SOCIOLOGY-DIVERSITY

“No love is greater than that of a father for His son.”― Dan Brown, Angels & Demons

O Level

FAMILY 15 MARKS
PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1 To what extent are nuclear families patriarchal?

Possible answers:
FOR:
• traditional gender roles in the nuclear family make men the breadwinner and head of the
household so giving him more power;
• the expected role of a wife in a nuclear family is to be expressive and look after the needs of
the husband, meaning that the man benefits more than she does;
• socialisation of children into gender roles in the nuclear family through processes such as
canalisation and manipulation – this can be very stereotyped, leading to patriarchy;
• the dual burden/triple shift – means that women in the nuclear family have more
responsibilities and stress than men;
• feminists believe that as long as society remains patriarchal so the domestic division of labour
will remain and gender inequalities will persist in the nuclear family;
• men may help out more in the home and with the childcare today but women do this for a lot
longer and often do the worst, tedious domestic jobs;
• men continue to make the important household decisions meaning nuclear family life is
patriarchal;
• house husbands and the new man remain the exception in nuclear family life;
• domestic violence and abuse in the nuclear family – men are the main perpetrators of this;
• other reasonable response.

AGAINST:
• feminism has raised the expectations of women so that they are no longer prepared to accept
their subordinate role in the nuclear family;
• men help out regularly with housework and childcare in privatised nuclear families;
• there are now many stay at home dads/house husbands in nuclear families which allows
women to go out to work and not be tied to the home;
• some women choose to stay at home and be a housewife, this is not patriarchy, this is their
choice;
• most women in nuclear families now work meaning that their power and status in the home
has increased;
• many nuclear families are now symmetrical – the sharing of conjugal roles and decision
making means they cannot be patriarchal;
• parents are making active choices not to bring their children up in a stereotypical way, so
breaking the cycle of patriarchy;
• lesbian nuclear families allow for the roles to be redefined and for patriarchy not to be
relevant;
• how patriarchal a nuclear family is will depend upon the individual family members, the
culture and religion, etc. – it cannot be generalised to all;

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• domestic violence and abuse is not just committed by males in nuclear families;
• in most societies domestic violence has been criminalised and is thought to be unacceptable –
this prevents patriarchy in the family;
• it is not just nuclear families that can be patriarchal – this kind of inequality may be present in
many different types of families;
• other reasonable response.

2 To what extent are grandparents important to the family today?

Possible answers:

FOR:
• With an ageing population and increased life expectancy, grandparents are living longer and
actively ageing meaning they can play a crucial part in family life;
• Many grandparents perform childcare duties for families with dual worker parents or a single
parent;
• Many grandparents pass on their advice and wisdom to their children and are seen as the
matriarchs and patriarchs of the family;
• Financial assistance is given by many grandparents to their families via economic support;
• Grandparents may live with their children (part of an extended family) and so are a centrally
important part of family life;
• Grandparents are seen to give extensive emotional and moral support, particularly with giving
their daughters advice about motherhood and childcare;
• Grandparents can use new media to keep in touch with and support their wider kin despite
not necessarily living close by which can make their role important;
• With increasing numbers of single parent families, grandparents often are very important as
they are actively involved in the nurturing of the children;
• With beanpole families grandparents may live with their children and grandchildren and be
heavily involved in socialisation/social control, etc;
• With more dual worker parents and working women, grandparents are often vital in
supporting the needs of parents and children through unpaid childcare;
• Grandparents can act as role models to their grandchildren and therefore have a very
important role to play in family life;
• Other reasonable response.

AGAINST:
• As women have children later in life or not at all, the need for grandparents to play an active
role is diminishing;
• Privatised nuclear families mean that grandparents are unlikely to play a pivotal role in family
life anymore;
• The state (social institutions) now performs many of the functions needed in a family if both
parents are working – not the grandparents;
• Pensioner poverty in some societies means that it is unlikely for grandparents to be able to
help out their families financially, reducing their importance;
• Increased retirement age/ageing population in many societies means that it is unlikely that
grandparents are in a position to help families out as they are too busy with their own lives;
• With rising divorce rates, an increase in reconstituted families and social changes such as
industrialisation and urbanisation, many grandparents do not see their grandchildren regularly
and thus do not play an important role in family life;
• How important the role of grandparents is in family life depends upon the culture, individual
context and society of the family in question – you can’t generalise;
• The generation gap may mean that grandparents input to family life is not perceived to be
important as they are seen to be ‘out of touch’; other reasonable response.

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3 To what extent is marriage still the norm in modern industrial societies?

Candidates should show awareness of a range of different points that illustrate that marriage is
still the norm today. They should then consider alternative arguments that its importance is
declining or changing in MISs.

Possible answers:

FOR:
• socialisation through most agencies still promotes marriage as something to be valued and as
a social norm e.g. the media’s ‘cereal packet family’;
• whilst divorce rates may be high, so are rates of remarriage – illustrating that marriage is still
the norm;
• serial monogamy (a series of marriages and divorces in a person's lifetime) is increasingly
common, indicating that marriage is still the norm;
• in religious/traditional societies and communities marriage is still expected and highly valued;
• minority groups have pushed for changing legislation as regards marriage i.e. homosexual
marriages are now legal in many societies – this illustrates the continued importance of
marriage;
• in many societies, the legal frameworks support and encourage marriage;
• other reasonable response.

AGAINST:
• high divorce rates and levels of separation in relationships illustrate how marriage is no
longer considered as important or the norm;
• high numbers of people choose not to get married – civil partnerships, cohabitation, single
parents, etc. – this all indicates how marriage is no longer seen as the norm;
• secularisation – the decline of the importance of religion in many societies means that there is
less pressure to get married and thus it becomes less of a norm;
• feminists see marriage as a patriarchal institution therefore with the rise of equality and
women's rights marriage has become less popular and so less of a norm;
• heterosexuality is not the only socially approved type of relationship anymore and so with
increased diversity in society comes similar diversity in terms of relationships – marriage is just
one such choice;
• other reasonable response.

4 To what extent does culture affect family life?

Candidates should discuss various ways that culture may affect family life.
They may choose to do this generically in terms of a way of life, or to focus their discussion on
specific ethnic groups or religion more widely. They could also consider the idea in evaluation
that culture may not be a great influence on family life after all and that perhaps other social
factors such as class and gender have more impact. Class culture, however, could perhaps be
used as an argument for by some candidates as well.

Possible answers:

FOR:
• culture is closely linked with religion and so determines a family’s norms and values. For
example, Muslim families will value prayer and halal foods whereas non-Muslim families will
not;
• arranged marriages are still common and popular amongst many Asian families – this is not
true for other cultures;

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• forced marriages are seen as the norm amongst many Middle Eastern families – these may not
be accepted by other cultures;
• large proportions of Afro-Caribbean families are headed by single mothers – this is not true for
other cultures;
• feminists frequently accuse families of being patriarchal whereas in many Afro-Caribbean
families the opposite is true and they are matrifocal instead;
• extended families are far more common amongst Asian families than most other cultures;
• gender roles in the family are often linked with culture i.e. they are typically very traditional
and domestic in traveller/gypsy families;
• class culture – working class families may be extended, maintaining close contact with wider
kin whereas middle class families may be geographically dispersed and so more modified
extended instead, keeping in touch via technology;
• other reasonable response.

AGAINST:
• in post-modern societies, culture has little relevance in terms of family life as this is down to
individual choices and decisions;
• social class may be a more important factor than culture in terms of family life e.g. wealthier
families typically pay others to do domestic work for them;
• gender may be more important than culture in terms of family life e.g. conjugal roles are still
segregated in many societies and women typically have to perform the triple shift;
• age may be more important than culture in terms of family life e.g. different generations have
different interests and lifestyles and these will determine how a family is organised, not culture;
• categorising families and individuals into broad cultures such as
‘Asian’ and ‘white’ is of little use as this merely provides a generalised and stereotypical picture
of family life that is often untrue;
• secularisation has led to a decline in religious values and beliefs therefore meaning religious
cultures no longer have such an influence on family life;
• other reasonable response.

5 To what extent is there a dark side of the family today?

Candidates should show awareness of a range of different arguments that illustrate how there
can be a dark side of the family today. They should also consider points that refute this idea. The
dark side of the family can refer to various negative aspects of family life and all that are
relevant should be credited.

Possible answers:
For
• Feminists believe that the family oppress and exploit women – arguments such as triple
shift/dual burden, a patriarchal institution etc.;
• Dysfunctional families do not socialise children effectively therefore they do not fulfil the
essential family functions, such as primary socialisation etc.;
• Domestic violence/honour violence – often a hidden part of family life but research shows it to
be widespread. This may take the form of sexual abuse, violence and emotional abuse;
• Child/elder/sibling abuse and neglect – a family isn’t always a loving place of safety;
• High rates of unemployment and poverty place a lot of strain on the family, particularly single
parent families;
• Alcoholism, drug abuse and mental health issues can all contribute to a negative experience of
family life;
• Divorce or separation brings a lot of negatives for family members, i.e. short term distress for
children, financial insecurity, emotional upset etc.;

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• Children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship breakdown, and thus lack a
clear sense of security and belonging or no longer see one parent;
• There may be a lack of freedom for children (helicopter parenting) due to increased levels of
parental control e.g. a stifling environment;
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Domestic violence is no longer stigmatised and thus women and men are more likely to speak
out and seek help and are supported when doing so;
• Legislation and changing attitudes gives vulnerable groups, e.g. children, increased rights and
protection in society which improves their experience of family life;
• Child-centeredness is now the norm, meaning that children are at the heart of the family;
• According to functionalists, families perform several essential functions, such as stabilisation
of adult personalities and primary socialisation, which all work well for family members;
• Divorce and separation are more frequent today and are thought by many to be best for all
family members once a relationship has broken down;
• Increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies, education and key
professionals means that bringing up children need not be problematic;
• The media demonises cases of child/domestic abuse and thus society now sees this as
unacceptable – rise of child-centeredness;
• Feminists believe that women today have greater equality in family life and have career
opportunities that ensure they are no longer oppressed within the family;
• Increased diversity in family life allows people to find a family form and situation that works
best for them e.g. singlehood, sharing with friends, same sex relationships etc.;
• Other reasonable response.

6 To what extent has industrialisation decreased the importance of the extended family?

Candidates should show awareness of a range of different arguments that illustrate how the
process of industrialisation has decreased the importance of the extended family. They should
also consider points that refute this idea. There is likely to be a focus on how family types have
changed over time. The diverse definition of what we now mean by an extended family is also
likely to be discussed.

Possible answers:
For
• Best fit thesis – an extended family suited the needs of a preindustrial society whereas a
privatised nuclear one is best for the modern industrial family.
• Functionalists, i.e. Parsons, believe that family functions have now been taken over by the
state and so an extended family is no longer necessary – structural differentiation.
• Industrial society needs a geographically mobile workforce and this would be difficult with an
extended family.
• Urbanisation meant a move to the cities for a large number of people and this would have
proved difficult and expensive with an extended family.
• Only functions now left for the family to perform are primary socialisation and the
stabilisation of adult personalities, therefore the extended family is less important.
• Laslett – industrialisation brought about the formation of smaller family structures.
• Modern industrial societies are thought to be meritocratic, therefore the extended family has
less to offer family members, i.e. through job opportunities.
• Increased social mobility means that families often have different status and class positions, as
well as different values and attitudes and thus may have little in common.
• Growth of the welfare state reduces the need for the extended family in times of difficulty and
stress, therefore further weakening the extended family.

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• Increasing opportunities for women, i.e. in the employment sector, makes extended families
more difficult to sustain.
• Increasing number of people choosing not to have children, e.g. the increase in DINK families
in China due to living in industrial societies.
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Modified, extended families may be more typical than isolated nuclear families in a world
where the internet and mass communications makes keeping in touch so easy.
• In traditional working class communities, the extended family still remains strong and is an
important source of support for families
(Willmott and Young).
• In the Asian community the extended family is still thought to be very important.
• The trend towards an ageing population has led to the development of beanpole families,
whereby several generations may live alongside one another.
• Anderson found that industrialisation actually led to an increase in extended families and that
they remained a source of financial and emotional support during the process of moving to a
city.
• Increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies, education and key
professionals are undeniable, but this does not mean that the extended family cannot also
contribute towards these functions as well.
• ‘Sandwich generation’ and increasing life expectancy may mean that elderly relatives are
living with wider kin for support and care.
• Decline of the birth and fertility rate leads to smaller families, not industrialisation;
• Other reasonable response.

7 To what extent is the nuclear family the norm today?

Possible answers:

For:
• urbanisation means that families need to be small in order to be geographically mobile i.e.
nuclear;
• as feminism has led to working women being the norm so family size has had to shrink in
order to facilitate this process;
• contraception is now widely available giving individuals the opportunities to control the size
of their family and to keep it small if they wish to;
• functionalists and the New Right believe that the nuclear family is the best structure to
perform the essential functions;
• symmetry within families is now far more expected and this lends itself best to the nuclear
family structure;
• financial pressures mean that large families are no longer viable in a lot of communities and
societies (children as an economic cost);
• it is no longer essential to have children to look after you when you are older due to other
institutions also performing the essential functions, meaning that large families are no longer
necessary;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• in some cultures and ethnic groups, extended families are still the norm e.g. South Asian;
• there is greater diversity today in the type of family that people choose to be part of, meaning
that nuclear families are just one of many possible options;
• growth of the single parent family;

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• increasing numbers of people choosing to live alone or to live with a partner but to have no
children – children are now a lifestyle choice;
• high levels of divorce rates means that blended and reconstituted families of all types and
structures are increasingly commonplace;
• alternatives to the family such as communes and friendship groups mean that the nuclear
family may not be the norm in society; homosexual relationships are more accepted and
commonplace and yet do not fit many sociologists definitions of a nuclear family, even if the
couple are married and have dependent children;
• increasing levels of cohabitation in society;
• changing social attitudes to what we mean by a family leads to the decline of the nuclear
family and the rise of other family forms – these may be caused by secularisation in society;
• other reasonable response.

8 To what extent has the family in modern industrial societies lost its essential functions?

Possible answers:
For:
• nuclear families are less likely to successfully perform essential functions than extended
families according to writers such as Leach who feels the nuclear family is under great levels of
stress and conflict;
• families may be seen as dysfunctional due to the extent of violence and abuse e.g. the dark side
of the family;
• the New Right believe modern day families are unable to successfully perform family functions
due to the decline of two parent families and women going out to work;
• feminists believe that the family is patriarchal and so is not functional for women;
• other institutions such as schools, hospitals, welfare state and child minders may now perform
many of the functions that were once the domain of the family;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• reproduction – societies need new generations of children to survive therefore having children
within a committed relationship is encouraged;
• socialisation – children need to learn society's norms and values and the family transmits
these between generations;
• social control – sanctions are used to ensure that children conform to recognised norms and
values of society;
• care of children – families nurture and look after children;
• regulation of sexual behaviour – families reinforce rules about acceptable sexual behaviour;
• other reasonable response.
Candidates should show awareness of the different functions that the family
is thought to perform and of the ways that these are being taken over by other institutions and
are changing. A discussion focusing on the dysfunctional nature of some families may also be
seen.

9 To what extent is marriage still seen to be important in modern industrial societies?

Candidates should show awareness of the ways that marriage is seen to be important today as
well as considering the arguments for its lesser importance. It is likely that there will be a wide
range of cultural and religious examples used in candidates’ answers, reflecting their diverse
experiences and backgrounds. Points and arguments can be used both for and against the
question depending on the candidates’ explanations and examiners should credit these
accordingly.

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Possible answers:
For:
• A growing number of marriages today are remarriages, emphasising that it is still seen as
important;
• For religious individuals and communities, marriage is still highly valued;
• Homosexuals have pushed for changes in the law to legalise gay marriages, emphasising that it
is still seen to be important;
• Most people are still socialised to believe that they will get married and hope and look forward
to this;
• Many people choose to get married later in life, wanting to choose the right partner. This
emphasises how it is still seen to be important;
• Civil partnerships are now commonplace, giving the same rights to same sex couples as
married couples therefore suggesting that the concept of marriage is still important;
Serial monogamy through marriage is now commonplace and accepted;
• The divorce rate has started to decline;
• Cohabitation as a precursor to marriage, i.e. a ‘trial marriage’ showing that marriage is still
seen to be important;
• Marriage is seen by many to legitimise their relationship and is still therefore wanted and
valued;
• Arranged marriages are still the norm in some modern industrial societies;
• Other reasonable response.

Against:
• Fall in the marriage rate;
• Divorce easily available and no longer frowned upon;
• Growing number of one person households and people (especially middle class women)
choosing singlehood over marriage;
• Increasing acceptance of homosexual relationships;
• People choosing to live together in households/communes rather than the traditional path of
marriage;
• Increasing amount of and acceptance of cohabitation;
• Women may choose to have and raise children on their own as single parents without the need
to be married;
• Decline in religion in secular societies means that marriage may be seen to be less important
and necessary;
• Other reasonable response.

10 To what extent have family roles changed in modern industrial societies?

Candidates should show awareness of the ways that family roles have changed in modern
industrial families and the ways that they have not. A range of different family types and roles
are likely to be discussed.

Possible answers:
For
• The increase in dual worker families has led to the need for more equality within families
today so changing conjugal roles and making them more symmetrical;
• Technological advancements has made the domestic role easier and quicker making symmetry
more viable;
• Other family members (i.e. children/grand-parents) or paid employees (i.e. a cleaner) take on
a lot of the roles within the house today;

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• While men and women may do different tasks in the house (i.e. males may do the
maintenance, gardening, DIY and females housework, cooking, etc.) the hours spent by both on
these tasks are similar today;
• Young and Willmott’s research showed that both husband and wife contributed equally to the
family;
•Families have become more privatised today meaning that the home has become central to
family life, encouraging a more equal partnership between spouses but perhaps more isolation
from wider kin;
• Women today have higher status, more independence and more power in society and so are
more likely to be treated as equals;
• The rise of child centred families means that the role of the children in the family has typically
been given more status and importance;
• Extended and modified extended families often see grand-parents playing a crucial role in
terms of childcare, financial assistance, etc.;
• The rise of single parent families and homosexual families has changed the nature and form of
family roles;
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Segregated conjugal roles still exist/the triple shift for women;
• Women still responsible for most childcare and other caring responsibilities in the family, i.e.
elderly care;
• Women still responsible for housework;
• Women more likely to work part-time;
• Research suggests that whilst there have been many moves towards symmetry in families,
change has been slow and equality is a long way off;
• Feminists argue that for as long as society remains patriarchal, family life will too;
• Men may be more willing to help out with childcare and housework today but the main
responsibility is still the women’s;
• Men continue to make most of the financial decisions within the family;
• In some cultures/religions distinct segregated roles for males and females still exist;
• Children continue to play a subordinate role within the family;
• Grandparents have always played a key role in the family and continue to do so, this has not
changed;
• Other reasonable response.

11 To what extent can living in a single-parent family affect family life?

Candidates should show awareness of a range of different arguments that illustrate how living
in a single parent family can affect family life. These may be positive or negative factors or a
combination of both. They should also consider points that refute this idea. Candidates may, as
an alternative route into the question, construct their debate around the positives vs negatives
of the single family. This type of answer should also be credited as a reasonable debate is being
made. There is likely to be a focus on how family types have changed over time and the
increasing presence of single parent families in society. The diversity of single parent families is
also likely to be recognised by some candidates. There are no clear cut arguments for and
against the question and thus what is more important when marking here is what the candidate
does with the points made and how they formulate their arguments.

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Possible answers:
For
• New Right thinkers believe that the lack of a father figure in single parent families leads to
inadequate socialisation/lack of discipline for children, particularly boys
• Functionalists believe that a family needs two adults to be most effective, one as breadwinner
and one in the nurturing role, therefore single parent families are seen to be ‘broken’ and likely
to create problems for both children and society
• Single parent families are associated by New Right thinkers such as Charles Murray with a
child’s underachievement at school, criminal and anti-social behaviour
• The media and some political thinkers may demonise single parents, particularly young single
teenage mothers, as welfare scroungers who are only interested in benefits not raising a child
• Single parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and can thus be seen to be a
burden on the state
• Many Functionalist writers believe that single parent families have become an underclass in
society who reproduce without thought for the consequences, without a moral framework and
then inadequately socialise their children
• Single parent families are often the result of divorce and thus all the negatives that this brings
i.e. short term distress for children, financial insecurity etc.
• Children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship breakdown, and thus lack a
clear sense of security and belonging
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Are Functionalists correct to say that two parents are essential? Lots of single parents have
family and friendship networks that enable them to support their children both financially and
emotionally
• Being in a single parent family is likely to be far better for the child/children than living in an
unhappy home or an empty-shell relationship characterised by arguments and sadness
• Many children brought up by single parents experience no issues or problems whatsoever
• Children brought up by two parents do not always experience no problems and can also be
dysfunctional as adults despite having two parents
• Single parent families may be the result of escaping from domestic violence, threatening
behaviour or abuse. Being in a single parent family situation is clearly preferable
• Increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies, education and key
professionals means that bringing up children as a single parent need not be problematic and is
increasingly seen as ‘normal’
• Reasons/effects may be nothing to do with family type and structure but to do with social
factors such as class and poverty instead
• Feminists believe that women have the right to choose how they wish to raise children and if
they decide to do so alone they should be praised and supported
• Many children in single parent families have regular contact with both parents and are not
affected by their family structure
• Being a single parent family is often a temporary stage in life as many lone parents go on to re-
marry or begin another relationship
• Other types of families may affect family life more than a single parent family i.e. reconstituted
etc.
• Other reasonable response.

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12 To what extent are households replacing the family?

Candidates should show awareness of the idea that what we understand by the term ‘family’ is
changing and, in a sense, declining. Households are arguably, therefore, replacing the family.

Possible answers:
For
• There is today a growing number of one person households, sometimes made up of
widows/widowers;
• One person households may also be made up of people who choose to live alone – this is a
growing category. Middle class women who have chosen to focus on their career are one such
group;
• People are typically marrying or moving in together later and so this means that more people
are living on their own at least for a period of time in their life;
• Growth in singlehood and childlessness;
• Men who are separated and divorced;
• Communes – a group of people who choose to live together sharing living space and usually
some property;
• Families are seen by many to be less permanent and stable than they were in the past and
therefore people may rely more on their friends;
• Groups of people sharing a house has become more common, particularly amongst young
people – friends may play a greater part in emotional, practical and social support;
• Shared households may exist for economic reasons i.e. renting a house together or taking out a
joint mortgage, both of which are becoming more popular today;
• Growing number of young people going to University in many societies means that households
are a necessity for these groups during this stage in their life;
• Many family functions can now be performed by other social institutions so families may be
less necessary than before and households therefore more appropriate;
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Family still remains important in ways that friends cannot i.e. in the inheritance of property
and the care of older people;
• Marriage may be on the decline but people are still living in family units i.e. through
cohabitation and civil partnerships;
• The growth in the remarriage rate and the increase in reconstituted families shows that family
life is still seen to be important
• Family has taken on new forms today but this doesn’t mean it’s less important, just that it has
changed i.e. single parent families;
• Family unit is still the most important source of primary socialisation;
• The extended family has not disappeared it has merely changed i.e. the modified extended
family (use of media to maintain relationships);
• In some cultures and/or social classes family is as strong as ever and is highly valued;
• A lot of friendship/household based relationships i.e. sharing a house tend to be a temporary
phase particularly associated with being young, rather than permanent;
• Functionalist beliefs about the essential functions performed by the family;
• Other reasonable response.

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13 To what extent is family life today child-centred?

Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of family life and the role of
children within families.

Possible answers:
For
• Increased rights for children in society
• A more affluent society means there is more money to spend on children i.e. toys, days out,
education etc.
• Increased parental supervision due to high levels of fear for children’s safety
• Involvement in childcare by both mothers and fathers today – more symmetrical families
• Children today now have a greater say in the decision making process
• Rise of one child families (one child policy in China) meaning lots of time can be spent on that
child
• Extending the period of childhood e.g. via increasing time spent in education
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• ‘Cared for children’ – children not living in a family
• Examples of non-socialised children
• The dark side of the family – child abuse, neglect etc.
• Dual worker families mean children spend less time with their parents
• Increasing number of people choosing to remain childless
• Increasing rates of divorce and separation and increasing numbers of lone parents
• Social class differences i.e. middle class children tend to be better off
• Ethnic differences i.e. children in Asian communities are more likely to be part of extended
families
• Gender differences i.e. belief in some societies that female children are not as valued as male
children
• Other reasonable response.

14 To what extent does family life benefit males more than females?

Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of male and female roles in
the family and of the variety of family types available.

Possible answers:
For
• Segregated conjugal roles
• Women still responsible for most childcare and other caring responsibilities
• Women still responsible for housework
• Most women spend more time at home
• Women more likely to work part-time
• Women more likely to be out of the workforce during child-rearing years
• Domestic violence and abuse
• Men still more likely to be in charge of finance and decision making
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Joint conjugal roles/symmetrical families
• Decision making more equal
• Power and status more equal

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• Time at home – fathers more involved in childcare
• Increase in different family types means that patriarchy may no longer be relevant i.e. lone
parents/same sex families
• Increase of domestic violence with male victims
• Other reasonable response.

15 To what extent are the roles found in the family changing in modern industrial
society?

Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of the roles found in the
family here. A range of different family types are likely to be discussed. There should be a focus
on how family roles have changed over time.

Possible answers:
For
• Joint conjugal roles leads to greater equality and more symmetry;
• Typically both partners work so external agencies/other family members are required for
childcare;
• Lone parent families on the increase in many societies;
• Growth in singlehood and childlessness;
• Rise in ‘children’s rights’ – the idea of the child focused/centred family;
• Homosexual families;
• More births outside marriage;
• Remarriage and the growth of the reconstituted family;
• Decline in marriage and the growth of cohabitation;
• Rising divorce rates;
• Beanpole and boomerang families (ageing population);
• Loss of traditional family functions;
• Weakening of extended kinship links and the decline of the extended family;
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Segregated conjugal roles still exist/the triple shift for women;
• Women still responsible for most childcare and other caring responsibilities;
• Women still responsible for housework;
• Women more likely to work part-time;
• Wider family members do still live with the smaller family unit due to childcare/financial
needs;
• Family unit is still the most important source of primary socialisation;
• The extended family has not disappeared it has merely changed i.e. the modified extended
family (use of media to maintain relationships) and in some cultures and/or social classes is as
strong as ever;
• The type of family does not affect the roles within it i.e. the argument that a homosexual family
provides the same love and support as a more traditional heterosexual family;
• Other reasonable response.

16 To what extent can variations in family relationships be explained in terms of

Candidates should show awareness of the complexity and diversity of family structures and
roles with an explicit focus on ethnicity.

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Possible answers:
For
• Joint/segregated conjugal roles, different in different cultures/ethnic groups
• Cross-cultural variations i.e. polyandry/polygamy
• Civil partnerships not universally accepted
• Lone parent families more common amongst Afro-Caribbeans
• Religious and family centred cultures see more marriage, less divorce and more traditional
family structures and roles
• Extended families still the norm in many cultures
• Increase in reconstituted families in many Western cultures
• Arranged marriages still exist in many cultures
• Importance of marriage in traveller communities
• Children’s roles and relationships with other family members vary across different ethnic
groups and cultures
• Feminists may discuss patriarchal family relationships associated with different ethnicities
• Other reasonable response.

Against
• Women still responsible for most childcare/housework and other caring responsibilities in all
cultures/ethnic groups
• General decline in religion has seen a change in family structure and roles in most cultures and
ethnic groups
• Ethnic groups often now third generation immigrants therefore more assimilated to the host
cultures way of life
• Rise of Feminism on a global scale, particularly with the increasing access to the media, is the
main reason for variations in family roles and structure
• Social class and age may both be very relevant factors as well as ethnicity and culture in
determining family structures and roles
• Family diversity and choice in the Postmodern world
• Perhaps family relationships are more determined by economic structure and context than
ethnicity
• Family relationships may be affected more by patterns of migration leading to geographical
separation i.e. economic need to earn money so one family member moves abroad
• Variations in family relationships are just as likely to be found within ethnic groups as across
them
• Other reasonable response.

17 To what extent can living in a single parent family have a negative effect on family life?

Possible answers:
For:
• New Right thinkers believe that the lack of a father figure in single parent families leads to
inadequate socialisation/lack of discipline for children, particularly boys;
• functionalists believe that a family needs two adults to be most effective, one as breadwinner
and one in the nurturing role, therefore single parent families are seen to be ‘broken’ and likely
to create problems for both children and society;
• single parent families are associated by New Right thinkers such as
Charles Murray with a child’s underachievement at school, criminal and anti-social behaviour –
negative effects on family life;
• the media and some political thinkers may demonise single parents, as welfare scroungers
who are only interested in benefits not raising a child thus negatively effecting family life;
• single parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and can thus be seen to be a
burden on the state;

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• many functionalist writers believe that single parent families have become an underclass in
society who reproduce without thought for the consequences, without a moral framework and
then inadequately socialise their children;
• single parent families are often the result of divorce and thus all the negatives that this brings,
e.g. short term distress for children, financial insecurity;
• children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship breakdown, and thus lack a
clear sense of security and belonging;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• are functionalists correct to say that two parents are essential? Lots of single parents have
family and friendship networks that enable them to support their children both financially and
emotionally;
• being in a single parent family is likely to be far better for the child/children than living in an
unhappy home or an empty-shell relationship characterised by arguments and sadness;
• many children brought up by single parents experience no issues or problems whatsoever – it
is not negative;
• children brought up by two parents do not always experience no problems and can also be
dysfunctional as adults despite having two parents – here a single parent family is preferable;
• single parent families may be the result of escaping from domestic violence, threatening
behaviour or abuse. Being in a single parent family situation is preferable to this and not
negative;
• increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies, education and key
professionals means that bringing up children as a single parent need not be problematic or
negative and is increasingly seen as ‘normal’;
• reasons/effects may be nothing to do with family type and structure but to do with social
factors such as class and poverty instead;
• feminists believe that women have the right to choose how they wish to raise children and if
they decide to do so alone they should be praised and supported;
• feminists see single parent families as a means for women and children to escape from
patriarchy and/or the dark side of family life and therefore view them as a good thing;
• many children in single parent families have regular contact with both parents and are not
affected by their family structure;
• being a single parent family is often a temporary stage in life as many lone parents go on to re-
marry or begin another relationship;
• other types of families may affect family life negatively more than a single parent family, e.g.
reconstituted, single-sex etc.;
• other reasonable response.

18 To what extent is family life today based on gender inequalities?

Candidates should show awareness of the ways that family life is based on gender inequalities
and may discuss feminism/patriarchy here. They should also consider in evaluation how gender
inequalities are now disappearing in the family and/or that other inequalities characterise
family life instead of gender.

Possible answers:
For:
• differential socialisation – Oakley’s study of canalisation and manipulation demonstrated how
children learn their different gender roles that can then lead to gender inequalities;
• feminists believe the family is a patriarchal institution that benefits men due to its gender
inequalities and gendered power imbalance;

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• polygyny allows men to have multiple wives in some cultures – this reduces the importance
and status of women;
• functionalists believe that instrumental roles for men and expressive roles for women offer
the best solution for successful family life – many people believe this leads to gender
inequalities as men are seen to have more power and status than women;
• many families today (particularly in traditional societies or the working class) still operate
with segregated conjugal roles whereby men have more power than women;
• in modern industrial societies where conjugal roles tend to be more joint, women still find
themselves doing more of the laborious and dull domestic tasks = not equal;
• women today often suffer from the dual or triple burden, juggling paid and domestic work in a
way that men don’t have to;
• Pahl/Edgell – men typically make the financial and more important decisions in the home;
• men are still seen to be the primary breadwinner and protector of the family, giving him more
power than the woman;
• the dark side of the family – women remain the hidden victims of domestic abuse;
• women typically work part time so that they can combine paid work with household
responsibilities = less pay and status than men;
• the perceived greater importance of the male role means that a family is more likely to move
to a new area/country for a man’s promotion than for a woman’s promotion;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• Willmott and Young, the symmetrical family – joint conjugal roles are said by many to
characterise family life today, not inequalities;
• socialisation of children today tends to be far more equal and less gender stereotypical;
• single parent families are typically headed by women, removing any gender inequalities;
• same sex families and alternatives to the family (communes, friends etc.) all challenge the idea
of family life being characterised by gender inequalities;
• men are now far more involved in childcare and domestic tasks than ever before due to the
rise of the career woman, the new man and the househusband;
• privatised nuclear families are frequently seen and typically involve both partners and
children being responsible for the household tasks;
• inequalities in the family may not be based on gender but on other social characteristics such
as age/ethnicity/culture/social class instead;
• in a postmodern world, gender roles are being eradicated as we live in a ‘pick and mix’ society
where identities can be constructed and negotiated at will, they are no longer fixed;
• other reasonable response.

19 To what extent are families functional for individuals and society?

Candidates do not need to explicitly discuss both individuals and society separately.
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that families can be seen to be functional –
functionalist theory is likely to be discussed here. In evaluation, candidates are likely to discuss
how families may not be functional and may refer to Marxism and/or feminism whilst doing so.
However, theories can be used in both the ‘for’ and ‘against’ sides of the argument e.g. Marxism
could be used either ‘for’ or ‘against’. All valid points should therefore be credited in the context
of the candidate’s answer.

Possible answers:
For:
• reproduction – societies must produce new generations of children in order to survive, family
life encourages children;
• socialisation – children need to learn the norms and values of their society through the family;

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• social control – how the behaviour of children is controlled by the family so that they conform
to the norms;
• care of children – children need to be fed, clothed and nurtured by families;
• status – families provide status for children and involve them in a variety of different
relationships;
• regulation of sexual behaviour – encouraging children to be born in a socially approved sexual
relationship;
• nuclear families perform family functions best through clear gender roles;
• Marxists believe the family is functional for capitalist society through the transmission of pro-
capitalist norms and values;
• feminists believe the nuclear family is functional for patriarchal society by giving men a
powerful role;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• Leach – demands on nuclear families are too great which leads to conflict within the family
and so it is not functional;
• dark side of the family – abuse and neglect demonstrate that family life may not always be
functional;
• Barrett and McIntosh – the ‘anti-social family’ – the nuclear family does not work for many
people;
• feminists criticise the segregated gender roles in the family (triple shift) and therefore do not
see it as functional for individuals (patriarchal);
• family diversity means that the nuclear family has declined in numbers and importance
meaning that the functions may have also declined;
• alternatives to the family such as one-person households and communes challenge the
argument that families are functional;
• other institutions are now performing the functions once performed by the family (e.g.
healthcare in the medical system, education at school etc.) so reducing the family’s functions;
• other reasonable response

20 To what extent is family life negative for its members?

Arguments for:
• functionalists talk about dysfunctional families being negative when the family cannot fulfil its
functions because of factors such as alcoholism, drug abuse and mental health problems;
• feminists say families can be negative because of the subservient role that many women have
to play, performing the majority of the household tasks and emotional care – the triple burden;
• Marxists say that the family forces the working class to be ‘wage slaves’ to the capitalist elite –
this may mean men take their stress and frustrations out on their family at home;
• empty-shell marriages – these are relationships without love or intimacy leading to a sense of
unfulfillment/unhappiness for family members;
• the pivot generation – the stresses on parents in societies with an ageing population where the
burden of care falls onto them for both their own children and their parents leads to a negative
experience of family life;
• some sociologists are critical of families in which forced marriages have taken place, leading to
unhappiness;
• cases of feral children and extreme neglect seen in the media demonstrate the devastating
consequences of unhappy families, e.g. Oxana Malaya;
• domestic violence can make family life negative – Dobash and Dobash showed in their
research just how widespread domestic abuse in the family actually was;
• child abuse can make family life negative – this could be sexual, emotional or physical abuse;

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• neglect of children – there are many cases of children living in poverty or dreadful conditions.
Not having enough to eat, having little mental stimulation and experiencing no love from
parents will all lead to a negative experience of family life;
• with high levels of divorce and separation in many societies, there is often much arguing and
conflict within a family – this is not good for either the adult or the child family members;
• radical feminists believe that the family is a patriarchal institution that stifles and suffocates
women, therefore making it a very negative experience;
• in some cultures, honour killings indicate the negative side of family life for women;
• elder abuse is another sign of family life being negative for some older family members;
• any other reasonable response.

Arguments against:
• functionalists believe that the family is an essential institution in
society performing several vital functions such as socialisation and social control;
• the cereal packet image of the family shows the family to be a place of joy, fulfilment and
happiness;
• with an increase in children’s rights and support charities, e.g. Childline, children find it easier
to report any instances of child abuse or neglect and escape an unhappy family situation;
• child-centeredness means that children are often at the centre of any family, giving them a
very happy experience of family life;
• media highlighting of the domestic abuse of women has led to the stigma being removed and
so more women feel able to report any incidents and so escape unhappiness within the family;
• divorce and separation may actually lead to happier families as the source of the conflict is
removed;
• women today are more likely to be part of dual worker families and so experience equality not
patriarchy within the family, making it a happier institution;
• cases of feral children are few and far between, most families are happy and content;
• families offer one another unconditional support and can therefore be
a very positive experience for the members, e.g. financial, emotional;
• any other reasonable response.

21 To what extent are families functional for individuals and society?

Candidates do not need to explicitly discuss both individuals and society separately.
Candidates should show awareness of the ways that families can be seen to be functional –
functionalist theory is likely to be discussed here. In evaluation, candidates are likely to discuss
how families may not be functional and may refer to Marxism and/or feminism whilst doing so.

However, theories can be used in both the ‘for’ and ‘against’ sides of the argument e.g. Marxism
could be used either ‘for’ or ‘against’. All valid points should therefore be credited in the context
of the candidate’s answer.

Possible answers:
For:
• reproduction – societies must produce new generations of children in order to survive, family
life encourages children;
• socialisation – children need to learn the norms and values of their society through the family;
• social control – how the behaviour of children is controlled by the family so that they conform
to the norms;
• care of children – children need to be fed, clothed and nurtured by families;
• status – families provide status for children and involve them in a variety of different
relationships;

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• regulation of sexual behaviour – encouraging children to be born in a socially approved sexual
relationship;
• nuclear families perform family functions best through clear gender roles;
• Marxists believe the family is functional for capitalist society through the transmission of pro-
capitalist norms and values;
• feminists believe the nuclear family is functional for patriarchal society by giving men a
powerful role;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• Leach – demands on nuclear families are too great which leads to conflict within the family
and so it is not functional;
• dark side of the family – abuse and neglect demonstrate that family life may not always be
functional;
• Barrett and McIntosh – the ‘anti-social family’ – the nuclear family does not work for many
people;
• feminists criticise the segregated gender roles in the family (triple shift) and therefore do not
see it as functional for individuals (patriarchal);
• family diversity means that the nuclear family has declined in numbers and importance
meaning that the functions may have also declined;
• alternatives to the family such as one-person households and communes challenge the
argument that families are functional;
• other institutions are now performing the functions once performed by the family (e.g.
healthcare in the medical system, education at school
etc) so reducing the family’s functions;
• other reasonable response

22. To what extent is family life today based on gender inequalities?

Candidates should show awareness of the ways that family life is based on gender inequalities
and may discuss feminism/patriarchy here. They should also consider in evaluation how gender
inequalities are now disappearing in the family and/or that other inequalities characterise
family life instead of gender.

Possible answers:
For:
• differential socialisation – Oakley’s study of canalisation and manipulation demonstrated how
children learn their different gender roles that can then lead to gender inequalities;
• feminists believe the family is a patriarchal institution that benefits men due to its gender
inequalities and gendered power imbalance;
• polygyny allows men to have multiple wives in some cultures – this reduces the importance
and status of women;
• functionalists believe that instrumental roles for men and expressive roles for women offer
the best solution for successful family life – many people believe this leads to gender
inequalities as men are seen to have more power and status than women;
• many families today (particularly in traditional societies or the working class) still operate
with segregated conjugal roles whereby men have more power than women;
• in modern industrial societies where conjugal roles tend to be more joint, women still find
themselves doing more of the laborious and dull domestic tasks = not equal;
• women today often suffer from the dual or triple burden, juggling paid and domestic work in a
way that men don’t have to;
• Pahl/Edgell – men typically make the financial and more important decisions in the home;

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• men are still seen to be the primary breadwinner and protector of the family, giving him more
power than the woman;
• the dark side of the family – women remain the hidden victims of domestic abuse;
• women typically work part time so that they can combine paid work with household
responsibilities = less pay and status than men;
• the perceived greater importance of the male role means that a family is more likely to move
to a new area/country for a man’s promotion than for a woman’s promotion;
• other reasonable response.

Against:
• Willmott and Young, the symmetrical family – joint conjugal roles are said by many to
characterise family life today, not inequalities;
• socialisation of children today tends to be far more equal and less gender stereotypical;
• single parent families are typically headed by women, removing any gender inequalities;
• same sex families and alternatives to the family (communes, friends etc.) all challenge the idea
of family life being characterised by gender inequalities;
• men are now far more involved in childcare and domestic tasks than ever before due to the
rise of the career woman, the new man and the househusband;
• privatised nuclear families are frequently seen and typically involve both partners and
children being responsible for the household tasks;
• inequalities in the family may not be based on gender but on other social characteristics such
as age/ethnicity/culture/social class instead;
• in a postmodern world, gender roles are being eradicated as we live in
a ‘pick and mix’ society where identities can be constructed and negotiated at will, they are no
longer fixed;
• other reasonable response

23. To what extent can living in a single parent family have a negative effect on family
life?

Possible answers:
For:
• New Right thinkers believe that the lack of a father figure in single parent families leads to
inadequate socialisation/lack of discipline for children, particularly boys;
• functionalists believe that a family needs two adults to be most effective, one as breadwinner
and one in the nurturing role, therefore single parent families are seen to be ‘broken’ and likely
to create problems for both children and society;
• single parent families are associated by New Right thinkers such as
Charles Murray with a child’s underachievement at school, criminal and anti-social behaviour –
negative effects on family life;
• the media and some political thinkers may demonise single parents, as welfare scroungers
who are only interested in benefits not raising a child thus negatively effecting family life;
• single parent families are more likely to suffer from poverty and can thus be seen to be a
burden on the state;
• many functionalist writers believe that single parent families have become an underclass in
society who reproduce without thought for the consequences, without a moral framework and
then inadequately socialise their children;
• single parent families are often the result of divorce and thus all the negatives that this brings,
e.g. short term distress for children, financial insecurity;
• children may be split between two homes, due to a relationship breakdown, and thus lack a
clear sense of security and belonging;
• other reasonable response.

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Against:
• are functionalists correct to say that two parents are essential? Lots of single parents have
family and friendship networks that enable them to support their children both financially and
emotionally;
• being in a single parent family is likely to be far better for the child/children than living in an
unhappy home or an empty-shell relationship characterised by arguments and sadness;
• many children brought up by single parents experience no issues or problems whatsoever – it
is not negative;
• children brought up by two parents do not always experience no problems and can also be
dysfunctional as adults despite having two parents – here a single parent family is preferable;
• single parent families may be the result of escaping from domestic violence, threatening
behaviour or abuse. Being in a single parent family situation is preferable to this and not
negative;
• increasing support from the state via welfare benefits, child policies, education and key
professionals means that bringing up children as a single parent need not be problematic or
negative and is increasingly seen as ‘normal’;
• reasons/effects may be nothing to do with family type and structure but to do with social
factors such as class and poverty instead;
• feminists believe that women have the right to choose how they wish to raise children and if
they decide to do so alone they should be praised
and supported;
• feminists see single parent families as a means for women and children
to escape from patriarchy and/or the dark side of family life and
therefore view them as a good thing;
• many children in single parent families have regular contact with both
parents and are not affected by their family structure;
• being a single parent family is often a temporary stage in life as many
lone parents go on to re-marry or begin another relationship;
• other types of families may affect family life negatively more than a
single parent family, e.g. reconstituted, single-sex etc.;
• other reasonable response.

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