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Physics Year 12 Module 5

Advanced Mechanics
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 Topic Outline
KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

Advanced
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keep it simple science

Mechanics
School Inspection only.
What is this topic about? Copying NOT permitted.
To keep it as simple as possible,
(K.I.S.S. Principle) this topic covers:
1. Projectiles
1. Projectile Motion
Characteristics of projectile motion. Analysis of Features of projectile motion
projectile motion. How to calculate max.height, time of
Analysing projectile motion
flight, range, position or velocity at any instant. 3. Motion in
Projectiles launched horizontally. Prac.work. Max.height, time of flight, range, etc
Gravitational
Projectiles launched horizontally
2. Circular Motion Fields
Characteristics of uniform circular motion. Orbital
speed and tangential velocity. Centripital acceleration Newton’s Univeral Gravitation
and force. Where centripital force comes from in 2. Circular Motion Grav. field strength, “g”
different cases. “Centrifugal” pseudo-force. Tangential Gravity & weight on other planets
inertia and banked curves. Angular velocity. Work & Features of circular motion
energy in circular motion. The concept of “torque”. Concept of an orbit & escape velocity
Orbital speed & velocity
Launching a spacecraft
Centripital acceleration & force
3. Motion in Gravitational Fields Causes of centripital force
Types of orbits & their uses
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation. Gravitational
“Centrifugal” force, inertia & banked curves Orbital speed & radius of orbits
field strength measured by “g”. Gravity& weight on
other planets. Concept of an orbit and escape velocity. Angular velocity Brief history of Astronomy
Launching spacecraft. Why rockets? Different orbit Work & energy in circular motion Kepler’s Laws & Newton’s proof
types & uses. Orbital velocity & radius.
Brief history of Astronomy. Kepler’s Laws & Newton’s The concept of torque Re-entry of spacecraft
proof. Re-entry of spacecraft... shedding energy. Energy of a satellite
Energy of satellites.

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keep it simple science

1. Projectile Motion School Inspection only.
Copying NOT permitted.
What is a Projectile?
A projectile is any object that is launched, and then moves only under the influence of gravity.

Examples Any bullet, shell or bomb is a

projectile once it is fired,
Once struck, kicked or launched or dropped.
thrown, a ball in any sport
becomes a projectile. < Projectiles >

An example which is NOT a Projectile:

A rocket or guided missile, while still under power, is NOT a projectile. Not a
Once the engine stops firing it becomes a projectile.
Projectile

Projectiles are subject to only one force... Gravity!

When a projectile is travelling through air, there is, of course, an air-resistance force acting as well.
For simplicity, (K.I.S.S. Principle) air-resistance is assumed to be negligible throughout this topic.

In reality, a projectile in air does not behave exactly the way described here because of the effects of air-resistance.

The exact motion depends on many factors and the Physics becomes very complex,
and beyond the scope of this course.

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 KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.
School Inspection only.
® Copying NOT permitted. Projectile Motion
keep it simple science By simple observation of a golf ball trajectory, or a thrown cricket ball, the motion of any projectile can be seen to follow a
curve. It is in fact a parabola, and you might think the Physics of this is going to be difficult. NOT SO... it is really very simple.

Just remember the following:

You must analyse projectile motion as 2 separate motions; horizontal (x-axis) and vertical (y-axis) must be dealt with separately
and then combined as vectors if necessary.

The Horizontal Motion of a projectile is CONSTANT VELOCITY.

Vertical Motion is CONSTANT ACCELERATION at “g”, DOWNWARDS.

The Trajectory (Path) of a Projectile Equations for Projectile Motion

1. Resolve the Initial Launch Velocity into
At any instant, the projectile’s Vertical & Horizontal Components
The Intitial Launch position or velocity is the vector sum u
Sin θ = uy & Cos θ = ux uy
Velocity (u) has of horizontal + vertical components
horizontal & vertical u u
θ
components Horizontal
∴ uy = u.Sinθ
θ, ux = u.Cosθ
θ
Maximum Height

Velocity ux
vx
2. Horizontal Motion is constant velocity, so
uy
u Vertical
Velocity vx = Sx is all you need
vy t
θ (angle of launch)
ux 3. Vertical Motion is constant acceleration at “g”

“Range” = Total Horizontal Displacement To find vertical velocity:

It is wise to always vy = uy + g.t (from v = u+at)
consider “up” as
positive, “down” as To find vertical displacement:
To enable analysis, all you need is the initial
“launch velocity” (U) & angle of launch (θθ) negative vector Sy = uy.t + 1.g.t2 (from S = ut + 1at2)
directions. 2 2

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Analysing Projectile Motion
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u = 400ms-1
Example 1
The cannon shown fires a shell at an initial velocity of 400ms-1.
If it fires at an angle of 20o, calculate: θ = 20o

a) the vertical and horizontal components of the initial velocity.

b) the time of flight. (assuming the shell lands at the same horizontal level)

c) the range. (same assumption) School Inspection only.

Copying NOT permitted.
d) the maximum height it reaches.

Point to Note:
a)
The mass of the projectile does NOT enter into
uy = u.Sinθθ ux = u.Cosθθ any calculation. The trajectory is determined
c) Range is horizontal displacement
= 400..Sin20 = 400.Cos20 by launch velocity & angle, plus gravity.
= 136.8ms-1 = 375.9ms-1 Mass is irrelevant! Remember
(upwards) (horizontal) (Remember that all masses accelerate the same, at “g”) vx= ux= constant velocity, and vx = Sx
t
∴ Sx = vx.t (use time of flight)

= 375.9 x 27.9
b) The shell is fired upwards, but acceleration due to gravity is = 10,488m Range = 1.05x104m (i.e. 10.5 km)
downwards. You must assign up = (+ve), down = ( -ve).

Key Point of analysis:

At the top of its arc, the shell will have an instantaneous vertical
velocity = zero.
d) Vertical Height (up = (+ve), down = ( -ve))
vy = uy + g.t Sy = vy.t + 1.g.t2
0 = 136.8 + (-9.81)xt (at the highest point) 2
∴ t = -136.8/-9.81 = 136.8x13.95 + 0.5x(-9.81)x(13.95)2
= 13.95 s = 1901.5 + (-947.7)
= 953.8m = 9.54x102m. (almost 1 km high)
This means it takes 13.95s to reach the top of its arc.
Since the motion is symmetrical, it must take twice as long for Note: the time used is the time to reach the top of the arc...
the total flight. ∴ time of flight = 27.9s the time at the highest point, NOT total time of flight.

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Analysing Projectile Motion cont. School Inspection only.
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Example 2
The batsman has just hit the ball upwards at an angle of 55o, with an intial velocity of 28.0ms-1.
The boundary of the field is 62.0m away from the batsman.

Resolve the velocity into vertical and horizontal components, then use these to find:
a) the time of flight of the ball.

b) the maximum height reached. Remember to let UP = (+ve)

DOWN = ( -ve)
c) whether or not he has “hit a 6” by clearing the boundary. acceleration = “g” = -9.81ms-2

d) the velocity of the ball (including direction) at the instant t = 3.50s.

Vertical & Horizontal
Components of Velocity a) Time of Flight
At highest point vy= 0, so vy = uy + g.t
θ, ux = u.Cosθ
uy = u.Sinθ θ 0 = 22.9 + (-9.81)xt
= 28Sin55 = 28Cos55 ∴ t = -22.9/-9.81
= 22.9ms-1 = 16.1ms-1 = 2.33s

This is the mid-point of the arc, so time of flight = 4.66s

b) Maximum Height
is achieved at t = 2.33s, so

Sy = uy.t + 1.g.t2
d) Velocity at t = 3.50s ?
2
Vertical Horizontal
= 22.9x2.33 + 0.5x(-9.81)x(2.33)2 16.1
= 53.5 + (-26.6) θ
vy = uy + g.t vx= ux= constant Re
= 26.9m su
lta

11.4
nt
Ve
= 22.9+(-9.81)x3.50 = 16.1ms-1 locit
y
= -11.4ms-1
(this means it is downwards)
c) Range will determine if he’s “hit a 6”.
By Pythagorus,
vx= ux= constant velocity v2 = vy2 + vx2 Tan θ = 11.4/16.1
Sx = vx.t (use total time of flight) = (-11.4)2 + 16.12 ∴ θ ≅ 35o
= 16.1 x 4.66 ∴ v = 389.17 = 19.7ms-1 at an angle 35o below horizontal
= 75.0m That’ll be 6 !

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Analysing Projectile Motion cont. School Inspection only.
keep it simple science Copying NOT permitted.

If you find solving Projectile Motion problems is difficult, try to learn • Maximum Range is achieved at launch angle 45o.
these basic “rules”: LAUNCH ANGLE
45o GIVES
• The “launch velocity” must be resolved into a horizontal velocity MAXIMUM
(ux) and a vertical velocity (uy). Once you have these, you can deal Angle greater RANGE
than 45o
with vertical and horizontal motion as 2 separate things.
Angles less
• The motion is symmetrical, so at the highest point, the elapsed time than 45o
is exactly half the total time of flight.
• Also, at the highest point, vy = zero.
The projectile has been rising to this point.
PROJECTILES LAUNCHED AT
After this point it begins falling.
SAME VELOCITY
For an instant vy = 0. Very useful knowledge!

At any instant, the projectile’s • Horizontal Motion is constant velocity... easy.

The Intitial Launch position or velocity is the vector sum
Velocity (u) has Use vx = ux and Sx = ux.t
of horizontal + vertical components
horizontal & vertical
components Horizontal • Vertical Motion is constant acceleration
Maximum Height

Velocity at g = -9.81ms-2, so use vy = uy + g.t

vx to find “t” at the max.height (when vy=0)
uy or, find vy at a known time.
u Vertical
Velocity
vy Try Worksheet 1
θ (angle of launch) Use Sy = uy.t + 1.g.t2
2
ux to find vertical displacement (Sy) at a known time, or find the time to
“Range” = Total Horizontal Displacement fall through a known height (if uy=0)

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Projectiles Launched Horizontally
keep it simple science A common situation with projectile motion is when a projectile is launched horizontally, as in the following example.
This involves half the normal trajectory.
Example
Solution (cont.)
Plane flying horizontally, at b) Final Velocity at impact
constant 50.0ms-1 Vertical Horizontal
vy = uy + g.t vx= ux
Releases a bomb from
altitude = 700m = 0 + (-9.81)x11.9 vx= 50.0ms-1.
vy= -117ms-1. (down) 50.0
Questions
School Inspection only. θ
a) How long does it take for the Copying NOT permitted. v2=vy2 + vx2

Fin
bomb to hit the ground?
= 1172 + 50.02

al
b) At what velocity does it hit?

117
∴ v = 16,189

Ve
c) If the plane continues flying straight and level,
= 127ms-1.

lo
cit
where is it when the bomb hits?

y
Tan θ = 117/50
Solution ∴ θ ≅ 67o.
Because the plane is flying horizontally, the intitial velocity vectors of
the bomb are: Bomb hits the ground at 127ms-1, at angle 67o below horizontal.
Horizontal, ux= 50.0ms-1,
Vertical, uy= zero c) Where is the Plane?
a) Time to hit the ground Since both plane and bomb travel at the same horizontal velocity, it
We know the vertical distance to fall (-700m (down)), the acceleration follows that they have both travelled exactly the same horizontal
rate (g= -9.81ms-2) and that uy=0. (Initially, its vertical velocity = zero) distance when the bomb hits. i.e. the plane is directly above the bomb
at impact.
Sy = uy.t + 1.g.t2
2 (In warfare, this is a problem for low-level bombers...
-700 = 0xt + 0.5 x(-9.81)x t2 the bombs must have delayed-action fuses)
-700 = -4.905xt2
∴ t2 = -700/-4.905
t = 11.9s This ball drops vertically

Activity 1 A Simple Observation Device rotates

Someone with some basic woodwork skills may be able to make a small freely on axle
device similar to this diagram.

It can be “loaded” with a pair of identical coins or other small objects as

shown. If struck sharply, it spins on its axle.
Force
This launches one coin/ball horizontally as a projectile. The other is applied This ball flies as
dropped vertically. a projectile.

The observation to make is whether or not the 2 objects hit the ground at the same time. Discuss the result.

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Prac Work: Projectile Motion School Inspection only.
keep it simple science
Copying NOT permitted.
ball bearing Activity 2 Measuring a Projectile Trajectory
or marble The diagram shows a simple laboratory set up to make some basic measurements of the trajectory of a projectile.

You need to practice dropping a heavy ball bearing into the top end and making sure it lands consistently at the
same point on the floor. You can then place a flat pad of putty (blu-tack) at this point. The ball will leave a mark
which gives an accurate point for measuring distance.

The plastic tubing can be adjusted (with a clamp stand) to different heights for the ball to accelerate before
launching horizontally as a projectile.
clamp
Your Challenges:
measure this vertical height (m)

a) Using the measured height above the bench, calculate the velocity of the ball as it exits the tube.
(Assume no friction, although you may have to reconsider this later)

b) Analyse the projectile motion using the launch velocity and height of launch to find the
theoretical landing position on the floor.
large diameter c) Compare the calculated landing point to the actual landing point.
plastic tubing Discuss and account for any discrepancy.

d) Repeat the experiment with different starting heights by adjusting

the position of the acceleration tube and launch height.
clamp clamp or duct tape
stand

bench
Discuss the possible sources of
measure vertical height

errors in this experiment and how to

improve the accuracy and reliability
to floor (m)

of the activity.
Try Worksheets 2 & 3

“landing pad”
measure horizontal distance
to landing point (m) of blu-tack

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Discusssion / Activity 1
The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on.

Projectiles Student Name .................................

School Inspection only.
1. What is a “projectile”? Copying NOT permitted.

2. For a projectile launched on or near the surface of the Earth:

a) what is the shape of the path it follows?
b) at what angle will the maximum range be achieved?
c) to analyse the Physics of a projectile, what is the “key” first-step? (given initial velocity & launch angle)

d) what is the “key” characteristic of the horizontal velocity?

e) describe the “key” characteristic of the vertical motion.

f) what is the instantaneous vertical velocity at the point of maximum height?

3. Give an outline of how the answer to 2(f) is vital to determining the values of max. height and range.

4. Imagine firing a gun horizontally across an open, flat plain. At the same instant that the bullet leaves
the barrel, the empty shell casing is ejected horizontally from the gun.
Which hits the ground first, the bullet or the casing? Explain.

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 KISS Resources for NSW Syllabuses & Australian Curriculum.

2. Circular Motion
®
School Inspection only.
Copying NOT permitted.
keep it simple science instantaneous
mass = m velocity vector
Imagine swinging a mass around on the end of a string. The mass is at a tangent
moves in a circle, but if you let go of the string, it flies off at a tangent
to the circle. (and it becomes a projectile)
In the earlier topic on “Dynamics” you studied the Physics of motion in a straight
line.
Length of string = Radius of circle = r
How can we understand this motion in a circle?
Circumference of circle = 2 π r
Newton’s 1st Law tells us that unless a force acts on a moving object, it will move in a
straight line at a constant velocity.
Time for 1 complete revolution = T
(“period” of orbit)
Obviously then, there must be a force acting on the mass so that it moves in a circle.
Orbital speed, v = distance
This force, of course, is due to the “tension force” in the string. It is constantly pulling
the mass towards the centre of the circle. If the string breaks there is no more force, so time
the mass obeys Newton’s 1st Law and flies off (initially) in a straight line at constant = 2 πr
velocity. T

The diagram below shows the circular motion as

seen from above. The mass is travelling at a constant speed around the circle.
The velocity vectors at any instant are Even though the speed may be constant, the object is constantly
tangents to the circle. v accelerating because its direction is constantly changing. This
v acceleration is towards the centre of the circle and is called
v “centripetal acceleration”.
v
The force causing this acceleration is called “centripetal force” and is
always directed to the centre of the circle.
F
F F
In the case of our mass on a string, the centripital force is the tension
in the string. In the case of a car turning a circular corner, the
Path of a F The force causing the turning is centripital force is due to friction between the tyres and the road. In the
mass in always toward the centre of the case of a satellite in circular orbit, the force is due to gravity.
circular circle.This is called
motion “Centripetal” force The velocity vector is constantly changing, but at any instant it is a
tangent to the circle, and therefore, at right angles to the acceleration
and force vectors.

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Equations of Circular Motion
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Example Problem
Orbital Speed (& instantaneous tangential velocity) A 100g ball is being swung in a circle on a string of
length 1.50m. It completes one “orbit” every 0.25s.
πr
v = 2π School Inspection only. Calculate:
Copying NOT permitted. a) its orbital speed.
T b) the centripetal acceleration.
c) the tension force in the string.
Centripetal Acceleration
ac = v2 Solution
a) πr
v = 2π = 2 x π x 1.50 / 0.25
r T = 37.7 ms-1.

b) ac = v2 = 37.72 / 1.50 = 948 ms-2.

Centripetal Force Fc = mv2 r
r
c) Fc = m v2 = 0.100 x 37.72 / 1.50
r = radius of the circle (in metres) r
T= period of rotation. (s) = 94.8 N
v = instantaneous velocity (ms-1) (“orbital speed”) (It had better be a strong string... Fc is about 10g !)
m = mass of object in motion (in kg)

Circular Motion of Vehicles Turning Corners

So, where does the centripetal force come from to push a moving Wheel
vehicle, such as a car, around a corner? An example turned
problem is
The centripetal force comes from the frictional “grip” of the tyres on the shown,
road. Turning the steering wheel creates new friction forces which are
directed to the centre of an imaginary circle. next page
tal
n t ripe
Ce orce
So long as the frictional forces are strong enough, the vehicle will follow a circular path F
around the corner.

If the centripetal force required for a particular corner exceeds the friction “grip” of the tyres,
then the vehicle will not make it, and may “spin out” and crash.
This can happen because: Instantaneous
• speed is too high for the radius of the curve. (the radius is too small compared to velocity) Velocity vector Path car
• loss of friction between tyres and road. (e.g. road is wet, or tyres are worn smooth) straight ahead will take

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Example Problem (from previous page) Solution
keep it simple science The maximum frictional force possible from each Max. Force possible from 4 tyres = 4x 5,000
tyre of this 750kg car is 5,000 N. = 20,000N
Centripetal Force cannot exceed this value.
Fc = m v2 / r, so v2 = Fcr / m
= 20,000 x 40 / 750
v2 = 1067
∴ max. v = 1067 ≅ 33 ms-1
What is the maximum speed that the car can go (This is almost 120 km/hr, so for a tight 40m radius curve, these
around a circular curve with a radius of of 40m?
must be VERY good tyres!)

Centrifugal Forces & Banked Corners School Inspection only.

Copying NOT permitted.
“Centrifugal Force” is the apparent force that objects seem to experience when
travelling around a curve, such as happens in circular motion. For example, we are all
familiar with loose objects on the dashboard sliding to the left as our car turns a curve to
the right. We would say that “centrifugal force pushed them towards the outside of the
curve”.

In fact, centrifugal force is a “pseudo-force” which arises due to inertia. It seems real when
you are inside the turning car, but when analysed from a non-accelerating position
(eg measuring the Physics from a stationary over-pass as the car travels under you) the only real force acting on the
car (and contents) is centripetal force causing acceleration towards the centre of the circle.

The loose object on the dashboard has insufficient friction to stay attached to the car, so its
inertia (Newton’s 1st Law... tendency to continue travelling in a straight line) takes over. It actually tries to fly off
at a tangent to the curve, but from within the car this seems to be an outwards push from a Banked curve in a
force we call “centrifugal”. cycle velodrome.
Image by Tradnor
CCA-SA 3.0
The force is fake, but the inertia is real. On a bicycle at speed, the rider always “leans into
the curve” to conteract the outward (actually tangential) inertia.
On a curve on a horizontal track, this inward lean can cause the rider to fall because the side-wall of the tyres comes into contact with the road
surface and it may lack the friction to hold on at high speed.

Banking the curve up at an angle allows the rider to lean into a curve at high speed while still keeping the tyre tread in full frictional contact. Not
only are cycle velodromes “banked”, but so are well-made roadways and railways. Aircraft bank to turn, too.
It’s all about maintaining friction (or aircraft “lift”) so centripetal force “pulls” you around the corner.

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Angular Velocity
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keep it simple science Orbital Speed & Angular Velocity
When analysing circular motion, sometimes it is useful to measure the angle through
which an object moves (measured from the centre of the circle) per unit of time, rather v = 2 πr but ω = 2π so v=ωr
than measuring the distance travelled per unit of time. T T
For example, if you are observing a satellite pass overhead in the night sky, it is not
easy to measure its velocity because (for instance) you don’t know how high up it is Centripetal Acceleration
and therefore you cannot measure distance travelled per second. BUT you can ac = v2 but v = ω r
measure the angle it moves through per second. r
so ac= ω2r2 = ω2r
For convenience when working with circles, the angles are always measured in
radians, not degrees. (If not familiar with radians, note that 1 rad. ≅ 57.3o because, by
r
definition, there are 2π radians in a full circle 360o.) The convenience of using radians
should become clear to you soon. Centripetal Force
Fc = mv2
Angular Velocity
The angular velocity of an object in circular motion can be defined as the “angular r
change of position (displacement) per unit of time” when viewed from the centre of the Substituting as above gives ω2r
Fc = mω
circle. The symbol used for angular velocity is the (lower case) Greek letter omega ( ω ).

ω = Δφ Example Problem
t A 250g ball is being swung around on a string
where Δφ is the change in the angle (in radians) and “t” is the elapsed time in seconds. which is 2.5m long. Its period of rotation is 1.25s.
The units for angular velocity are radians per second (rad.s-1)
a) Find its angular velocity.
This is the formula presented in the syllabus and your HSC Data Sheet. However, it
may be more informative to consider this concept as follows: b) What is the centripetal force in the string?

Imagine an object in circular motion. To travel one complete revolution, its angular c) What is the orbital speed?
displacement is 2π radians (360o). The time it takes for one revolution (“period’) is “T”
seconds. Solution
a) ω = 2π = 2π
π / 1.25 = 5.03 rad.s-1.
Therefore, ω = Δφ = 2π T
t T
b) ω2r = 0.250 x (5.03)2 x 2.5
Fc = mω
This allows us to derive an alternate set of equations to apply to problems on circular = 15.8 N
motion.
Try Worksheet 4 c) v = ω r = 5.03 x 2.5 = 12.6 ms-1.
Study the material at right, then

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keep it simple science
In circular motion, the centripetal force acts towards the centre of the
How much work is done by the centripetal force during circular
circle. Since the revolving object always stays the same distance (= the
motion?
radius) from the centre, then there is NO DISPLACEMENT in the
direction of the force.
You will recall that “work” is done when a force acts over a distance
and that the amount of work is equivalent to the energy applied or
Therefore, the work done is zero!
used.
W = F.S In circular motion, no work is done by the centripetal force and no
However, you may also recall that the displacement in this equation energy change occurs. This is why a planet in orbit can remain that
must be in the direction of the force. way for ever, without running out of energy... no work is being done.

The Concept of Torque

...and now for something completely different! Calculating Torque
A force acts on the end rotation
of a rod or bar at distance
At this point the syllabus specifies that you must learn about another “r” from its pivot point.
situation where an object may rotate in a circle. However, this rotation (We use “r” because that r
has nothing to do with “circular motion” involving centripetal force. distance is the radius of
the circle it will turn around.) θ
Instead, here we will consider the motion which occurs when one or The force acts at angle θ as shown.
more forces act, not towards the centre, but (usually) on the line of a Then:
tangent to the circle. F
Pivot point or “fulcrum”
Let’s begin with a
simple example: a see-saw.
τ = r.F.sinθθ
τ = torque on the system, in newton-metres (Nm).
Basically, this is a rigid beam which is able to rotate around its pivot r = distance from pivot to point where force is applied,
point, or “fulcrum”. To begin with, it is perfectly balanced and in metres (m).
motionless.
F = force, in newtons (N).
If you place a weight on one end the see-saw experiences a “turning
moment” or “torque” and begins to rotate. θ = 1. This means that maximum
Note that when θ = 90o, sinθ
torque occurs when the force acts at right angles to the bar.
In the case of a see-saw, it Force If θ = 0o, torque is zero.
won’t go far because it will
hit the ground, but in the r The symbol for torque is the Greek letter “tau”, τ.
case of many mechanical
devices, the bar can rotation
continue to rotate in a circle
if the force continues to act An example problem is shown, next page
along the line of a tangent to the circle of rotation.
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The Concept of Torque (cont.) School Inspection only.
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Everyday examples of applying torque include:
Example Problems
1. A rigid bar has a pivot point at one end and is • pushing a door open on its hinges. If you push on the door at a point close to the
3.0m long. It can rotate in a horizontal plane and for hinges, you need much more force to get the same torque as pushing at the outside
simplicity, friction and the weight of the bar itself are edge.
taken to be zero.
• winding the handle on a fishing reel, or winch.
Find the magnitude of the torque if: If the shaft of the handle is longer, you get more torque and the job is easier.
a) a force of 10N is applied at right angles, at a point
halfway along the bar. The concept of torque is especially important with motors. It will be re-visited in a later
b) The same force is applied at the end of the bar. topic when electric motors are covered.
c) The same force is applied just 10cm from the
pivot. Is Torque the Same as “Work”?
d) A force of 20N is applied to the end of the bar at The unit of torque is a newton-metre. This is the same unit as Work. (W = F.S) Work is
an angle of 30o.
equivalent to energy, so a newton-metre of work is equal to a joule of energy.
Solutions
a) τ = r.F.sinθ
θ = 1.5 x 10 x sin90 = 15 Nm. But wait! This does NOT work. Torque is NOT the same as energy and it is simply a
co-incidence that the units of measurement are the same.
b) τ = r.F.sinθ
θ = 3.0 x 10 x sin90 = 30 Nm.
Torque is a measure of the rate of change of angular momentum and is not equivalent
c) τ = r.F.sinθθ = 0.1 x 10 x sin90 = 1.0 Nm. to energy until multiplied by the rotation rate.
(note the effects of distance from the pivot)

d) τ = r.F.sinθ
θ = 3.0 x 20 x sin30 = 30 Nm. We are NOT going there, but for the petrol-heads, the torque of a car engine IS related
to how powerful it is. An engine’s power is described as “(number of) kilowatts at
(Compare (d) with (b) to note the effect of angle) (number of) RPM”. RPM is “revolutions per minute”. Engine power (power is rate of energy
change) is actually given by

Try Worksheet 5 P = τ.ω (Power = torque x angular velocity)

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Discusssion / Activity 2
The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on.

Circular Motion Student Name .................................

1. For an object in circular motion, in what direction is the: School Inspection only.
a) instantaneous velocity? Copying NOT permitted.
b) centripital acceleration?
c) centripital force?

2. Explain how an object in circular motion can be described as having a constant speed, but also a
constant acceleration? Isn’t this a contradiction?

3. Derive from first principles, a mathematical expression for:

a) the orbital speed.

b) the angular velocity.

c) Combine these 2 expressions to form a formula showing how orbital speed and angular velocity are
related.

4. What force provides the centripital acceleration in the case of:

a) an orbiting satellite?
b) a car turning a corner?
c) a ball being twirled on a string?

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3. Motion in Gravitational Fields
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Newton’s Universal Gravitation Copying NOT permitted.

Gravitational Fields FG = GMm

Every mass acts as if surrounded by an invisible “force field” which attracts any other r2
mass within the field. Theoretically, the field extends to infinity, and therefore every mass
in the universe is exerting some force on every other mass in the universe... FG = Gravitational Force, in N.
that’s why it’s called Universal Gravitation.
G = “Universal Gravitational Constant” = 6.67 x 10-11
Newton’s Gravitation Equation
M & m = the 2 masses involved, in kg.
r = distance between M & m (centre to centre) in m.
It was Isaac Newton who showed that the strength of the gravitational force between 2
masses: • is proportional to the product of the masses, and Example Calculation 1
• inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Find the gravitational force acting between the
Earth and a 750kg satellite in orbit 42,000km from
He came up with this idea in 1666 as a way to solve a long-standing problem in Astronomy the Earth’s centre.
to do with “Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion”.
More about that later! Solution FG = GMm
r2
Effects of Mass & Distance = 6.67x10-11x6.0x1024x750
How does the Gravitational Force change for different masses, and different distances? (4.2x107)2
= 170 N.
Imagine 2 masses, each 1kg, separated by a distance of 1 metre.
FG = GMm = G x 1 x 1 = G
r2 12 Example 2
Find the gravitational force acting between the
Effect of masses Earth, and an 80kg person standing on the surface,
Now imagine doubling the mass of one object: FG = GMm = G x 2 x 1 = 2G (Twice the 6,370km from Earth’s centre (d = 6.37 x 106m).
r2 12 force)
Solution FG = GMm
What if both masses are doubled? FG = GMm = G x 2 x 2 = 4G (4X the force) r2
r2 12
= 6.67x10-11x5.97x1024x 80
Effect of Distance
Go back to the original masses, and double the distance: (6.37x106)2
FG = GMm = G x 1 x 1 = G ( 1/4 the force) = 785 N.
r2 22 4
This is, of course, the person’s weight!
Gravitational Force shows the “Inverse Square” relationship... ... and sure enough
triple the distance = one ninth the force Try Worksheet 6 F = mg = 80 x 9.81 = 785N.
10 x the distance = 1/100 the force, etc. ∴ Gravitational Force = Weight Force

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It should be obvious by now that it is FG which provides the centripetal force to hold any
satellite in its orbit.

Not only does this apply to artificial satellites launched into Earth orbit, but for the orbiting of
the Moon around the Earth, and of all the planets around the Sun.

Our entire Solar System is orbiting the Galaxy because of gravity, and whole galaxies orbit
each other. Ultimately, gravity holds the entire universe together, and its strength, compared
to the expansion of the Big Bang, will determine the final fate of the Universe.

The Gravitational Field Strength, “g”

In earlier topics you learnt that “g” is the acceleration due to gravity.
That’s fine, but there is another way to think of it. Look again at example 2 on the previous page.
From that problem we can say that: However, the equation at left means that the value of “g” depends on
the mass of the planet you are on AND how far you are from its centre.
weight force = gravitational force
Here on the surface of Earth we are rE= 6.371x106 m from the centre of
mg = GMm / r2 a mass of ME = 6.0x1024 kg.
Now imagine placing a 1kg mass at a point within the gravity field of Substituting this gives
a planet with mass “M”. g = 6.67x10-11 x 6.0x1024 / (6.371x106)2
= 9.86 ms-2.
If m = 1 in the equation above, then: g = GM / r2 (Discussion: why doesn’t this agree exactly with standard data?)

This can be interpreted as the strength of the gravitational field at Go up 1,000 km above the surface and g = 7.4 ms-2.
that point, because it defines the effect of the field on a “test mass”
of 1 unit (kg). If the Earth became denser and shrank so that the surface was
(Compare this idea to how the Electric Field strength was defined in a previous module.)
1,000km lower, (but same mass) then surface gravity would be
g = 13.9 ms-2.
So, “g” is both the strength of the grav. field (measured in N.kg-1) at
a given point AND it is the acceleration due to gravity (ms-2) at that
However, if you go lower by digging a hole, “g” actually decreases. As
point.
you go deep into the Earth, some of its mass is above you, attracting
you upwards.
We tend to think of gravity as being the same everywhere, but that is Try Worksheet 7
only because we are always on, or very close to, the Earth’s surface parts (a)-(h) only
At the centre of the Earth g = zero!
where g = 9.8 N.kg-1 or ms-2.

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Gravity and Weight on Other Planets
keep it simple science
We are so used to the gravity effects on Earth that we need to be reminded that “g” is different
elsewhere, such as on another planet in our Solar System.

Since “g” is different, and weight force F = mg it follows that things have a different weight if
taken to another planet.

Here are values of “g” on the surface of some other planets.

(Good luck finding the surface of Jupiter if you go there!)
School Inspection only.
Copying NOT permitted.
Planet g g
(ms-2) (as multiple of Earth’s)
Earth 9.8 1.00 Composite photo of Earth and Mars to the
Mars 3.8 0.39 same scale. Mars is much smaller and is
Jupiter 25.8 2.63 lower in both density and total mass.
Neptune 10.4 1.06 Its surface gravity is only 39% of Earth’s.
Photo by NASA
Moon 1.6 0.17
Calculating Your Weight on another Planet
Example
If an astronaut in his space suit weighs 1,350N on So on Mars,
Earth, what will he weigh on Mars where g = 3.84ms-2? Try Worksheet 8
W = mg
Solution F = mg = 137.6 x 3.84
On Earth, 1,350 = m x 9.81
∴ mass = 1,350/9.81 = 137.6 kg = 528kg.

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School Inspection only.
® Copying NOT permitted. Isaac Newton and Orbiting
keep it simple science
Once Isaac Newton had developed the Maths and discovered
Escape Velocity is defined as the launch velocity needed for a
the laws of motion and gravity, he thought about Projectile projectile to escape from the Earth’s gravitational field.
Motion.
Mathematically, it can be shown that (for any planet)
Newton imagined a cannon on a very high mountain, firing
projectiles horizontally with ever-increasing launch velocities. Escape Velocity, vesc = 2GM / r
The faster each ball is launched, the further it flies before
hitting the ground. G= Gravitational Constant Now Worksheet 7
M = Mass of the planet (kg) parts (p)-(w)
But then... ...if the launch velocity is high enough, r = Radius of planet (m)
the projectile can escape from the
Earth’s gravity completely. Note that:

• The mass of the projectile is not a factor. Therefore, all projectiles, regardless
of mass, need the same velocity to escape from Earth, about 11km per
second!
EARTH
...at the right velocity, the projectile • The Escape Velocity depends only on the mass and radius of the planet.
curves downwards at the same rate as
the Earth curves... It follows that different planets have different escape velocities.
it will circle the Earth in orbit! Here are a few examples...
PLANET ESCAPE VELOCITY
in km/sec (ms-1)
Earth 11.2 1.12 x104
Moon 2.3 2.3 x103
Newton had discovered the concepts of a gravitational orbit, and of Mars 5.0 5.0 x103
“escape velocity”. Jupiter 60.0 6.0 x104

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Placing a Spacecraft into Earth Orbit
A projectile needs an enormous velocity to escape from the Earth’s gravitational field... School Inspection only.
about 11 km per second. Think of a place 11 km away from you, and imagine getting there Copying NOT permitted.
in 1 second flat!

What about Newton’s idea of an orbiting projectile?

If it is travelling at the right velocity, a projectile’s down-curving trajectory will match the
curvature of the Earth, so it keeps falling down, but can never reach the surface.
A projectile “in orbit” becomes a “satellite”.

It can be shown that to achieve orbit, the launch velocity required is less than escape
velocity, but still very high... about 8 km per second. How is this velocity possible?

In a 19th century novel, author Jules Verne proposed using a huge cannon to fire a space
capsule (including human passengers) into space.
The problem with this idea is the rate of acceleration to go from zero to orbital velocity in Space Shuttle launch 1988
the very short time it takes to fire a cannon. A fit, trained astronaut can tolerate sustained
forces of “5g”, but anything above about “10g” is life-threatening. Jules Verne’s cannon Image by NASA
astronauts would have suffered forces of about 200g... instantly fatal.

That’s why we use rockets, not cannons. A large rocket can produce a steady acceleration at a “g-force” which is acceptable for trained
astronauts, over the 10 minutes (or so) that it takes to reach orbit. If you’re wondering why we don’t use jet engines, or similar, you need to
remember that there is no air (with oxygen to burn the fuel) in space. Rockets carry their own oxidisers plus fuel and so do not need air.
In fact, of course, they work better in space where there is no air resistance.

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A Brief History of Rocketry
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keep it simple science
Simple solid-fuel (e.g. gunpowder) rockets have been used as fireworks At the end of the war many V2’s, and the German scientists who
and weapons for over 500 years. developed them, were captured by either the Russians or the
Americans. They continued their research in their “new” countries,
Over 100 years ago, the Russian Tsiolkovsky (1857-1935) was the first firstly to develop rockets to carry nuclear weapons (during the “Cold
to seriously propose rockets as vehicles to reach outer space. He
War”) and later for space research.
developed the theory of multi-stage, liquid-fuel rockets as being the
only practical means of achieving space flight.
The Russians achieved the first
The American Robert Goddard (1882-1945) Goddard satellite (“Sputnik” 1957) and
developed rocketry theory futher, but also and his first the first human in orbit, and the
carried out practical experiments including liquid-fuel Americans the first manned
the first liquid-fuel rocket engine. rocket. missions to the Moon (1969).

Goddard’s experiments were the Since the 1970’s, the use of

basis of new weapons research satellites has become routine
during World War II, especially and essential to our
by Nazi Germany. Replica of
communications & research,
V2 Sputnik
Wernher von Braun (1912-1977) while (unmanned) probes have
in a museum
and others developed the liquid- visited every other planet in the
fuel “V2” rocket to deliver Solar System, plus an asteroid
explosive warheads at and a comet.
supersonic speeds from
hundreds of kilometers away.

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Physics of a Rocket Launch

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Conservation of Momentum Reaction force pushes
Direction of Launch rocket forward

Straight upwards, right? Wrong! Why a rocket moves is yet another

phenomenon explained by Newtonian Physics.
Launch
To reach Earth orbit, Trajectory Newton’s 3rd Law
rockets are aimed Action Force
toward the EAST to Orbit path pushes on
Force on = Force on exhaust gasses,
take advantage of the Exhaust Rocket pushing them
Earth’s rotation. The backwards
Gases
rocket will climb
vertically to clear the Earth, viewed It can also be shown that
launch pad, then be from above
turned eastward. North Pole Change of Momentum = Change of Momentum
of Exhaust Gases of Rocket
Rotation
backwards ( -ve) forwards (+ve)

Mass x velocity = Mass x velocity

At the equator, the Earth is
rotating eastwards at about The mass x velocity of the exhaust gases stays fairly constant during
1,700km/hr (almost 0.5km/sec) so the the launch. However, the mass of the rocket decreases as tonnes of
rocket already has that much velocity towards its orbital speed. fuel is burnt. Therefore, the rocket’s velocity must keep increasing in
order to maintain the Conservation of Momemtum.
Rocket launch facilities are always sited as close to the equator as This increasing acceleration (and g-forces) used to make early
possible, and usually near the east coast of a continent so the launch astronauts very uncomfortable, but modern space vehicles are
is outwards over the ocean. “throttled-back” during launch to keep the g-force more tolerable.

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Satellites and Orbits School Inspection only.
Copying NOT permitted.
keep it simple science There are 2 main types of satellite orbits:

Low-Earth Orbit Geo-Synchronous Orbits

As the name suggests, this type of orbit is relatively close to the Earth, are those where the period of the satellite (time taken for one orbit) is
generally from about 200km, out to about 1,000km above the surface. exactly the same as the Earth itself... 1 day.

For any satellite, the closer it is, the faster it must travel to stay in orbit. If the satellite orbit is directly above the equator, the satellite is also
Therefore, in a Low-Earth Orbit a satellite is travelling quickly and will “geo-stationary”, meaning that it is always directly above the same
complete an orbit in only a few hours. spot on the Earth, and seems to remain motionless in the same
position in the sky. It’s not really motionless, of course, but orbiting
A common low orbit is a “Polar Orbit” in which the satellite tracks over around at the same angular velocity as the Earth itself.
the north and south poles while the Earth rotates underneath it.
Geostationary orbits are above the equator, and have to be about
This type of orbit is ideal for taking photos 36,000km above the surface in order to have the correct orbital speed.
N or Radar surveys of Earth.
Being so far out, these satellites are not much good for photographs
Polar The satellite only “sees” a narrow north- or surveys, but are ideal for communications. They stay in the same
Orbit south strip of the Earth, but as the Earth relative position in the sky and so radio and microwave dishes can be
rotates, each orbit looks at a new strip. permanently aimed at the satellite, for continuous TV, telephone and
Earth’s
Rotation internet relays to almost anywhere on Earth.
Eventually, the entire Earth can be
surveyed. Being a close orbit, fine details
Equator Three geostationary satellites, spaced evenly around the equator, can
can be seen.
cover virtually the whole Earth with their transmissions.
Satellites of this type can be seen as
S “moving stars” in the night sky. They Try Worksheet 9
always move on a N-S path.

Orbits & Centripetal Force Object in V Instaneous Velocity

vector is a tangent to
The orbit of a satellite is often an oval-shape, or an Circular
Motion the circle
“ellipse”. However, in this topic we will always
assume the orbits are circular... K.I.S.S. Principle. Fc Fc Example
V
problem
To maintain motion in a circle an object must be Centripetal Force next page
constantly acted upon by “Centripetal Force”, Vector The object is
which acts towards the centre of the circle. constantly
always towards centre accelerating.
The “centripetal
It is (of course) gravity which provides the acceleration” vector
is towards the
centripital force which keeps a satellite in orbit. centre.

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From previous page... Solution
a) First, find the true radius of the orbit, and get everything into
S.I. units:
Example Problem Radius of orbit = 200,000 + 6.37x106 = 6.57x106m
A 250kg satellite in a circular orbit 200km above Period = 1.47hr = 1.47 x 60 x 60 = 5.29x103 sec.
the Earth, has an orbital period of 1.47hours. R
πr = 2 x π x 6.57x106 /5.29x103 = 7.80x103ms-1.
v = 2π
a) What is its orbital velocity? 200km T
b) Fc = mv2 = 250x (7.80x103)2 / 6.57x106
b) What centripetal force acts on the satellite? r
(Earth radius = 6.37x106m) = 2,315 = 2.32 x 103 N. Try Worksheet 10

The satellite is travelling at about 8 km/sec,

held in orbit by a gravitational centripetal force of about 2,300N.

Satellites, Planets & Moons

So far, we have used the word “satellite” only for human-made space- What this means is, that for any given “primary” object, there is a
craft in Earth orbit. relationship between the orbital speed of a satellite and the radius of
the orbit.
However, don’t forget that all the planets of the Solar System are
satellites of the Sun and that the Moon is a natural satellite of Earth. To put it another way, for any given radius of an orbit, there is a
Most of the other planets have moons (some have dozens) and these certain orbital speed which “fits” that orbit. The relationship is
are satellites of their “primary”... the body they orbit around. inverse: a larger radius orbit results in a slower orbital speed and
vice-versa.
Orbital Speed & Radius For artificial satellites in Earth orbit, this means that low-level
Since we know that the centripetal force is due to the gravitational satellites must move very fast in their orbit, while those further out
force between the satellite and its “primary”, we can say: move more slowly.

Fc = FG or mv2 = GMm School Inspection only. Same thing for the planets in orbit around the Sun. Those closer to
r r2 Copying NOT permitted. the Sun move faster, those further out move slower. This was first
realised and measured by astronomers about 400 years ago and was
Simplifying gives: the stimulus that caused Isaac Newton to get busy.
v2 = GM so v = GM
It will help your understanding if you know some background about
r r what they knew back then, and what was the problem that Newton
solved.
What does this mean?

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A Brief History of Astronomy (to the time of Newton)
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Ancient Beliefs Copying NOT permitted. Tycho Brahe (cont.)
In ancient times, the Sun, Moon & stars were “The Heavens” and considered He favoured the geocentric model and hoped his observations would
the home of Gods. The early Greeks were the first to attempt to explain prove Copernicus wrong. However, this doesn’t mean he accepted the
things based on evidence, observation & calculation... ie scientifically. ancient models either. His aim was to develop a new model, but he
Generally, it was believed that the Earth was the centre of the Universe and died before completing it.
everything else revolved around us. There were some who realised that
movements in the sky could also be explained if the Earth went around the He had jealously guarded his data from others, but when he died it
Sun AND rotated on its axis. (if interested, research Aristarchus.) However, went to his student Kepler.
no-one could find evidence for movements of the Earth, so the “Geocentric
Model” was accepted. Johannes Kepler (1571-1630 German)
Throughout the Middle Ages, this idea was so prevalent that it was adopted Kepler fitted Brahe's extremely accurate data
by the Church as religious dogma... any other suggestions were heresy and (especially of the movements of planet Mars) to the
punishable by torture & death.
Copernicus model. He found it fitted, but only if the
Nicholas Copernicus (Polish. 1473 -1543) orbits were ellipses, not circles.

The first modern suggestion that the Earth revolves around the Sun Eventually he proposed 3 "Laws of Planetary
was published by Copernicus in a book released just as he died. Motion", but could give no explanation of how or
why the Earth and planets could orbit around the
It was a Heliocentric model... Sun centred. Sun. The Heliocentric idea was still NOT accepted
The accuracy of predicted motions of planets, etc. remained much widely. One of his “Laws” is detailed, next page.
the same as the Geocentric model, but this model was much
simpler in its explanations. The Copernicus model was NOT Galileo Galilei (1564-1642 Italian)
immediately accepted at the time because: About the same time as Kepler’s Laws, (circa 1610) Galileo was the
first to use a TELESCOPE to view the heavens.
• there was still no evidence that the Earth moved.
• the Church condemned the theory as heresy and banned the book. His observations of Jupiter’s
moons, planet Venus and The
Moon conflicted with the
Tycho Brahe Geocentric model and
(1546-1601 Danish) supported the Heliocentric
Tycho built the most advanced idea of Copernicus. He was
observatory of that time to gather arrested by the Church and
outstandingly accurate data (accurate Galileo’s trial forced to formally deny his
for measurement without a telescope) findings, under threat of
of planetary movements. torture.
He was formally acquitted & forgiven by the Church 350 years later.
Drawing of Tycho’s Observatory

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Kepler’s “Law of Periods” & Newton’s Proof
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One of Kepler’s “Laws of Planetary Motion” was a mathematical Encouraged by others, Isaac Newton (age 24) solved the problem.
relationship between the Period of the orbit and its Radius: There is a legend that he was inspired by seeing an apple fall from a
tree, but in fact he developed his famous 3 “Laws of Motion”, invented
r3 α T2 (Greek letter alpha (α ) a whole new method of Maths (now called “Calculus”) and topped it off
means “proportional to”) with his Law of Gravity... apples have nothing to do with such genius!
This means that School Inspection only.
r3 = constant Copying NOT permitted. With his “Law of Universal Gravitation” he was able to prove the
T2 theoretical basis for Kepler’s Law, as follows:

This means that for every planet, the (Radius)3 divided by (Period)2 has The Centripetal Force of orbiting is provided by the Gravitational Force
the same value. Similarly, every satellite of the Earth would have the between the satellite and the Earth, so
same value of r3 / T2, but this value would be quite different to the value
for the Sun’s satellites. The ratio is different for each “primary”. Fc = FG or mv2 = GMm
r r2
Kepler’s Law of Periods was discovered empirically... that is, it was Simplifying gives:
discovered by observing the motion of the planets, calculated from v2 = GM But v = 2πr
Tycho’s data. Kepler had no idea WHY it was so and could not prove r T Example
mathematically that it was generally true. So, π 2 2
4π r = GM Problems
For about 50 years, no-one could figure this out. Meanwhile, across T2 r next page
Europe the power and control of the Church of Rome was being re-arranging: r3 = GM = constant
weakened by the spread of the Protestant movement. T2 4ππ2
In Protestant countries Science was flourishing and in England, a new Since the right hand side contains all constant values, this proves Kepler’s
generation of brilliant scientists had formed a scientific “club” called Law and establishes the Force of Gravity as the controlling force for all
the “Royal Society”. They became interested in solving the riddle of orbiting satellites, including planets around the Sun.
Kepler’s Laws.

This proof explained Kepler’s Laws and proved mathematically that the Heliocentric idea
is correct. Newton’s Gravity law fitted precisely with the Astronomical observations to
explain how & why the Universe worked. Soon, new telescopic observations followed
Galileo’s work & eventually found the proof that the Earth was moving.
Many consider that Galileo’s observations & Newton’s theories
marked the beginning of modern Science.

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® From previous page... Problem 2

keep it simple science Find the orbital radius of a geo-stationary satellite, given that its
period of orbit is 24.0 hours.
Problem 1 (24.0hr = 24.0x60x60 = 8.64 x 104 sec)
In a previous problem, an Earth satellite 200km high had a period of
Doing it this way, you MUST use S.I. units!!
1.47 hrs. Use this to find the height of a geosynchronous satellite
using Kepler’s Law.
(G= Gravitational Constant = 6.67 x 10-11 School Inspection only.
Solution M = Mass of Earth = 5.97 x 1024kg) Copying NOT permitted.
For the satellite above, R3 = 6,5703 = 1.31 x 1011
(units are km & hours) T2 1.472 Solution
R3 = GM Try Worksheet 11
According to the law of periods, ALL satellites of Earth must have the T2 π2
4π
same value for R3/T2
R3 = 6.67x10-11 x 5.97x1024 x (8.64x104)2
So, for the geo-stationary satellite: R3 = 1.31 x 1011 π2
4π
T2
So R3 = 1.31x1011x (24.0)2 ∴R = 3
7.46x1022 = 4.21 x 104 km
∴R = 3 7.55x1013 = 4.23 x 104 km This is about 42,000km, or about 36,000km above the surface...
the same answer as before. (It better be!)
This is approx. 42,000km from Earth’s centre, or about 36,000km
above the surface.
Possibly our most famous satellite:
the Hubble Space Telescope.
Note: When using Kepler’s Law this way it doesn’t matter which units Photo by NASA
are used, as long as you are consistent. In this example, km & hrs were
used. You get the same answer with metres & seconds.

Decay of Low-Earth Orbits

Where does “Space” begin?
As it slows, its orbit “decays”. This means it loses a little altitude and gradually
It’s generally agreed that by 100km above the surface of the spirals downward. As it gets slightly lower it will encounter even more gas
Earth the atmosphere has ended, and you’re in outer space. molecules, so the decay process speeds up.
However, although this seems to be a vacuum, there are
still a few atoms and molecules of gases extending out Once the satellite reaches about the 100km level the friction becomes powerful
many hundreds of kilometres. enough to cause heating and rapid loss of speed. At this point the satellite will
probably “burn up” and be destroyed as it crashes downward.
Therefore, any satellite in a low-Earth orbit will be
constantly colliding with this extremely thin “outer Modern satellites are designed to reach their low-Earth orbit with enough fuel
atmosphere”. The friction or air-resistance this causes is still available to carry out short rocket engine “burns” as needed to counteract
extremely small, but over a period of months or years, it decay and “boost” themselves back up to the correct orbit. This way they can
gradually slows the satellite down. remain in low-Earth orbits for many years.

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School Inspection only.
Re-Entry From Orbit
®
Copying NOT permitted.
keep it simple science
Getting a spacecraft into orbit is difficult enough, but the most dangerous process is Angle too shallow...
getting it down again in one piece with any astronauts on board alive and well. Spacecraft bounces off upper air
layers, back into space
In orbit, the satellite and astronauts have a high velocity (kinetic energy) and a large
amount of GPE due to height above the Earth. To get safely back to Earth, the
Upper Atmosphere
spacecraft must decelerate and shed all that energy.

It is impossible to carry enough fuel to use rocket engines to decelerate downwards in

Earth’s Surface
a reverse of the lift-off, riding the rocket back down at the same rate it went up.

Instead, the capsule is slowed by Angle correct...

“retro-rockets” just enough to cause Spacecraft decelerates safely along
it to enter the top of the atmosphere a descent path of about 1,000km
of “Atmospheric
so that friction with the air does 2
Braking”
things:
Correct angle is
between 5-7o
• cause deceleration of the capsule at
a survivable rate of deceleration not
Earth’s Surface
more than (say) “5-g”,
and
• convert all the Ek and GPE into Angle too steep...
heat energy. “g-forces” may kill astronauts.
Heat may cause craft to burn-up.
Artistic impression of an Apollo spacecraft
The trick is to enter the atmosphere during Atmospheric Braking
at the correct angle.

Early spacecraft used “ablation shields”, designed to melt and carry heat away, with
the final descent by parachute. The Space Shuttle used high temperature tiles and Earth’s Surface
high-tech insulation for heat protection, and glided in on its wings for final landing like
an aircraft.

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®
Energy of a Satellite U = -GMm
keep it simple science
r
In a previous module you studied the relationship for any object on or near the Earth, that U = GPE in joules (J)
the change of Gravitational Potential Energy (GPE) is
School Inspection only. G = Gravitational Constant (= 6.67x10-11)
ΔU = mgΔ Δh Copying NOT permitted. m = mass of object (kg)
M = mass of Earth, or other planet (kg)
If an object is allowed to fall down, it loses some GPE and gains some other form of r = distance from centre of the “primary” (m).
energy, such as Kinetic or Heat. To raise the object higher, you must “do work” on it, in
Example Problem
order to increase the amount of GPE it contains.

Notice that this equation calculates the CHANGE in Compare the GPE possessed by a geosynchronous
GPE and assumes a constant value for “g” on or near (r = 4.2x107m) satellite of mass 500kg, with that of a
the Earth’s surface. For satellites this is useless. 500kg satellite in low orbit 200km up.
(r = 6.571x106m)
Gravitational Potential Energy
For mathematical reasons, the point where an object Solution
is defined to have zero GPE is not on Earth, but at a Geosynch. Satellite
point an infinite distance away. U = -GMm = - 6.67x10-11 x 5.97x1024 x 500 / 4.2x107
So GPE is defined as follows: r
Gravitational Potential Energy is a measure of the work done to move an object = - 4.74 x 109 J (-4,740,000,000)
from infinity, to a point within the gravitational field.
Low Orbit Satellite
U = -GMm
This definition has an important consequence:
it defines GPE as the work done to bring an object towards the Earth, but we know that r
you need to do work to push an object (upwards) away from Earth. = - 6.67x10-11 x 5.97x1024 x 500 / 6.571x106

Therefore, GPE is, by definition, a negative quantity! = - 3.03 x 1010 J (-30,300,000,000)

So, if you lift an object upwards against gravity, its GPE increases by becoming less The higher satellite has more GPE (about 6 times
negative. It’s value might go from (say) -10 units to -5 units. more) by virtue of being less negative in value.

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Energy of a Satellite (cont.)
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Example Problem
Kinetic Energy in Orbit How much energy is required to lift a 500kg satellite from a
You previously learned that Ek = 1mv2 low orbit (r = 6.571x106m) up to a geosynchronous orbit?
2 (r = 4.2x107m)
but to work it out for a satellite it would be better to express it in terms
of G, M, r, etc.
Solution
School Inspection only.
We begin the same way as we have before: Total energy in low orbit
Copying NOT permitted.
Ek + U = - GMm = - 6.67x10-11 x5.97x1024 x500
Fc = FG or mv2 = GMm 2r 2 x 6.571x106
r r2 = -1.51 x 1010 J
Multiply both sides by “r” and divide by 2 gives:
mv2 = GMm
2 2r Total energy in geosynch. orbit
Ek + U = - GMm = - 6.67x10-11 x5.97x1024 x500
The left side is the kinetic energy expression, so:
2r 2 x 4.2x107
Ek = GMm = -2.37 x 109 J Try Worksheet 12
2r
This means that a satellite in a higher orbit (r is larger) will have less In the higher orbit, its total energy is increased (it is less
Ek. That makes sense, because at higher orbits we know that its negative). It has lost Ek (lower velocity) but gained GPE
velocity is lower. (more height).
The actual answer to the question is the difference between
Total Energy of a Satellite these values:
The total energy of the satellite is the sum of its kinetic energy plus
its gravitational potential energy. Energy required = -2.37x109 - (-1.51x1010) = 1.27x1010 J

Total Energy = Ek + U The launch of the space

of a Satellite shuttle carrying the Hubble
= GMm + -GMm Space Telescope in 1990.
2r r

Express with a common denominator:

= GMm + -2GMm = GMm - 2GMm
Finish with Worksheet 13
2r 2r 2r

Ek + U = - GMm
2r
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®
School Inspection only.

keep it simple science

Discusssion / Activity 3 Copying NOT permitted.
The following activity might be for class discussion, or there may be paper copies for you to complete.
If studying independently, please use these questions to check your comprehension before moving on.

Motion in Gravitational Fields Student Name .................................

1. a) Given that the gravitational force on a mass (which is in a grav. field) is equal to the objects weight
force at that point, derive an expression for “g”, the acceleration due to gravity.

b) Arising from (a) comes another way to interpret the meaning of “g”. Give an outline of this meaning.

2. Two important types of satellite orbits can be described as “geostationary” and “polar low-Earth”.
For each, describe the main features of each orbit and relate these features an an appropriate
technological use of a satellite in such an orbit.

3. a) What was Kepler’s “Law of Periods” about?

b) Write a simple mathematical expression to summarise this law.

c) Outline Newton’s proof of the law.

d) What was the significance of this proof in the history of Science?

4. Why is the value of an object’s gravitational potential energy always a negative quantity?

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