Physics notes-Nuclear physics & radioactivity Electric and gravitational forces can act over long distances

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Stable and unstable nuclei
Structure and Properties of the Nucleus
A stable nucleus is one that stays together indefinitely.
In the early 1930s a model of the nucleus was developed that
is still useful today. According to this model, a nucleus is For small atoms (up to A ≈ 30 → 40 ) their nuclei tend to have
considered as an aggregate of two types of particles: protons the same number of protons as neutrons and they are stable
and neutrons. In the simplest atom (hydrogen atom), the nuclides.
nucleus is a proton.
For larger atoms, stable nuclides contain more neutrons than
A proton is an elementary particle which has a positive charge protons. As the number of protons increases, the electrical
of + e = +1.60 × 10 −19 C and a mass of m p = 1.6726 × 10 −27 kg. repulsion increases, so more neutrons (which exert only the
attractive nuclear force) are required to maintain stability.
A neutron is a neutral particle which has a mass almost
For very large atom, no number of neutrons can overcome the
identical to that of a proton, mn = 1.6749 × 10 −27 kg.
greatly increased electric repulsion. There are no known stable
nuclides above Z = 82 .
These two particles are referred to collectively as nucleons.
If a nuclide contains too many or too few neutrons relative to
The different types of nuclei are referred to as nuclides. the number of protons, the nuclear force is weakened and the
nuclide is unstable.
The number of protons in a nucleus (or nuclide) is called the
atomic number and is designated by the symbol Z. Radioactive decays
The total number of nucleons, neutrons and protons, is called An unstable nucleus is one that comes apart. This is known as
the mass number and is designated by the symbol A. radioactive decay or disintegration. This phenomenon is
called radioactivity.
The neutron number N is N = A − Z .

A
Many unstable isotopes occur in nature, and their radioactivity
To specify a nuclide, we use the special symbol Z X , e.g. a is thus called natural radioactivity. Other unstable isotopes
normal nitrogen nuclide 157 N means that a nitrogen nucleus can be produced artificially in the laboratory by nuclear
reactions and their radioactivity is called artificial
contains 7 protons and 15 nucleons and ∴it has 8 neutrons. radioactivity.
Proton
The unstable isotopes are called radioisotopes.
Neutron
During decays of unstable nuclei, some type of radiation or
Nuclei of atoms of the same element that contain the same rays is emitted.
number of protons but different numbers of neutrons are
called isotopes. The radiation can be classified into three distinct types. They
For example, 116C , 126 C , 136C , 146 C , 156C and 166C are all are named as alpha α , beta β and gamma γ .
isotopes of carbon. 98.9% of naturally occurring carbon is the
isotope 126C and about 1.1% is 136C . Alpha and beta rays consists of charged particles and are bent
in opposite directions by a magnetic field, whereas gamma
What hold the nucleons together to form a nucleus? radiation consists of neutral particles and is not affected by a
magnetic field and does not bend at all.
Protons are positively charged particles and thus exert electric
repulsive force on each other. Since stable nuclei do stay
Magnetic field
together, there must be a second force acting within each
nucleus and it must be stronger than the electric force. It is
called the strong nuclear force. It is an attractive force that
acts among all nucleons.

The strong nuclear force is a comparatively short-range Lead container

force, i.e. it acts only over a very short distance. It is very
strong between two nucleons if they are less than about
10 −15 m apart, but it is essentially zero if they are separated by
a distance greater than this. Radioactive substance

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Alpha decay Example 1 Carbon-14 emits a β − -particle when it decays.
The nucleus gains a proton and becomes nitrogen-14.
In an alpha decay an alpha particle is emitted. An alpha
particle is simply the nucleus of a helium atom. It has two 14
6 C →147N + −10 e or 14
6 C →147 N + β −
protons and two neutrons bound together.

α-particle = 24 He In fact there is another particle emitted during the β − decay.

It is called neutrino, or anti-neutrino to be exact, and has the
When a nucleus emits an α-particle, it loses two protons and symbol ν . The correct way to write the decay of carbon-14 is
two neutrons resulting in a different nucleus, i.e. a new then
element is formed. This change is called transmutation.
14
6 C →147 N + −01 e + ν .
Example 1 Radium 226 ( 226 88 Ra ) undergoes alpha decay. We

say it is an α-emitter. It decays to become another element, Beta (positive) decay

radon. This decay is written as Many isotopes decay by electron (beta) emission. They are
isotopes that have too many neutrons compared to the number
226
88 Ra→ 222 4
86 Rn + 2 He or
226
88 Ra→ 222
86 Rn + α of protons.

In decays, the original nucleus is called the parent nucleus Isotopes that have too few neutrons compared to the number
and the new one is the daughter nucleus. of protons decay by emitting a positron instead of an electron.

Example 2 232
U → 228
92
4
90Th + 2 He
A positron (symbols: e + , β + , +10 e ) has the same mass as the
electron but it is opposite in charge to the electron. It is called
210
Po→ 206 4 an anti-particle of the electron. Positron is also created within
Example 3 84 82 Pb + 2 He
the nucleus according to the theory that a proton in the
nucleus changes to a neutron and a positron is emitted.
In a decay (or nuclear reaction), the total mass of the products
is less than the total mass of the parent nucleus (or nuclei).
The ‘missing mass’ is transformed to energy according to p → n + +10 e or p → n + β +
Einstein’s famous equation,
19
Example 1 10 Ne→199F + +10 e + ν
2
E = mc .
An anti-electron (i.e. positron) is emitted with a neutrino v,
Mass is a form of energy. A small difference in mass will give and an electron is emitted with an anti-neutrino ν .
rise to a large amount of energy. This energy appears as the
kinetic energy which is carried away mainly by the emitted Gamma decay
particle in a decay.
Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation in the same
Why do nuclei emit an α-particle rather than four category as radio waves, visible light and X-ray etc, except it
individual nucleons or just one? has much higher energy. Since gamma ray carries no charge,
the same element remains as a result of gamma decay.
The 2 protons and 2 neutrons in α-particle are very strongly
bound and thus a large amount of energy is required to The daughter nucleus may be left in an excited state after the
separate them. radioactive decay of its parent. It then returns to the non-
excited state (called the ground state) by gamma decay.
Beta (negative) decay
12
Example 1 5 B→126C * + −10 e , then 126C * →126C + γ .
Transmutation of elements also occurs when a nucleus decays
by emitting a negative beta particle β − . It is in fact an electron
Half-life of a radio-isotope
0
−1e . The electron emitted is not one of the orbital electrons in
an atom. It is created within the nucleus itself according to the A sample of any radioactive isotope consists of a huge number
theory that a neutron in the nucleus changes to a proton and an of radioactive nuclei. They do not all decay at the same time.
electron is emitted. Rather, they decay one by one over a period of time and it is a
random process. We cannot predict exactly when a particular
nucleus will decay, but we can determine approximately how
n → p + −01 e or n → p + β − many nuclei in the sample will decay over a given period of
time.

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The rate of decay is called the activity A of a given sample. It Example 1 Find the % of a sample of Iodine-131 decayed
is proportional to the size of the sample remaining. It is after 32 days. Find the % of the original activity of the sample
measured in number of decays per second. remaining.

N The half-life of Iodine-131 is 8 days. 32 days (4 half-lives)

A=
∆t later, only 6.25% remaining. ∴93.75% decayed.

The half-life T 1 of an isotope is defined as the time it takes Since activity is proportional to the size of the sample
2 remaining, only 6.25% of the original activity remaining.
for half of the remaining sample to decay.

Radio-isotope Half-life Example 2 When the solar system acquired its present form
about 5 × 10 9 years ago, it is believed that nearly all nuclides
Uranium-238 4.5 × 10 9 years
had been formed. Many radio-isotopes with short half-lives
Carbon-14 5730 years decayed quickly and no longer exist in nature today. Long-
Cobalt-60 5.3 years lived isotopes, such as 238 9
92 U with a half-life of 4.5 × 10 years,
Iodine-131 8 days are found in abundance in Australia and elsewhere on earth.
Polonium-214 164 µs Estimate the % of the original 23892 U still remaining on earth.

Half-life graphs 5
≈ 1.1 half-lives. From the half-life graph, about 47%.
4.5

% remaining vs time Example 3 A radioactive material registers 1573 counts in a

minute on a Geiger counter at one time, and 8 hours later
registers 1180 counts in three minutes. What is its half-life?

The activity of the material changes from 26.22 s-1 to 6.56 s-1
in 8 hours, i.e. in 8 hours the activity is 25% of the original
activity. Since it takes 2 half-lives for the activity to drop to
25%, ∴ T 1 = 4 hours.
2

Example 4 12455 Cs has a half-life of 30.8 s. How much of the

original amount of 7.8 µg remains after 1.54 minutes?

1.54 min = 92.4 s = 3× 30.8 s = 3 half-lives.

After 3 half-lives, only 12.5% remaining,
i.e. 12.5% of 7.8 µg = 0.975 µg.

226
Example 5 Radium 88 Ra has a relatively short half-life in
Activity vs time comparison with U , all the original 226
238
92 88 Ra nuclei must by
now have decayed and vanished from the earth. Explain why
226
88 Ra still exists on earth today.

226
This is because the supply of 88 Ra is continually replenished
238 226
due to the decay of 92 U in several steps to 88 Ra . Refer to
238
the decay series of 92U.

Example 6 The age of ancient materials can be determined

by radioactive dating, e.g. Carbon-14 dating.
All living plants absorb carbon dioxide from the air. Most of
these carbon atoms are carbon-12, only a tiny fraction is
carbon-14.

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When a plant or tree is alive, it continually absorbs carbon Nuclear stability curve
dioxide from the air and the ratio of carbon-14 to carbon-12
remains constant. An N vs Z plot of the position of all the stable nuclei forms a
thin and slightly curved band called stability line. Unstable
When the plant dies, the ratio decreases because carbon-14 nuclei below the band tend to undergo α or β+ decay whilst
undergoes radioactive decay and is not replenished. those above the band undergo β− decay to nuclei within it.

Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5730 years. If the ratio of carbon-

14 to carbon-12 for an ancient wooden object is half of what it
is in living trees, then the object must have been made from a 130
tree that was cut down about 5730 years ago.

Number of neutrons N
Decay series
It is common occurrence that one radioactive isotope decays
to another isotope which is also radioactive. This daughter
decays to a third isotope that is also radioactive. Further
decays occur until a stable isotope is reached. The successive
decays form a decay series.

238 N=Z
The following diagram shows the decay series of 92U.

0 80
Number of protons Z

Passage of radiation through matter

Charged particles, such as alpha and beta particles and

protons, can ionise the material they pass through because of
the electric force. They can attract or repel electrons to remove
them from the atoms of the material. A single alpha or beta
particle can cause thousands of ionisations.

Exposure to neutral radiations such as X-ray and γ-ray may

also give rise to ionisation. Electrons of atoms can be knocked
out as in the photoelectric and Compton effects.

Neutrons interact with matter mainly by collisions with nuclei.

Often a nucleus in a molecule is broken apart by such a
collision and thus the structure of the molecule changes.

Radiation damage

Radiation passing through matter can do considerable damage.

Metals and other structural materials become brittle and their

strength can be weakened if the radiation is very intense.
In a β − decay the mass number of the isotope is unchanged
The radiation damage produced in biological organisms is
and the atomic number increases by 1. caused by ionisation in cells. Ions (radicals) are produced
which are highly reactive and take part in chemical reactions
In an α decay the mass number of the isotope decreases by 4 that interrupt the normal operation of the cell.
and the atomic number decreases by 2.

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Risks of external and internal sources to the human body Another type of measurement is the exposure or absorbed
dose, i.e. the amount of energy (J) absorbed by each kilogram
External Internal of the absorbing material.
Type
source source
Alpha (α) Low High The SI unit for absorbed dose is the gray (Gy).
Beta (β) Medium Medium
1 Gy = 1 J kg-1
Gamma (γ) High Low
Equal doses of different types of radiation will cause differing
Possible effects from low radiation dose (well below 1 Sv) amounts of damage.∴Gy is not the most meaningful unit to
measure the biological damage produced by radiation.
Relatively low doses of radiation can cause: cancer and
subsequent death; gene damage and will pass on genetic For example, for the same dose (say 1Gy), X and γ-rays, β-ray
defects to offspring. No level of radiation exposure is safe. and fast protons do about the same amount of damage. Slow
neutrons cause about 3 times as much, fast neutrons up to 10
Possible effects from high radiation dose (1 Sv or above) times and α-particles up to 20 times.
Initial symptoms within hours/days: impaired vision, nausea,
The relative ability in causing biological damage for the
vomiting and diarrhoea, internal bleeding, convulsion and
eventual death. different types of radiation is given by a number called the
quality factor (QF).

Penetrating properties of radiations Type QF

X and γ-rays Approx. 1
Type Penetrating property
β-ray Approx. 1
Can penetrate a few cm of air, easily Fast protons Approx. 1
Alpha (α)
stopped by a sheet of paper or bare skin
Can penetrate a few m into the air, Slow neutrons Approx. 3
Beta (β)
about 2 cm into human flesh Fast neutrons Up to 10
Extremely penetrating, requires thick
Gamma (γ) α-particles Up to 20
lead or concrete shielding to stop it
Neutron (n) More penetrating than gamma radiation
A third type of measurement is the dose equivalent. It
Detection of radiation measures the amount of biological damage done to a kilogram
of tissues.

Type Detector Dose equivalent = Absorbed dose × QF

Geiger counter The SI unit for effective dose is the sievert (Sv).
Alpha (α)
with very thin window
Geiger counter 1 Sv = 1 Gy × QF
Beta (β)
(filled with argon gas)
Gamma (γ) Scintillation detector
Example 1 Calculate the dose equivalent for each of the
Geiger counter following radiations.
Neutron (n)
(filled with BF3 gas)
Personal radiation Thermoluminescent dosimeter (a) 10 Gy of β-ray (QF = 1)
levels TLD (b) 0.5 Gy of α-ray (QF = 20)
(c) 1 Gy of fast neutrons (QF = 10)

(a) 10 × 1 = 10 Sv (b) 0.5 × 20 = 10 Sv (c) 1 × 10 = 10 Sv

Measurement of radiation

The strength of a radioactive source can be specified at a

Example 2 What is the absorbed dose of α-ray (QF = 15)
given time by stating the source activity, i.e. how many
which will cause the same amount of biological damage to
disintegrations (decays) occur per second.
body tissues as 10 Gy of slow neutrons (QF = 3)?
The SI unit for source activity is the becquerel (Bq).
Let x Gy be the absorbed dose of α-ray (QF = 15).
1 Bq = 1decay per second x × 15 = 10 × 3 , ∴ x = 2 .

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When the human body is exposed to nuclear radiation, the
3. Artificial - formed by human
effects on the internal organs of the body are different. Instead
of using dose equivalent to generalise the risk of radiation
Nuclides Half-life Source
damage, dose equivalent is multiplied by another factor called
the risk factor RF. This new measurement is called the 239
Pu 2.41 x 104 yr Produced by neutron bombardment of
238
effective dose of the radiation. It is also measured in Sv but it U
137 Fission product from weapons testing
is organ specific. Cs 30.17 yr and fission reactors
Fission product from weapons testing
131
Organ RF I 8.04 days and fission reactors, used in medical
treatment of thyroid problems
Lungs 0.12 129
I 1.57 x 107 yr Fission product from weapons testing
and fission reactors
Red bone marrow 0.12 99m Decay product of 99Mo, used in
Tc 6.03 hr medical diagnosis
Thyroid 0.13 99
Tc 2.11 x 105 yr Decay product of 99mTc
Breast 0.15
90 Fission product from weapons testing
Sr 28.78 yr
Ovaries/testes 0.25 and fission reactors
From weapons testing and fission
Other parts 0.30 3
H 12.3 yr reactors; reprocessing facilities,
nuclear weapons manufacturing

Example 1 A person received an absorbed dose of 1.0 Gy http://www.umich.edu/~radinfo/introduction/natural.htm

when irradiated by γ-rays. What would be the effective dose to

the person’s lungs? Nuclear reactions

Effective dose = absorbed dose × QF × RF A nuclear reaction is said to occur when a nucleus is struck by
= 0.8 × 1 × 0.12 ≈ 0.1 Sv another nucleus, or by a simpler particle such as a neutron, or
even by a gamma ray, so that an interaction takes place.

Natural and artificial radio-isotopes Example 1 When α-particles pass through nitrogen gas,
some are absorbed and protons are emitted.
Over 60 radionuclides can be found in nature, and they can be
classified in three general categories: 4
He+147N →178 O +11H
2
1. Primordial - formed since the creation of the Earth
Example 2 In the atmosphere the radio-isotope carbon-14 is
Nuclides Half-life Source and activity continually being made through the following naturally
occurring nuclear reaction, where neutrons in the cosmic
238
U 4.47 x 109 yr 99.275% of all natural uranium radiation collide with the nitrogen nuclei.
235
U 7.04 x 108 yr 0.72% of all natural uranium n +147N →146C +11H

232
Th 1.41 x 1010 yr Av.10 ppm in the common rock types Nuclear fissions

226 16 Bq/kg in limestone; 48 Bq/kg in When uranium-235 is bombarded by neutrons, two smaller
Ra 1.60 x 103 yr igneous rock nuclei about half the size of the original uranium nucleus are
produced. This process is called nuclear fission. The resulting
222 Noble Gas; average air concentrations
Rn 3.82 days range between 1 and 30 Bq/m3 nuclei are called fission fragments, and in the process two or
three neutrons are given off.
40
K 1.28 x 109 yr Between 0.05 and 1 Bq/g of soil
A typical fission reaction is:
2. Cosmogenic - formed as a result of cosmic ray interactions
n + 235 141 92
92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3n
Nuclides Half-life Source and activity
Other observed fission reactions are:
14
C 5730 yr Cosmic-ray interactions, 0.22 Bq/g
n + 235 143 90
92 U → 54 Xe+ 38 Sr + 3n
7 Cosmic-ray interactions with N and
Be 53.28 days O, 0.01 Bq/kg
n + 235 136 88
92 U → 54 Xe+ 38 Sr + 12n
3 Cosmic-ray interactions with N and
T 12.3 yr O, 1.2 x 10-3 Bq/kg The above fission reactions are possible only for slow
neutrons.

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