AC and AP =  AB . Denote by E the midpoint of [CD].
4 3

1° Determine and construct the line of intersection of the two planes (BMN) and (BCD).

2° Let G be the center of gravity of triangle BCD. Determine and construct the line of intersection of the
two planes (ABG) and (ACD).

3° Determine and construct the line of intersection of the two planes (BME) and (ABC).

4° Show that the lines (MP), (MN) and (NP) intersect respectively the lines (BD), (CD) and (BC) at I, J
and K.

Show that I, J and K are collinear.

III ABCD is a tetrahedron, (P) is the plane containing the face BCD. (Δ) is a line in (P) that intersects
the lines (BC), (CD) and (BD) respectively at D′, B′ and C ′. M is a point on side [AC] such that
→ 2→
AM =  AC . (Q) is the plane defined by line (Δ) and the point M.
3
1° Determine and construct the intersection of planes (Q) and (ABC).

2° Determine the point I intersection of line (AD) and plane Q. Justify.

3° Determine and construct the intersection of planes (Q) and (ABD).

4° a) Show that the lines (MD′) and (AB) intersect at a point K.

b) Deduce that the points K, C ′ and I are collinear.

352
22
PARALLEL STRAIGHT
LINES AND PLANES
A brief history
Archimedes was a greek wiseman, born in 287 B.C, and died in 212
B.C., in Syracuse. He was a student of Euclid. Many results in
physics and mathematics were done by him. He found in particular
the exact relations between the volumes of a cylinder and a sphere.

Legend says that at the time of the fall of Syracuse, Archimedes was
killed by a roman soldier while drawing geometric figures on the
ground : concentrating, he would not have answered the call of the
soldier.

PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITY

COURSE

1. Parallel straight lines

2. Parallel straight line and plane
3. Parallel planes
4. Commentary exercise
5. Projection on a plane parallel to a given direction

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«At night, a nothing, a swan that moves on.

Little breeze, the leaves that stop falling,
Roman soldier calling Archamides
A beautiful detail, a magical time, when Syracuse fell.
For a look that has never understood space.» Roman mosaic.
Paul Éluard
353
 1° Construct, in cavalier perspective a tetrahedron ADEL .

2° Let M , N and O be the respective midpoints of segments [AD], [AL] and [AE]. Explain why
line (MN) is parallel to line (DL).
What can you say about lines (ON) and (EL) ?

3° Are the two planes (MON) and (DEL) intersecting ?

4° What is the intersection of the planes (AED) and (MON) ?

Same question for the planes (AED) and (DEL).
Compare the direction of these two lines.

MATH in life...
it is an approximation of a sphere by a polyhedron. The
skeleton of a radiolaire, tiny marine organisms, is
constructed similarly. It is also a polyhedroon, made of
hexagons, with a few square faces, pentagons and
heptagons (no arrangement of hexagons can cover a
closed surface).

Photograph of the skeleton of a

«radiolaire» seen with an Electronic
microscope.
The Geode
and radiolaires
The Geode, movie theatre found in
the City of Sciences and the
Industry of the Villette of Paris,
seems perfectly spherical. In reality,

354
 In this part, all the properties are illustrated using the cube ABCDEFGH with I, J, K and L
the respective midpoints of [EH], [AD], [HG] and [CD].

H K G

E F

C
D L

A B (fig 1)

1 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES

1° Definition
Two straight lines are parallel if they are coplanar and not intersecting.
In (fig 1) (EF) is parallel to (AB), (EA) is parallel to (CG) etc....
(D′)
2° Properties
 Through a point in space, one and only one line can be drawn
parallel to a given line.
×
 Two straight lines parallel to a third line are parallel to each A
other.
(D)
In (fig 1), (AE) is parallel to (BF) and (CG) is parallel to (BF),
therefore (AE) is parallel to (CG).
 If two straight lines are parallel, every plane which cuts one
of them cuts the other. (D) (D′)
In (fig 1) the plane (ABCD) cuts the parallel straight lines (AE),
(DH), (CG) and (BF) respectively at A, D, C and B.
A′
A
P

355
 Remark

Angle of two non-coplanar straight lines (D′2)

We call angle of two non-coplanar straight lines, the
one obtained by drawing through any point in space the (D′1)
A
parallels to these 2 straight lines. This angle may also be
obtained by drawing through a point on one of them a (D1)
parallel to the other.

These two straight lines are said to be orthogonal if (D2)

their angle is right.

In (fig 1), the angle of (AE) and (BC) is that of (BF) and
(BC). (AE) and (BC) are orthogonal since their angle is (D′1)
right.
(D1)

A (D2)

2 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINE AND PLANE

1° Definition (D)
A line is parallel to a plane if they have no points in
common.

2° Properties
P
 Every line parallel to a line contained in a plane is
parallel to this plane or contained in it.
(D)
In (fig. 1), (EF) is parallel to (AB), so it is parallel to plane
(ABCD).

(D′)

356
 If a straight line (D) is parallel to a plane (P), every (D)
plane (Q) passing through (D) and cutting (P), cuts it (Q)
along a line (D′′) parallel to (D).

In (fig 1), (EF) is parallel to (ABCD). The plane (AEFB) A (D′)

containing (EF) intersects (ABCD) along (AB) parallel to
P
(EF).

 If two straight lines are parallel, every plane parallel to

one of them is parallel to the other or containing the other (D′)
(D)
line.

In (fig1), (EF) is parallel to (HG). The plane (ABCD) being

parallel to (EF) is parallel to (HG).
P

 If a straight line is parallel to a plane, every line parallel

to this straight line and passing through a point of the
plane, is contained in this plane. (D)

In (fig1), (EF) is parallel to plane (ABCD). Line (DC) passing

through D and parallel to (EF) is contained in plane (ABCD).
(D′)
P

 Every line parallel to two intersecting planes is parallel

to their line of intersection. P
(D′)
In (fig1), (BF) is parallel to the two planes (ADHE) and Q
(CDHG), hence (BF) is parallel to their intersection (DH). (D)

357
  If two intersecting planes pass through 2 parallel
straight lines then their line of intersection is parallel to
these two lines.
(D2)
In (fig1), the two intersecting planes (ADHE) and (CDHG) (D)
(D1)
pass through the 2 parallels (IJ) and (KL), hence their
Q
intersection (DH) is parallel to these two lines.
P

Constructions
Let (D) and (D′) be two non-coplanar straight lines of the space.

1° Through (D′) one and only one plane can be

drawn parallel to (D) ; this plane is obtained by (D)
drawing through any point A of (D′) the parallel (Δ)
to (D) .
The plane (P) is determined by the two intersecting
(Δ)
straight lines (D′) and (Δ). (since (D) is parallel to (Δ)
then it is parallel to (P)).
A
(D′)
P

2° Through any point I of the space not belonging to

(D)
(D) or (D′).
This plane is obtained by drawing through I the
parallels (D1) and (D′1) respectively to (D) and (D′). (D′)
It is then determined by the intersecting lines (D1)
(D1)
and (D′1).

I
(D1′)
P

358
 3 PARALLEL PLANES

1° Definition
Two distinct planes are parallel if they don’t have a point in
P
common.
In (fig1), the two planes (ABCD) and (EFGH) are parallel.
P′

2° Properties
(D)
 If two planes are parallel, every line in one of them is
P
parallel to the other.
In (fig1), (CDHG) is parallel to plane (ABFE). The straight
line (KL) being included in (CDHG) is parallel to (ABFE). P′

 If a plane (P) contains two intersecting lines parallel to

another plane (P′′), then (P) is parallel to (P′′).
P

P′

(D)
P
 Two planes parallel to a third plane are parallel to each
other.
Q

 If two planes are parallel, every straight which is (D1)

(D2)
parallel to one of them is parallel to the other and every
straight line which cuts one of them cuts the other also. A
•
P

B•
P′

359
  If two planes are parallel every plane which cuts one of
them cuts the other and their intersections are parallel :
Q
(Q) cuts the parallel planes (P) and (P′) along the parallel
B
straight lines (AB) and (CD).
P
In (fig1), the plane (IKLJ) cuts the parallel planes (ABCD) A
and (EFGH) along the parallel straight lines (JL) and (IK).
C
P′
D

 Two parallel planes cut off equal segments on two

parallel straight lines :

the parallel straight lines (D) and (D′) determine a plane B

A
which cuts the parallel planes (P) and (P′) along two parallel P
straight lines (AB) and (DC). Since (AD) is parallel to (BC),
then ABCD is a parallelogram, then AD = BC.
C
D
P′

(D) (D′)

Construction
Through any point A of the space, only one plane can pass
parallel to a given plane (P). A (D′1)
• (D′2)
Q
It is sufficient to draw from A two straight lines (D′1) and
(D′2) respectively parallel to two intersecting lines (D1) and
(D2) of (P).
(D1)
P (D2)

360
 4 COMMENTARY EXERCISE (Thales’ theorem in space)

(D) (D1) (Δ)

Δ) are
(P1), (P2) and (P3) are three parallel planes. (D) and (Δ
A
two non-coplanar straight lines which cut respectively these P1 A′
three planes at A′′, B ′, C ′ and A,B,C.
Prove that : B1
A′′B′′ AB P2 B′ B
=.
A′′C ′ AC C1

The parallel (D1) to (D) passing through A cuts (P2) at B1 and (P3) P3 C′ C

at C1 .
• The plane formed by the two parallel lines (D) and (D1) intersects respectively (P1), (P2) and (P3)
along the parallel lines (A′A), (B′B1) and (C ′C1).
• The planes (P1), (P2) and (P3) determine on the parallel lines (D) and (D1) equal segments : A′B′
= AB1 and A′C ′ = AC1.
• The plane formed by the two intersecting lines (D1) and (Δ) cuts respectively (P2) and (P3) along
the parallel lines (B1B) and (C1C).
AB1 AB
• Thales’ theorem applied on the plane (D1) , (Δ) gives :  =  .
AC1 AC
A′B′ AB
Since A′B′ = AB1 and A′C ′ = AC1, then :  =  .
A′C′ AC

Thales and Descartes

This is how descartes applies thale’s theorem in calculating a product x • y .
1. First, he draws two straight lines (d) and (d ′) that intersect in O.
2. On (d), the point A marks the unit; while point B corresponds to the value of x.
3. On (d ′), the point C corresponds to y (with the same unit).
D
4. It is sufficient now to draw the straight line (AC) and a parallel straight line
to (AC) passing through B: which intersects the straight line (OC) in point D
C
so that : OD = x • y . xy

in fact,  1
OD x
= y
y

The numbers corresponding to a length we can construct with a ruler and A B

(d ) O 1
a compass are called constructible numbers.
(d′) x

361
 5 PROJECTION ON A PLANE ALONG A GIVEN
DIRECTION

1° Definition
( P ) is a plane and (Δ) a line not parallel to this plane.
The parallel drawn to (Δ) through any point A of the (Δ)
•A
space cuts (P) at A′. A′ is called the projection of A
Δ).
on (P) along (Δ

•A′
P

• If A is a point of (P) , it coincides with its projection A′.

• If (Δ) is parallel to (P) , the projection of A along (Δ) does not exist.

• If p designates the projection along (Δ), we write p(A) = A′′.

• The projection of a figure F is the figure F′ formed by the projection of all the points of F.

2° Properties
 The projection of a straight line is, in general, a straight line. If this straight line is parallel to the
plane, then its projection is a line which is parallel to it. (see exercise 25)

 The projections of two parallel straight lines are parallel to each other. (see exercise 26)

362
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

Exercises and problems

4
Test your knowledge ABCDEFGH is a cube.

1° Prove that [EC] and [DF] intersect at their

Parallel lines midpoint.
Lines parallel to a plane
2° Determine and construct the intersection line

1 ABCD is a tetrahedron. A′ and B′ are the (IJ) of the two planes (ABG) and (EFC). What
can you say about the direction of (IJ) ? Justify.
centers of gravity of BCD and ACD respectively.

Show that (A′B′) is parallel to (AB). 5 Given three parallel straight lines (D1),
(D2) and (D3). Consider, respectively on these
2 On the adjacent tetrahedron, I, J, K and L lines the points A and A′, B and B ′, C and C ′
are the respective midpoints of [AB], [AC], [AD] such that AA′ = 2cm, BB′ = 4cm and CC ′ = 3cm.
and [JC].
1° Prove that (AB) and (A′B′) intersect in E,
A (AC) and (A′C ′) intersect in F, (BC) and (B′C ′)
intersect in K.

I• •
K 2° Prove that E, F and K are collinear.
J•
B •L D 6 Let (P) be a plane and ( AB ) a line
parallel to (P). M and N are two points of (P).
C
What can you say about the straight lines (d) and
1° What is the relative position of (BC) with
(d′) the respective intersections of (P) with the
respect to plane (IJK) ?
planes (ABM) and (ABN) ?
2° Is (JK) parallel to (BCD) ? In which case the straight lines (d) and (d′) are
Why ? coinciding ? ?
3° Is (KL) parallel to (BCD) ?
Why ?
7 OABCD is a pyramid of base the
parallelogram ABCD.
3 (P) and (Q) are two planes intersecting
1° Determine the intersection of planes (OAD)
along line (xy).
and (OBC), (OAB) and (OCD), (OAC) and (OBD).
(D) is a line in (P) parallel to (xy) and A a point
of (Q) not on (xy). 2° Let A′ be the midpoint of [OA]. Determine
Determine and construct the intersection of the intersection of planes (A′BC) and (OAD) and
planes A,(D) and (Q). the intersection of planes (A′BC) and (ODC) .

363
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

Parallel planes

→ 1→
8 ABCD is a tetrahedron. I , J and K are points of [AB] , [AC] and [AD] such that AI =  AB ,
3
→ 1→ → 1→
AJ =  AC and AK =  AD .
3 3
Prove that the two planes (IJK) and (BCD) are parallel.

9 ABCDEFGH is a cube. Designate by I , J and K the respective midpoints of the edges [EA] , [EF]
and [EH] .
Prove that the planes (IJK) and (AFH) are parallel.

10 On the cube ABCDEFGH represented M is a point on [AE], N a H G

point on [BF] and P a point on [CG].
E F P
1° Represent, on the figure, the points of intersection of lines (MN)
and (NP) with each of the planes (EFGH) and (ABCD). M
D C
2° What are the intersections of plane (MNP) with the planes (EFGH)
N
and (ABCD)? A B

11 Consider the rectangle ABCD in a plane (P). Let S be a point outside S

(P). A′ is the midpoint of [SA] and B′ that of [SB].

1° Complete the adjacent figure. D C

2° Show that (A′B′) is parallel to (P). A B
P
3° Let C ′ be the midpoint of segment [SC].
Prove that (A′B′C ′) is parallel to (P).

4° a) Plane (A′B′C ′) cut [SD] at D′ . Show that (A′D′) is parallel to (AD).

b) What can you say about D′ ? Justify.

12 ABCD is a parallelogram, [Ax) , [By) , [Cz) and [Dt) are four parallel semi-straight lines and to the
same side of the plane (P) of this parallelogram.
Let (P′) be a plane parallel to (P) which intersect respectively these four semi-lines at A′, B′, C′ and D′.
Prove that A′B′C ′D′ is a parallelogram.

364
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

13 Answer by True or False .

1° Two straight lines parallel to the same plane are parallel to each other.

2° Two straight lines parallel to the same plane determine a plane (Q) parallel to (P).

3° If two planes are parallel, every line in one of them is parallel to all the lines in the other.

4° There exists a unique straight line passing through a point and parallel to a given plane.

5° If two planes (P) and (Q) are parallel to the same line (D), then (P) is parallel to (Q).

Projection

14 ABCDEFGH is a right parallelepiped. H

G
We call p the projection on plane (ABCD) along line
(HB). E
F
D C
1° Place the points E ′, F ′, G′ and H ′ defined by :
A
E ′ = p(E), F ′ = p(F), G′ = p(G) and H′ = p(H). B

2° Prove that the lines (E ′F ′) and (AB) are parallel and that E ′F ′ = AB.

For seeking

15 OABC is a tetrahedron. E, F and K are the respective midpoints of [OA], [OB], and [OC] ; A′, B′
and C ′ are the symmetrics of E, F and K with respect to O.

1° Show that the 2 planes (ABC) and (A′B′C ′) are parallel.

2° Determine the intersection of the planes (ABC) and (AB′C ′).

3° If O varies, prove that the line joining O and I ′ the midpoint of [A′B′] passes through a fixed point.

16 (P) and (P′) are two parallel planes.

A , B and C are three non-cllinear points of (P). A′ , B′ and C ′ are three non-collinear of (P′).

1° Determine the intersection of (AA′C ′) and (P) and the intersection of (BCB′) and (P′).

2° Then deduce the intersection of planes (AA′C ′) and (BB′C).

365
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

17 ABCD is a parallelogram.

[Ax) , [By) , [Cz) and [Dt) are four parallel semi-straight lines to the same side of plane (P) of this

parallelogram. A plane (Q) cuts respectively these semi-lines at M , N , P and R .

   
1° a) Prove that the planes [Ax) , [By) and [Cz) , [Dt) are parallel.

  
b) Same question for the planes [Ax) , [Dt) and [Cz) , [By) . 
2° Prove that the quadrilateral MNPR is a parallelogram.

3° Let O be the meeting point of the diagonals of parallelogram MNPR.

Determine the direction of line (OI).

18 ABCD is a tetrahedron and L a point of [AD]. The plane (P) passing through L and parallel to plane
(ABC) cuts (BD) and (CD) at M and N.

1° Prove that (MN) is parallel to (BC).

2° The plane (Q) passing through L and parallel to plane (BCD) cuts (AB) and (AC) at I and J. Prove
that (IJ) is parallel to (BC).

3° What is the nature of quadrilateral IJNM ?

4° If L is the midpoint of [AD], what is the nature of IJNM ?

5° (P) and (Q) intersect along (d). Compare the directions of (d) and (BC).

19 ABCD is a tetrahedron. Consider plane (R) passing through a point M of edge [BC] such that
BM = x and parallel to lines (AB) and (CD).

1° Construct the intersections [MN], [NQ], [PQ] and [MP] of (R) with faces ABC , ACD, ABD and BCD
respectively. What is the nature of the section thus obtained?

2° Prove that, as x varies, the perimeter of MNPQ remains contant where

AB = CD = 6cm and BC = 8cm.

3° If (AB) is orthogonal to (CD), what is the nature of MNPQ?

366
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

20 On the adjacent cube ABCDEFGH, I and H G

J are any two points of [EH] and [CG]
J
respectively. I
E F
1° Determine the intersection [JK] of plane
(AIJ) with face BCGF.
D C
2° Determine the intersection [IL] of plane (AIJ)
with face EFGH .

3° Then, what is the section of the cube cut by A B

plane (AIJ) ?

21 ABCDEFGH is a right parallelopiped ; I, J, H L G

K and L are any points on [EF], [FG], [FB] and
E J
[HG]. I F
Determine the intersection of the parallelopiped
with plane (S) passing through L and parallel to
D C
(IJK). K

A
B

22 Construct the section of the a) b)

cube ABCDEFGH cut by plane
(IJK) in each of the following cases : H G H J G
•
K• I•
E E
F F

D I D
•
•J C C
K•
A B A B
J ∈ (ABCD)

23 ABCDEFGH is a cube ; P, Q and R are the respective midpoints of [EH], [EF] and [EA].
Determine the intersection of the cube with plane (S) passing through F and parallel to (PQR).
What is the nature of this obtained section ?

367
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

24 Construct the section of cube ABCDEFG cut by plane (MNP) in each of the following cases:

1° 2°
G H G P H

E E
F F

N
N
D D M
C C

A A
B B

25 Let (P) be a plane, (Δ) a line not parallel to (P) and (D) any line in space, A is a point on (D) and
not in (P). Let p be the projection on (P) along (Δ). Let A′ = p(A) and (Q) the plane determined by (D)
and (AA′). The plane (Q) cuts (P) along (D′). (Q) is called the projecting plane of (D).

1° What is the position of (Q) with respect to (Δ)?

2° a) If B is a point of (D), other than A, and not in (P), construct, with justification, the point B′ = p(B).
b) Deduce the image of (D) by p and line (D′).

3° If (D) is parallel to (Δ), determine p(D).

4° Answer by True or False .

a) The projection of a line by p is always a line.
b) If (D′) = p(D) then (D) and (D′) are non coplanar.
c) In the case where (D) is parallel to (P), p(D) = (D′) is parallel to (D).
d) We can find a point M in space such that p(M) = A′.
e) If E ′ is a point of (P), there exists at least one point E in space such that p(E) = E′.
f) If given two distinct points M1 and M2 , we can have p(M1) = p(M2).

368
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

26 Let (P) be a plane. (Δ) is a line not parallel to (P), (D1) and (D2) are two parallel lines but not
parallel to (Δ) and p is the projection on (P) along (Δ).

1° Construct the planes (Q1) and (Q2) the projecting planes of (D1) and (D2) respectively and determine
the projections (D′1) and (D′2) of (D1) and (D2) by p.

2° Prove that (Q1) is parallel to (Q2) and deduce that (D′1) is parallel to (D′2).
State then the obtained result (It is a property).

27 Let (P) be a plane , (Δ) a line not parallel to (P) and p the projection on (P) along (Δ).

1° Prove that ABCD is a parallelogram not contained in (P), and that p(ABCD) is, in general, a
parallelogram.
In which case is this projection not a parallelogram ? Then it is what ?

2° Prove that if I is the midpoint of [AC] then I ′ = p(I) is the midpoint of p([AC]).

28 ABC is a triangle in a plane (P) and D a point outside (P).

Let p be the projection on (P) along a direction (Δ) and D′ = p(D). Determine the direction (Δ) so that
the quadrilateral BCAD′ is a parallelogram admitting [AB] and [CD′] as diagonals.

To go further

I In the adjacent figure ABCDEFGH is a cube with edge 10cm. M is the midpoint of [AB].
1° a) Calculate MD, ME and ED. Deduce the nature of triangle MED.
H G
b) Calculate the length of the median [DI] in triangle DEM.
2° a) What is the nature of quadrilateral EFCD ?
b) Show that (CF) is parallel to plane (EMD). E F
c) Determine and construct the intersection of planes (MED) and (BCGF).
3° a) Show that the planes (EGD) and (AFC) are parallel. D
C
b) Determine the intersection of the two planes (EFG) and (AFC).
c) If O and L are respectively the centers of the squares EFGH and ABCD,
then show that (OL) is parallel to plane (ADHE).
A M B

369
 PARALLEL STRAIGHT LINES AND PLANES

II In the adjacent rectangular parallelepiped, the H K

G
points I, J and K are the midpoints of edges.

1° Show that (JK) is parallel to plane (ABCD).

E F
2° Show that B, C, K and J are coplanar in a plane (P). J
D
C
3° Show that (IH) is parallel to plane (P).

4° Show that (DI) and (BC) are parallel.

5° Find the intersection of plane (DIH) with each of the A I B

planes (EFGH) and (BCGF).

III SABCD is a pyramid with trapezoid ABCD as base such S

→ 3 →
that AB =  DC .
4
→ →
Let I be a point on [SD] such that SD = 3SI . I

The plane (Q) containing (BI) and parallel to (AD), intersects

[CD] at L and [SA] at K.
A
1° Show that (IK) is parallel to plane (ABCD). D

2° What is the nature of quadrilateral BLIK ?

3° (BK) and (LI) intersect at T. B

Show that (ST) is parallel to plane (ABCD). C

IV ABCDEF is a right prism, I is the midpoint of [AB]. F E

1° Let (Δ) be the parallel to (BF) passing in I.
D
a) Show that (Δ) is a line contained in (ABF).
b) Determine the point H intersection of (Δ) with plane (ACFD).
C B
2° Determine the intersection of planes (DEH) and (ABF).
I
3° Draw the intersection of plane (DEH) with the prism. A

370
23
STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

A brief history
The idea of the relation between the quantities is very old. The babylonians tables gave the
square of a number and the astronomical tables of Greeks are the first approaches of
functions.
Nicole Oresme (1323-1382) uses a diagram giving a velocity in terms of time, but his study
of the function remains summarized.
In 1614, John Neper invents the first purely abstract function (logarithmic function).
The algebraic formalism and the analytic geometry of Descartes permit the link between a
curve and function.
Newton associates the function to a movement where the variable x is associated to time.
Leibniz called function any line having a function in a figure.
In 1748, Léonard Euler treated with the concept of function. He defined a function of
variable quantity as : «an analytic expression composed of some manner either of same
quantity and of numbers, or of constant quantities».
The notation f(x) of a function is given by him.
Since 1755, Lagrange keeps a mathematic correspondance with Euler on the calculation
of variations.
Léonhard Euler,
He presents many methods in his “Leçons sur le calcul des fonctions” in 1799.
Swiss mathematician Fourier (1768-1830) widened the concept of function to “arbitrary” functions, i.e. where
(1707-1783), has the curve is drawn arbitrarily.
dedicated more than 900 At XVIIIth century, the idea of function is also intuitive and is not a subject to be studied.
papers to mathematics, The research of a rigorous definition of the notion of function conducts Cauchy (1789-
mecanics, astronomy, 1857), then Cantor (1845-1918) to construct function which do not have any physical
music and even to the meaning. They are defined from their properties and not from their analytic expression.
theory of insurance
policies.
PLAN OF THE CHAPTER

PRELIMINARY ACTIVITIES

COURSE

A Reference functions B Functions leading to

1. Affine function : x a ax + b reference functions

2. Absolute value function : x a |x| 1. Function of type x a – f(x)

3. Squared function : x a x2 2. Function of type
x a f(x) + a (a ≠ 0)
4. Irrational function : x a x
1 3. Function of type
5. Inverse function : x a 
x x a f(x+a) (a ≠ 0)

EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS

«There is no beautiful drawing, nor beautiful color : there is only one

beauty, the revealing truth...»
Auguste Rodin

371
 Activity 1

f is the function defined by f (x) = x2 .

1° Complete the following table :
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
f(x) = x2
→ →
2° Plot, in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ), the points (x ; x2) of the table above, then draw (P)
representative curve of f over [–3 ; 3].
3° g →
is the
→
function defined by g(x) = x2 + 2 and (P ′) is its representative curve in the same system
(O ; i , j ).
a) We notice that g(x) = f (x) + 2.
To plot, using (P), the point A′ of (P′) with abscissa –1, we increase 2 to the ordinate of point A of
(P) with abscissa –1. Plot A′.
b) Plot, using the same procedure, the points B′ and C′ of (P′) with respective abscissas –2 and +2.
c) Set the table of variations of g over [–3 ; 3] and plot (P′).

Activity 2
1
f is the function defined by f (x) =  .
x
1° For what values of x, is f defined ?
2° Complete the following table :
x –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
1
f (x) = x
→ →
 
1
3° Plot, in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ), the points x ;  of the table above, then draw (H)
x
the representative curve of f over [–3 ; 0[  ]0 ; 3].
1
4° g is the function defined by g(x) = –  and (H ′) is its representative curve in the same system
x → →
(O ; i , j ).
a) We notice that g(x) = – f (x).
To plot, using (H), the point A′ of (H ′ ) with abscissa –1, we take the opposite of ordinate of point
A of (H) with abscissa –1. Plot A′.
b) Plot, using the same procedure, the points B′ and C′ of (H ′ ) with respective abscissas –2 and
+2.
c) Set the table of variations of g over [–3 ; 0[  ]0 ; 3] and plot (H ′).

372
 A Reference functions

1 AFFINE FUNCTION : x a ax + b

1° Definition
a and b being two real numbers, we call affine function the function f defined over  by : f(x) =
ax +b.

• If b = 0, then f(x) = ax and f is called a linear function.

• If a = 0, then f(x) = b and f is called a constant function.

The graphical representation of an affine function is a straight line. In particular, the graph of a
linear function is a straight line passing through the origin.

In y = f(x) = ax + b, a is called the director coefficient of the straight line representing f and b is
the y-intercept.

EXAMPLE

Consider the affine function f such that f(x) = 2x +1.

B
Its graph is a straight line passing through the
points A(0,1) and B(1,3)
→ →
in a system (O ; i , j ) of the plane. A
→
j
O →
i

(D)

Remark
Consider the affine defined over  by y = f(x) = ax + b. For the two distinct reals x1 and x2
correspond respectively y1 = f(x1) = ax1 + b and
y2 = f(x2) = ax2 + b.
y1 – y2
If we subtract side by side we obtain : a =  = l(x1) – f(x2) .
x1 – x2  x –x
1 2
The director coefficient a is also the rate of change of the function f.

373
 2° Sense of variation
• If a = 0, then f (x) = b : f is constant.
• If a < 0, so the rate of change of f is negative : then f is strictly decreasing.
• If a > 0, so the rate of change of f is positive : then f is strictly increasing.
→ →
Table of variation and graphical representation in a system (O; i , j ) of the plane.

• If a = 0 • If a > 0 • If a < 0
f(x) = b = constant f is increasing on  f is decreasing on 

x -∞ 0 +∞ x -∞ 0 +∞ x -∞ 0 +∞
+∞ +∞
f(x) b f(x) b f(x) b
-∞ −∞

y y y

b b b

→ → →
j x′ j x′ j x
→
x′ O i x O →
i x O →
i

y′ y′ y′

2 ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION : x a | x |

Consider the function f defined by f(x) = |x|.

x if x  0
We know that : f(x) = |x| = 
–x if x  0
.
f is then defined on  .

Parity
 is centered at O. For every real x, we have : f (–x) = |–x| = |x| = f (x).
→ →
f is then even and its representative curve in an orthonormal system (O; i , j ) admits the y-axis as
axis of symmetry.

374
Variations y

• For x  0, f(x) = x ; f is of the form f(x) = ax with a =1 > 0 ;

f is then increasing.
Its graphical representation is a semi-straight line passing through the →
origin of the system. x′ j x
→
• For x  0, f(x) = –x ; f is of the form f(x) = ax with a = –1 < 0 ; f is O i
then decreasing. Its graphical representation is a semi-straight line
passing through the origin.
y′
Table of variation

x −∞ 0 +∞
+∞ +∞
f(x) 0

3 SQUARE FUNCTION : x a x2

The square function f is defined on  by f(x) = x2.

Parity
 is centered at O. For every real x, we have : f(–x) = (–x)2 = x2 = f(x) ; f is then even and its
→ →
representative curve in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) admits the y-axis as axis of symmetry.

Variations
x1 and x2 are two reals of [0, +∞[ such that x1 < x2, so x12 < x22,
therefore f (x1) < f (x2).
f is then increasing over [0, +∞[.
f is decreasing over ]– ∞, 0]. Indeed, for two any reals x1 and x2 of ]–∞, 0] such that x1 < x2 we
have x12 > x22, which gives f (x1) > f (x2).
We notice that f(x) becomes larger by giving to x sufficiently large values. For example, for x =
10200, f (x) = 10400.
We say that f(x) tends to + ∞ as x tends to + ∞ and by symmetry f(x) tends to + ∞ as x tends to –
∞.

x −∞ 0 +∞
Table of variation +∞ +∞
f(x) 0
(minimum)
The square function admits then at O a minimum which is f(0) = 0.

375
 → →
Graphical representation in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ).

• This curve is called parabola. y

• The origin of the system is called the vertex of the 4

• •
parabola.
3
• The y-axis is an axis of symmetry of this parabola.
2

1
• •
→
j
→
x′ −2 −1 O i 1 2 x
y′
Remark

Functions x → ax2 (a real different from zero)

The concavity of the representative curve of the function f defined on  by f(x) = ax2 depends on
the sign of a.

This curve is called also parabola.

a>0 a<0
x −∞ 0 +∞ x −∞ 0 +∞
+∞ +∞
2 f(x) = ax2 0
f(x) = ax 0 −∞ (maximum) −∞
(minimum)

y y

a
1
x′ O x
→
j

→
x′ O i 1 x a

y′ y′

376
 4 IRRATIONAL FUNCTION : x a x

• The positive square root function f is defined over [0, +∞[ by f(x) = x .

• x1 and x2 are any two reals such that 0  x1 < x2 , then 0  x1 < x2 , hence f(x1) < f(x2).
f is then strictly increasing on [0, +∞[.

• We notice that f(x) becomes larger by giving to x sufficiently large values. For example, for x =
10400, f(x) = 10200.
We say then that f(x) tends to +∞ as x tends to +∞.

x 0 +∞
• Table of variation
+∞
f(x) =x
0
→ →
Representative curve in an orthonormal system (O; i , j ).

3 .
2.
1.
→

x′ O →
j

i 1
. . . . . . . . . x
4 9

y′

377
 1
5 INVERSE FUNCTION : x a 
x
1
The inverse function f is defined over ]−∞,0[ ∪ ]0,+∞[ by f(x) =  since 0 does not have an image
x
by f.

Parity
The domain of definition of f is centered at 0 and for every real x different from 0, we have :
1 1
f(–x) =  = –  = –f(x).
–x x
→ →
f is then odd and its representative curve in a system (O ; i , j ) admits the origin O as center of
symmetry.

Variations
1 1
x1 and x2 are two reals of ]0,+∞[ such that x1 < x2, then  >  , hence f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2
f is then decreasing over ]0,+∞[.
f is again decreasing over ]−∞,0[.
1 1
Indeed, for any two reals x1 and x2 of ]−∞,0[ such that x1< x2 we have :  >  , so f(x1) > f(x2).
x1 x2

Remarks
• f(x) becomes smaller (approaches zero) by giving to x sufficiently large values. For example, for
1
x = 10200, f(x) =  .
10200
We say then that f(x) tends to 0 as x tends to +∞ . By symmetry f(x) tends to 0 as x tends to − ∞.
The x-axis whose equation is y = 0 is called horizontal asymptote to the representative curve of
the inverse function.
• f(x) becomes larger by giving to x sufficiently small values (approaches zero). For example, for
1
x = 10–200, f(x) =  = 10200.
10–200
We say then that f(x) tends to +∞ as x tends to 0 (x > 0).
By symmetry f(x) tends to –∞ as x tends to 0 (x < 0).
The y-axis whose equation is x = 0 is called vertical asymptote to the representative curve of the
inverse function.

378
 Table of variation x −∞ 0 +∞
1 0 +∞
f(x) = 
x −∞ 0
→ →
Graphical representation in an orthonormal system (O; i , j ).

This curve is called hyperbola. y

The origin of the system is a center of symmetry of the

1
hyperbola. 0.5
−2 −1 →
j →
i
x′
O 1 2
-0.5 x
−1

y′
Remarks

Functions x a  (a real different from zero).

a
x
The concavity of the representative curve of the function f defined over ]–∞,0[ ∪ ]0, +∞[ by
a
f(x) =  depends on the sign of a.
x
This curve is also called hyperbola.

a>0 a<0
x −∞ 0 +∞ x −∞ 0 +∞
0 +∞ +∞ 0
a a
f(x) =  −∞ 0 f(x) =  0 −∞
x x

y y

a• •−a

• •
→ →
−1 j j 1 x
x′
• O i → • x x′
• O i → •
1 -1

•− a a•

y′ y′

379
 B Functions leading to reference functions

1 FUNCTION OF TYPE x a – f (x)

1° Example

Consider the function g defined over [0, +∞[ by g(x) = –x and (C) its representative curve in an
→ →
orthonormal system (O; i , j ).

We have already drawn the curve (C ′) representing the function f defined over [0,+∞[ by f(x) = x .

For every point M ′ of (C ′) of coordinates (x,x) corresponds the point M of (C) of coordinates (x,–x).

M and M ′ having the same abscissa x but opposite ordinates, are symmetric of each other with respect to

the x-axis. Then (C) and (C ′) are symmetric of each other with respect to the x-axis.

M ′ (x,x)
2• (C ′)

1•
→
j 1 4
O →
• • • •
x′ i x
−1 •

−2 •
M (x,–x) (C)

y′

380
2° Function – f
→ →
Let (C) and (C ′) be the representative curves of –f and f in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) . To every
point M ′(x , f(x)) of (C ′) corresponds the point M (x,–f(x)) of (C).

y
))
M ′(x,f(x (C ′)

→
j
O →
x′ i x

M (x,–f (C)
(x))
y′

(C) and (C ′) are then symmetric of each other with respect to the x-axis (orthogonal symmetry).

2 FUNCTION OF THE TYPE x a f (x) + a ,

(a REAL NUMBER DIFFERENT FROM ZERO)

1° Example

Consider the function g defined on  by g(x) = x2 + 2 and (P) its representative curve in an orthonormal
→ →
system (O ; i , j ).

We know how to draw the parabola (P′) representing the function f defined on  by f(x) = x2.

For every point M ′ of (P′) of coordinates (x,x2) corresponds the point M of (P) of coordinates (x , x2 + 2).

381
 → → →
We pass from M ′ to M by the translation of vector M ′M (0,2), therefore of fixed vector V = 2 j .
→ →
(P) is then the image of (P′) by the translation of vector V = 2j .

y
(P) (P′)

6•
•
5•
M(x , x2+2)
4•
•
3•
→
V =2j

• M ′(x , x2)
→

2•
•
1•
→
j x
x′
• •−2• • • • • •→ • • • • •
−1 O x 2
i 1
y′

2° Function : x a f(x) + a
Let (C) and (C ′) be the representative curves of f(x) + a (C)
→ →
and x a f(x) in an orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) . To
a)
)+

every point M ′x, f(x) of (C ′) corresponds the point y

f(x

→ → → (C ′)
M(x, f(x) + a) of (C) such that M ′M = V = a j .
(x,

•
M

→ →
V = aj
(C) is then the image of (C ′) by the translation of
→
• M ′(x, f(x))
vector a j . →
x′ j
O → •
i x

y′

382
 3 FUNCTION OF THE TYPE x a f (x + a) ,
(a REAL NUMBER DIFFERENT FROM ZERO)

1° Example
1
Consider the function g defined over ]0,+∞[ by g(x) =  and (H) its representative curve in an
→ → x+2
orthonormal system (O ; i , j ).

We know how to draw the curve ( H′ ) representing the function f defined over
1
]0,+∞[ by f(x) =  which is a branch of a hyperbola. For every point M ′ of (H′) of coordinates
x

x,x  corresponds the point M of (H) of coordinates x–2,x .

1 1

→ → →
We pass from M ′ to M by the translation of vector M ′M (–2 ; 0), therefore of fixed vector V = –2 i .
→ →
(H) is then the image of ( H ′ ) by the translation of vector V = – 2 i .

The asymptotes of ( H ′ ) are the axes x′x and y′y and those of (H) are then, the straight line of equation
x = – 2 and the x-axis.

 
1
M x–2,
 
x 2 1
M ′ x,
x
→ →
V = – 2i •
(H)
1•
→
j (H ′)
0,5 •
x′
–2 • • • O •→ • • • • • • • •
→ → i 1 2 x
V = – 2i

x=–2 y′

383
 2° Function x a f(x + a) with a real number different from zero
Let (C) and (C ′) be the representative curves of the functions : x a f(x+a) and x a f(x) in an
→ →
orthonormal system (O ; i , j ) of a plane.
→ → →
To every point M ′x, f(x) corresponds the point M x–a, f(x) of (C) such that M ′M = V = – a i .
→
(C) is then the image of (C ′) by the translation of vector – a i .

(C)
(C ′)

→ →
V = – ai
M (x-a, f(x)) M ′ (x, f(x))

→
j
→
→ → O i x x
x′ V = – ai

y′

384
 STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

Exercises and problems

5
Test your knowledge Follow the same steps of the preceding
exercise :

Linear functions and affine functions

1° f : x a |–x +1| 2° f : x a – |2x + 3|
1 Determine the sense of variations of each
3° f : x a |x| – 1 .
of the following functions :

1° f : x a 2x 2° g : x a –3x + 1
The squared function
3° h : x a 2 x – 4 .

6 Study the variations, set the table of

2 Study the variations and trace the curve in variations and trace the curve (P) representing
→ → the function f in each case :
an orthonormal system of axes (O; i , j ) of each
1
of the following functions f defined by : 1° f : x a – 2x2 2° f : x a  x2
2

1° f : x a – x 2° f : x a 2x + 1 3° f : x a – 0.4x2 4° f : x a 3x2 .

3° f : x a –3x + 2 .
7 Find in each case the real number a such
that f(x) = ax2 .
3 Study the variations and trace the curve in
1° x is the side of a right isosceles triangle and
→ →
an orthonormal system of axes (O; i , j ) of each f(x) is the square of its hypotenuse.

of the following functions f defined by : 2° x is the side of an equilateral triangle and f(x)
2x if x  ]– ; 1[ is its area.
1° f : x a f(x) = 
3 – x if x  [1 ; +[ 3° x is the radius of a
circle tangent to the
3x – 1 if x  ]– ; 2]
2° f : x a f(x) = – x + 7 if x  ]2 ; +[ . sides of a square in this
figure and f(x) is the area
of the colored region.

The absolute value function

8 Let f be the function defined by f(x) = x2
4 Given the function f defined by f(x) = |x – 3| . and (P) its curve in an orthonormal system
→ →
1° Write, following the values of x , f(x) without (O; i , j ) .
the absolute value | | . 1° Find the ordinates of points A and B of (P) of
2° Then deduce the curve of f in an orthonormal abscissas 1 and 2 respectively.
→ →
system of axes (O; i , j ) . 2° Trace the curve (P) and line (AB).

385
 STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

The irrational function 12 Study the variations, set the table

variations and plot the curve of each of the
9 Let f be the function defined by
f(x) = 2x over I = [0 ; 4]. following functions over the indicated intervals :
1° Prove that f is increasing over I . 2
1° f : x a  over ]0 ; 8] .
2° a) Complete the table (use a calculator) : x
–3
2° f : x a  over [–6 ; 0[ .
x 0 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 4 x

f (x)

b) Construct the curve of f in an orthonormal

→ → Functions leading to reference functions
system (O; i , j ) over I .

10 Let g be the function defined over 13 Designate by f and g the functions defined
1 on  by : f(x) = x2 and g(x) = x2 + 1 .
I = [0 ; 3] by g(x) = –  x .
4
1° Prove that g is decreasing over [0 ; 3] . 1° Draw the curve (Cf) representing f .

2° a) Complete the table (use a calculator) : 2° What geometric translation permits of

x 0 0.75 1 1.25 2 3 deducing curve (Cg) of g from (Cf) ?
f (x)
3° Use (Cf) to construct (Cg) .
b) Construct the curve of g in an orthonormal
→ →
system (O; i , j ) over I .
14 Consider in an orthonormal system
→ →
(O; i , j ) the two functions f and g defined by
The inverse function 2 –2
f(x) =  and g(x) =  .
x x
a
11 Let f be the function defined by f(x) =  Designate by (H) and (H ′) their representative
x
and (C) is its curve in an orthonormal system
→ → curves.
(O; i , j ) .
1° Calculate a if (C) pass through A (4 ; 1) . 1° Find the domain of f and that of g .
2° Complete the table (use a calculator) :
2° Represent (H).

x –4 –3 –2 –1 1 2 3 4 3° What geometric translation permits of

f (x) deducing (H′) from (H) ?

3° Trace (C) over ]– 4 ; 0[  ]0 ; 4] . 4° Use (H) to construct (H′).

386
 STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

15 Designate by f and g the two functions 18 Jihad shot an arrow upwards with an
initial velocity of 20 m/s. The altitude h of the
defined by f(x) = x and g(x) = x+
2.
arrow at the instant t is given by :
1° Find the domain of f and that of g . h(t) = –5t2 + 20t

2° Represent the curve (Cf) of f . 1° Find the altitude after: 1 second, 2 seconds ;
3 seconds ; 4 seconds.
3° What geometric translation permits of

deducing (Cg) from (Cf) ? 2° Why can we limit our study to t ∈ [0 ; 4]?

4° Use (Cf) to construct (Cg) . 3° a) Prove that h is increasing over [0;2] and
decreasing over [2,4]. Set the table of variations
of h over [0,4].
b) What is the maximum height reached by the
arrow?
For seeking
4° Trace the curve (P) representing h in an
→ →
16 Use the curve of f such that f(x) = ⏐x⏐, to orthogonal system (O; i , j ).
study the sign of the expression g(x) = ⏐x⏐ –3.

19 We estimate the increase of a cedar tree

by the function h defined by h(x) = 1.1x + 0.5
17 A tank of water is feeded by a source. where h(x) represents the height of the tree in m
The height of the water between midnight
and x the number of years after the plantation.
and noon is given by the function h defined by
1 1
h(x) = ⏐x – 8⏐ +  where x represents the 1° What is the height of the tree at the time of
3 3
number of hours passed after midnight and h(x) plantation ?
represents the height of water in meters.
2° What is the height of the tree 9 years after
1° Fill the following table :
plantation ?
x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3° Fill this table and then draw the curve (C)
h(x) → →
representing h in an orthogonal system (O; i , j ).
2° Graph the function h . x 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3° At what time of the day the height of water is h(x)

minimum?
4° How can we pass from the curve (C ′) of the
4° Give the intervals of the increase and the function g defined by g (x) = x to (C)
decrease of the function h. representing h ?

387
 STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

20 1° Trace, in an orthonormal system, the 23 1° Trace the curve (C1) of the function f
curve (C) representing the function f, defined by 1
defined by f(x) =  .
f(x) = x2 over [–3,+3]. x
2° Solve graphically then analytically the 1
equation f(x) = 4 and the inequality f(x) < 4. 2° Deduce the curve (C2) of g(x) =  .
x–2
3° a) Trace, in the same system, the line (D) of 1
3° Deduce the curve of h(x) =  + 1.
equation y = –x. x–2
b) Determine graphically then analytically the 4° How can we pass from the curve (C1) to
coordinates of the points of intersection of (C) curve (C3) representing l defined by
and (D). 3
l (x) =  ?
x
5° Solve graphically then analytically the
21 Let f and g be two functions in an equation g(x) = l (x).
1
orthonormal system of axes defined by f(x) = 
x 24 Let (C) be the representative curve of the
and g(x) = 5 – 6x . Designate by (H) and (D)
function f defined by f(x) = x2 – 2|x| .
their representative curves respectively. 1° Prove that f is an even function.
1° x being a real number, develop 2° Prove that f is increasing over [1 ; +[ and
(2x – 1) (3x – 1) . decreasing over [0 ; 1]. Then deduce that f
admits a minimum to be determined.
2° Solve in  the equation 6x2 – 5x – 1 = 0 .
3° Let g be the function defined by g(x) = x2 – 2x .
3° What are the coordinates of the common a) Complete the table :
points of (H) and (D) ?
x 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 3 3.5 4
4° Trace (H) and (D) and verify graphically the
g(x)
result you obtained in part (3°).
b) Trace the curve (Cg) representing g over
→ →
[0 ; 4] in an orthonormal system (O; i , j ).
22 1° Trace the curve (C) representing the c) Deduce the curve (C) over [– 4 ; 4] .
function f defined by f(x) = x . Deduce the
curve (C1) representing f1(x) = –x . 25 1° Trace in the same orthonormal system
the curves (C1), (C2) and (C3) representing
2° Deduce the curve (C ′) of the function g respectively the functions f, g and h defined by :
defined by g(x) = x+
 1
1. f (x) = x2 , g(x) =  and h(x) = x.
x
3° Deduce the curve (C ″) of the function h 2° Solve graphically and analytically each of
defined by h(x) = x+
1 + 2. the following equations :
a) f(x) = g(x) ; b) f(x) = h(x) ; c) g(x) = h(x).
4° Trace the curve (C2) representing the
Deduce the points of intersection of the three
function f2 defined by f2 (x) = 2x . curves.
5° Solve graphically then analytically the 3°3 Solve graphically the inequality
x –1
equation g(x) = f2(x). >0.
x

388
 STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

To go further

I On the graph below, five curves were drawn.

Among the eight following functions, assign to each curve, the function it represents :
1
f1 : x a –  x2 + 1 ; f2 : x a – 2x2 – 1 ; f3 : x a (x – 3)2 – 1 ; f4 : x a x2
2
1 1 1
f5 : x a –  + 2 ; f6 : x a  ; f7 : x a (x – 3)2 + 1 ; f8 : x a –  x2 – 1
x x+2 2

(C1) y
(C5)

(C4)
2

x′ –6 –4 –2 O 2 3 4 6 x

–2

–4
(C3)
(C2)
y′

II Let f be the function defined over  by f (x) = 2x2 – 4x + 5.

1° Show that f (x) = 2(x – 1)2 + 3.
2° a) Show that f has 3 as minimum. For what value of x it is achieved ?
b) Then solve f (x)  1.
3° Consider g the function defined over  by g(x) = 2x2 .
Specify by what transformation does one take the curve (C ) of g to the parabola (P ) representing f.
4° Study the variations of f over interval I = ]–∞ ; 1] and over interval J = [1 ; +∞[, then set table of
variation of f.
5° Consider the line D with equation : – 4x + y + 3 = 0. Show that D is tangent to the parabola P at a
point E to be determined.

389
 STUDY OF FUNCTIONS

III Consider the function f defined over IV Given a rectangle ABCD with length
[0 ; +∞[ by (C) its representative curve
→ →
drawn AD = 5 and width AB = 3, place on the sides of
below in an orthonormal system (O; i , j ).
ABCD the points I, J, K and L such that :
y AI = BJ = CK = DL = x avec 0  x  3.
8
We obtain a parallelogram IJKL and denote by f,
7
6
the function in x, associated to the area of this
5 parallelogram.
4
A L x D
3
2 x
1
I
x′ –1 O 1 2 3 4 x K
–1
x
y′
B x J C

1° Determine f (0) and f (1). 1° Show that :

Area(BIJ) + Are(DKL) = x(3 – x).
2° Compare graphically f (2) and f (3).
3° Solve graphically : 2° Show that : f (x) = 2x2 – 8x + 15 for all real x
a) f (x) = 0 in interval [0 ; 3].
b) f (x) < 0
c) 0 < f (x)  3 3° Verify that : f (x) = 2(x – 2)2 + 7.

4° Draw the table of variations of f. 4° Let C be the representative curve of f over

5° Suppose that f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. interval [0 ; 3], and P the parabola with
Use (C) to calculate a, b and c. equation : y = 2x2. C is the image of P by the
→
translation of vector u . Determine the
For the following, suppose that : f (x) = x2 – 2x. →
coordinates of vector u .
6° Let (d) be the line with equation y = x.
a) Calculate the coordinates of points of 5° Deduce, without calculation, the sense of
intersection of (C) and (d). variations of f over [0 ; 2] then over [2 ; 3].
b) Solve graphically x2 – 2x  x.
6° Determine the value of x for which area is
7° Let g be the function defined over ]–∞ ; +∞[ minimum. What is the value of this minimum
by g(x) = x2 – 2|x|. area ?
a) Show that g is an even function; give
graphical interpretation. 7° Plot C representing f in an orthonormal
b) Write g(x) without absolute value. system.
c) How can we deduce the curve of g from the
8° Determine graphically the values of x for
curve of f ? Set the table of variations of g and
which area equals 9.
plot the curve of g over ]–∞ ; +∞[.
d) Show that g has a minimum to be determined. Determine these values by calculation.

390