Aksum University

Aksum Institute Of Technology

Department Of Civil Engineering
Sewage Disposal and treatment
Hadush G/yesus

1
Contents included in this course
 Part I: - Sewer system
 Part II:- Wastewater treatment
 Part III:- Solid waste management

2
 Part I:- Sewer system
The main objective:
 How to plan, design and construct wastewater conveyance
systems

The Specific Objectives

 To identify Systems of sanitation and its application in varying

geophysical conditions
 To know types of wastewater and its sources of generation
 To differentiate Methods of collection, design and construction
 To know Sewer maintenance; appurtenances and it respective
importance

3
 Outline for Part I

1) INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION & SANITARY

ENGINEERING

2) DESIGN SEWAGE QUANTITY ESTIMATION

3) HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF SEWERS

4) SEWERS CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE AND

REQUIRED APPURTENANCES

4
 Part I:- Lecture 1

INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION &

SANITARY ENGINEERING

5
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION TO SANITATION
&
SANITARY ENGINEERING
⚫ Sanitary engineering is the application of engineering
methods to improve of human communities,
primarily by providing the removal and disposal of human
waste.
⚫ Sanitary engineering is a design and construction specialty
that confronts issues related to public health.
⚫ Professionals in the field build new sanitation systems and
repair existing structures to improve health and safety.
⚫ Like engineers in other specialties, sanitary engineering
professionals draw blueprints, make computer models, and
develop models before initiating a new construction project.
⚫ They run computer simulations and small-scale physical
experiments to test the effectiveness of a system.
⚫ The sanitary engineer job became essential with the rapid
increase of cities and other rural population concentrations.
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 Water Water collection
Supply Ground or surface,
Engineering treatment and distribution

Wastewater Collection systems,

Management treatment, reuse and
disposal
Sanitary
Engineering Storm water collection,
Storm water
reuse or disposal and
Management
treatment if required

Collection, sorting, transfer,

Solid waste transport and treatment or
management disposal

7
Important terms in wastewater collection system
 Sewage: It is a broad term that indicates the liquid waste originating from the
uses of water. It includes domestic wastewater (discharge from toilets, urinals,
kitchen, bathrooms etc), wastewater generated from commercial
establishments, institutions, industrial establishments and also the ground water
and storm water that may enter into the sewers.

 Storm water: It indicates the rain water of the locality.

 Sanitary sewage: . It is the wastewater generated from the lavatory basins,

urinals and water closets of residential buildings, office building, theatre and
other institutions.This is very fouling in nature.

 Infiltration: It is the water which inters the sewers from ground water
through Leaks from loose joints or cracks

 Inflow: It is the water which inters the sewers from the manholes during
rainfall events. 8
Important terms in wastewater collection system
 Sewer: Sewers are under ground pipes or conduits which carry sewage to
points of disposal.

 Sewerage: It refers to devices, equipments and appurtenances for the

collection, transportation and pumping of sewage. Basically it is the science of
collecting and carrying sewage by water carriage system through sewers.

 Sullage: This refers to the wastewater generated from bathrooms, kitchens,

washing place and wash basins, etc. Composition of this waste does not involve
higher concentration of organic matter and it is less polluted water as
compared to sewage.
 Night Soil: It is a term used to indicate the human and animal excreta.

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 System of Sanitation
 Depending upon the type of waste, two systems

may be employed for its collection,

conveyance and disposal :
(a) Conservancy system
(b) Water carriage system

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 A. Conservancy System

 This is an old system in which various types

of wastes, such as night soil, garbage etc. are
collected separately in vessels or deposited in
pools or pits and then removed periodically
at least once in 24 hours.
 The system is also known as the dry system.

11
Advantages of conservancy system
1. Initial cost is low, because storm water can
pass through open drains.
2. The quantity of sewage reaching at the
treatment plant is low.
3. The sewer section is small and no deposit
of silting because storm water goes in
open drains.
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 Disadvantages of conservancy system

1. Hygiene and sanitary aspect: The

conservancy system is highly unhygienic
and cause insanitary conditions since the
excreta starts decomposing within few
hours of its production.

13
 2. Transportation aspect

 Transportation of night soil takes place in open

carts through streets and other crowded
localities. This is highly undesirable.

14
 3. Labour aspect

 The working of the system depends entirely on

the mercy of labour (sweepers). If they go on
strike even for one day for any reason
whatsoever, the previes/ lavatories can not be
used because of foul smell.
 The whole locality will smell very badly.

15
 4. Building design aspect

 The lavatories or previes are to be

located outside the house and slightly
away from the main building.
 The compact design is therefore not
possible.

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 5. Conditions of drains

 Insanitation may be there d ue

to carriage of sullage through
open drains laid in the streets.

17
 6. Human Aspect

 In the present day world, when man

has progressed much, it is highly

humiliating to ask human beings to
transport night soil in pails on their
heads.
18
 7. Risk of Epidemic

 Due to improper or careless

disposal of night soil, there are
more chances of outbreak of
epidemic.
19
 8. Pollution problems

 The liquid wastes from lavatories etc., during

their washing, may soak in the ground, thus
contaminating the soil.
 If the ground water is at a shallow depth, it
may also be polluted due to percolation of
waste water.
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 9. Cost consideration
 Though the system is quite cheap in the
beginning, its maintenance and establishment
costs (i.e. recurring expenditure) are very high

10. Disposal land requirement

 The system requires considerable land
for the disposal of sewage.
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 B. Water Carriage system
 The sewage so formed in water carriage system
consists of 99.9 % of water and 0.1 % of solid
matters.
 In this system, the collection, conveyance and disposal of
various type of wastes are carried out with the help of
water.
 Thus, water is used as medium to convey the waste from its
point of production to the point of its treatment or final
disposal.
 Sufficient quantity of water is required to be mixed with the
wastes so that dilution ratio is so great that the mixture may
flow just like water.
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 Advantage of water carriage system

1. Hygienic and sanitary aspect : The system is

very hygienic since the night soil and other
waste water is conveyed through closed
conduits which are not directly exposed to
the atmosphere. There is no bad smell
because of continuous flow.

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 2. Epidemic Aspect

 There are no chances of outbreak of

epidemic because flies and other
insects do not have direct access to
the sewage.

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 3. Pollution Aspect

 The liquid wastes etc. are directly conveyed

through the sewers, and therefore there are

no changes of the waste water being soaked
in the ground thus contaminating the soil.
 No possibility of groundwater

contamination

25
 4. Compactness in design

 Since the latrines are flushed after

every use, excreta does not remain and

there are no foul smells. The latrines
can therefore be attached to the living
and bed rooms. This permits a compact
design.
26
 5. Labour Aspect

 The labour required for the

operation and maintenance is

extremely small.
 Labour may be required for pumping
operations and blockage cleaning
27
 6. Treatment Aspect

 The system permits the use of modern

methods of treatment of the sewerage
collected through the sewers.
 The treated waste water and sewage
can be safely disposed off without any
risk.
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7. Land disposal requirement

 Because of treatment facilities, the

land required for the disposal of
the treated wastewater is very much
smaller than· that required for the
conservancy system.

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Disadvantages:
1. High initial cost.
2. High Operating & Maintenance costs.
3. During rainy season large volume of
sewage is to be treated compared to
remaining period of year.
 Sewage system and
Sewage Quantity Estimation

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The Session topic objectives
I. To identify types of sewage systems
II. To differentiate the factors which
govern the selection of sewage systems
III. To estimate sanitary sewage and storm
water quantity

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 Sewage System

 The water carriage system can

be divided into the following

types:

A. Separate system
B. Combined system
C. Partially Combined system
3
 A. Separate system

 The separate system provides two

separate systems of sewers.
 The one intended for the conveyance of
foul sewage only; and
 The other for the rain water, including
the surface washing from certain streets,
overflow from public baths and
foundations etc.
4
5
Factors affecting selection of separate
system

1. Financial aspects
2. Flat topography
3. Rainfall pattern
4. Outlet conditions
5. Pumping aspect
6. Subsoil conditions
7. Development pattern
6
Advantages of separate sewer system

 The size of sewers are small

 Sewage load on treatment units is small
 River or stream waters are not polluted
 Storm water can be discharged into
streams or rivers without any treatment
 Economical for sewage pumping since the
quantity is small

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 Disadvantages of separate sewer system

1. Since the sewers are of small size, it is difficult to

clean
2. They are easily get clogged .
3. Two sets of sewers may ultimately prove to be costly.
4. Storm water sewers are only used during rainy
season

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 B.Combined system

 The combined system provides onlyone

sewer to carry both the foul sewage as well
as the rain water.
 The sewage and rain water are carried
to the sewage treatment plant, before
its final disposal.
9
10
Factors affecting selection of combined
system

1. Space restriction
2. Integrated development
3. Even rainfall pattern
4. Conversion of existing storm water drains
5. Pumping requirements

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Advantages of combined sewer system

1) Large sewer size don't clog easily and

are easy to clean
2) Laying one set of sewer is economical
3) The strength of sewage is reduced by
dilution
4) Maintenance cost is reasonable
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Disadvantages of combined sewer system

1) Large sewers are difficult for handling

and transport
2) Due to storm water load the treatment
plant is high
3) During heavy rains sewers may overflow
causing nuisance
4) Pumping is uneconomical
5) Storm water is unnecessarily polluted

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 C. Partially combined system

 In this system, only one set of

underground sewers is laid.

 These sewers admit the foul sewage aswell as the early

washings by rains. As soon as the quantity of storm

water exceeds a certain limit, the storm water
overflows, and is thus collected and conveyed in open
drains to the natural streams.

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 Advantages of partially combined
1. The sewers are of reasonable size. Their cleaning is
therefore not very difficult.
2. It combines the advantage of both the separate as well as
the combined systems.
3. The storm water permitted in the sewers eliminates its
chances of chocking. The sewers are completely cleaned
during rainy season.
4. The problem of disposing off storm water from homes
is simplified.
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 Disadvantages of partially combined

1. During the dry weather, when there is no rain

water, the velocity of flow will be low. Thus self
cleansing velocity may not be achieved.
2. The storm water increases the load on
treatment units.
3. The storm water also increases the cost of
pumping.

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 Sanitary Sewage estimation
 Before designing the sewer, it is necessary to know the discharge i.e.,
quantity of sewage, which will flow in because;-

 far lower estimation than reality will soon lead to inadequate sewer size
after commissioning and the sewers may not remain adequate for the entire
design period.

 Similarly, very high discharge estimated will lead to larger sewer size
affecting economy of the sewerage scheme, and

 the lower discharge may not meet the criteria of the self cleansing velocity
and hence leading to deposition in the sewers.

 Since sewers are designed to serve for some more future years, engineering
skills have to be used to accurately estimate the sewage discharge.

17
 Sanitary Sewage estimation
 Dry weather flow is the flow that occurs in sewers in
separate sewerage system or the flow that occurs during
dry seasons in combined system.
 This flow indicates the flow of sanitary sewage which
depends up on;-
1) the rate of water supply,
2) type of area served,
3) economic conditions of the people,
4) weather conditions and
5) infiltration of groundwater in the sewers, if sewers
are laid below groundwater table.
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 Sanitary Sewage estimation
Two Parameters:
Both of these
quantities depend
1. The contributing population, on the design
and period
2. Per capita (per person)
flowrate of sewage

 Design period: The length of the time up to which the

capacity of a sewer will be adequate.
 Normally design period for a sewerage system is considered
as 30 years

 But, mechanical rotating equipment such as pumps are

designed for 15 years

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 Sanitary Sewage estimation
 Prospective population of the project area (may be a city, town or a
metropolitan area) can be projected by one of the methods below.
Methods:
• Demographic population projection
• Arithmetical increase method
• Incremental Increase method As you have learnt
• Geometrical Increase method previously in
• Growth rate water supply &
• Graphical method treatment classes
• Logistic method

Where is the forecast found for design purposes?

 Normally for a city, population growth forecasts are found from the
master-plan prepared by town planning or other relevant authorities.

What to do when masterplan or planners’ documents are unavailable?

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 Floor-Space Index Based Calculation
1. FSI is the ratio of the total floor area of buildings on a
certain location to the size of the land of that location.
2. From the city-plan find out the % of the total area available
for residential development
3. Actual total floor area = Area for residential development X
Floor Space Index (FSI)
4. Find out floor area required for one person or assume it
depending on the available data from the city. Normally it is
9 sqm/person.

5. Find out the density of population per hectare

6. Multiply the density with the total area of the city to find
out the total population
This total population can be used for estimating the quantity of
total sewage flow.
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Sanitary Sewage estimation
 Theoretically speaking, the quantity of should be equal to the
quantity of water supplied to the contributing area, from the
water-works.
 But in actual practice, this is not the precise quantity, certain
additions and subtractions do take place from it, as explained
below:
i. Additions due to unaccounted private water Supplies
ii. Additions due to infiltration and inflow.
iii. Subtractions due to water losses.
iv. Subtraction due to water not entering the sewerage 'system
 The net quantity of sewage = the accounted quantity of water supplied +
factors (i) and (ii) - factors (iii) and (iv), described above.
 Generally, 75 to 80% of accounted water supplied is considered as quantity of
sewage produced. .

22
 Variations in Flow and Peak Factor
 Water consumption varies from hour
to hour. Along with daily variations,

Flow rate
there are also seasonal variations.
Average
 For design purpose, sewers are always
designed to carry maximum or peak flow
rates, rather than designing it for average
flowrate. 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time of the day
Maximum wastewater flow rate
Peak Factor (PF) =
Average wastewater flow rate

Population Peak factor

< 20,000 3.0
20,000 – 50,000 2.5
50,000 – 750,000 2.25
> 750,000 2.0
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 Sanitary Sewage estimation
 Generally the peak and minimum flow of sewage is the
relation of population in thousands.
 The peak flow is the product of peak factor with average
flow and the minimum flow is the product of minimum
factor with average flow; based on this

and
Where: - P = population in thousands
Q peak= peak sewage flow
Qmin & Qave = minimum & average sewage flow respectively.

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 Estimation of Storm Water
 The quantity of storm water (runoff) reaching to the sewers or
drains is very large as compared with sanitary sewage.
Runoff quantity depends on:
 Rainfall Characteristics (Intensity, Duration and space- time
distributions)
 Characteristics of the watershed surface (nature,permeability, slope, and
landscaping)
 Time of concentration (time required for flow to reach the
sewer)

 Storm sewers are designed for a rainfall with particular frequency or return
period.The design rainfall is fixed after economic considerations involving the
Intensity-duration and frequency (IDF) curves in an area.

 The design should be adequate to carry from a basin or watershed the

maximum runoff caused by the design rainfall.
Time of Concentration (tc)
DRAINAGE BASIN
 The period of time after which the entire basin
area starts contributing to the run-off.
 Varies from 3 to 30 minutes

tC
 Maximum run-off is obtained from a rain having
a duration equal to the time of concentration. SEWER
OUTFALL
 The duration of such a rainfall is called critical rainfall duration and the intensity of
such rainfall is known as critical rainfall intensity.
Sub-basin
tc  te t f
te
te= time of entry
tf= time of flow tf
SEWER
OUTFALL 26
 Time of entry : is the longest time required for a water droplet in an urban sub-basin
to travel to a street inlet.

L= maximum distance travelled by the water
Kirpich’s model: 
on the surface
0.0195L0.77F
te  S= average slope of the route travelled
s0.385 by water
F = Ground surface friction factor
Surface type F
Rural watershed (flat ground) 1.0
Grass surface 2.0
Concrete or Asphalt surface 0.4
Concrete channel 0.2

 Time of flow : is the time required for water to travel to a sewage outfall from the street
inlet in the urban sub-basin. It is always computed considering that the pipe is running
1 2 1
full. v R 3 2 s L
n t f
v

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 Estimation of Storm Water

 Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method as

below:

Q =C.I.A/360
Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3/sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
I = intensity of rainfall, mm/hour,and
A = Drainage area in hectares

Or
Q = 0.278 C.I.A
Where, Q is m3/sec; I is mm/hour, and A is area in square kilometer

28
 Estimation of Storm Water Contd.
 Runoff Coefficient: can be defined as a fraction, which is multiplied with the
quantity of total rainfall to determine the quantity of rain water, which will reach the
sewers.

 The runoff coefficient depends upon the porosity of soil cover, wetness and ground
cover.

 The overall runoff coefficient for the catchment area can be worked out as follows:
C = [A1.C1 + A2.C2 + ….+ An.Cn] / [ A1 + A2 + …+ An]

Where, A1, A2, …. Are types of area with C1, C2, …. as their coefficient
of runoff, respectively.
Part I:- Lecture 3
Hydraulic Design
of Sewer

1
Session topic objectives
 At the end of this session students were able;-
1) To have an understanding how design &
construction of sewerage differs from water supply
2) To Identify empirical formula which the best suits
flow in sewer lines
3) To know how to design non scouring and silting
velocity of flow
4) To Characterize hydraulic elements of circular
sewer section

2
 Difference between Sewers and Treated Water Conduits

SEWER WATER CONDUITS

1. They are never designed to run full; there 1. They are always
is always an empty space provided at the top. designed to run full.

Reasons: a) Biodegradation causes

generation of gases like methane, hydrogen 2. It is pressurized.
sulfide, ammonia etc. which can get Normally, we do not worry
dissolved if running under pressure. about the slope of the water
mains or lines when we lay
b) At same slopes, the velocity and carrying them.
capacity is more when it runs partially full.
2. It is unpressurised. It maintains a gravity flow;
It is laid in gradients or slopes.
3
Designing Sewer Systems

 Sewers are designed taking consideration of 30 years.

 Population in the initial years of the design period are low

compared to the design population at the end of design period

 Peak flow rate in the initial years is low compared to the

designed peak flow rate (ultimate peak flow)

 Sizing should be such that it will attain the self-cleansing

velocity at the average design flow rate or at least at the
maximum flow rate at the beginning of the design period.

4
Requirements of Design and Planning of
Sewerage system
 The sewers should be laid at least 2 to 3 m deep to
carry sewage from basement.
 The sewage should flow under gravity with 0.5 to 0.8
full at designed discharge, i.e. at the maximum
estimated discharge.
 The sewage is conveyed to the point usually located at
low lying area, where the treatment plant is located.
 Treatment plant should be designed taking into
consideration the quality of raw sewage expected and
to meet the discharge standards.

5
HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF SEWERS

 Design of sewers are done assuming steady state conditions.

Steady state means that the discharge or flow rate at a point
remains time invariant.
 Carry the peak flow rate for which the sewer is designed
 This is directly connected with the maximum achievable
velocity in the sewers. We do not want the sewage pipe
materials to get worn out.
 The wastewater manual recommends a maximum velocity
of 3 m/s.
 Transport suspended solids in such a manner that the
siltation in a sewer is kept to a minimum
 This condition gives us an idea about the minimum velocity
that has to be maintained inside a sewer during a low flow
period.
6
 Provision of Freeboard in Sewers
Sanitary Sewers
 Sewers with diameter less than 0.4 m are designed to run
half full at maximum discharge, and
 sewers with diameter greater than 0.4 m are designed
2/3 to ¾ full at maximum discharge.
 The extra space provided in the sewers provides factor of
safety to counteract against the following factors:
1. Safeguard against lower estimation of the quantity of wastewater to
be collected at the end of design period due to private water supply
by industries and public. Thus, to ensure that sewers will never
flow full eliminating pressure flow inside the sewer.
 Provision of Freeboard in Sewers
2. Large scale infiltration of storm water through
wrong or illegal connection, through underground
cracks or open joints in the sewers.
3. unexpected increase in population or water
consumption and the consequent increase in sewage
production.
 Storm water drains are provided with nominal
freeboard, above their designed full supply line
because the overflow from storm water drains is not
much harmful.
 Minimum of 0.3 m free board is generally provided
in storm water drains.
8
 Hydraulic Formulae for Determining Flow
Velocities
 Sewers of any shape are hydraulically designed as open
channels, except in the case of inverted siphons and discharge
lines of pumping stations. Following formulae can be used for
design of sewers.
1. Manning’s Formula
 This is most commonly used for design of sewers. The velocity
of flow through sewers can be determined using Manning’s
formula as below:

Where,
V = velocity of flow in the sewer, m/sec
R = Hydraulic mean depth of flow, m, R = A/P
A = Cross section area of flow, m2 &
P = Wetted perimeter, m

9
 Hydraulic Formulae cont’d…
n = Manning’s coefficient depends upon the type of the channel surface i.e.,
material and lies between 0.011 to 0.015 for brick sewer
it could be 0.017 to 0.03 for stone facing sewers.
S = Hydraulic gradient, equal to invert slope for uniform flows.
2. Chezy’s Formula

V = velocity of flow in the channel in, m/sec

R = hydraulic mean radius of channel, i.e. hydraulic mean depth of channel
S = hydraulic gradient, equal to the ground slope for uniform flows, i.e. the
head drop between the two points divided by the length
C = a constant, called Chezy’s constant , can be calculated by using Bazin’s
formula.
 Constant (C) is very complex. Depends on size, shape and smoother roughness
of the channel, the mean depth etc.
10
Bazin’s formula Where,
C= 157.6 K= Bazin’s constant
[1.81 + (K/R 1/2)] R= hydraulic radius

Sr. No. Inside nature of the sewer K values

1. Very smooth 0.109
2. Smooth: bricks & concrete 0.290
3. Smooth: rubble masonry 0.833
4. Good, earthen material 1.540
5. Rough: bricks & concrete 0.500
6. Rough earthen material 3.170

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 Maximum Velocity in sewers
 The smooth interior surface of a sewer pipe gets scoured
due to continuous abrasion caused by the suspended solids
present in sewage.
 It is therefore, necessary to limit the maximum velocity in the
sewer pipe.

 This limiting will mainly depend upon the material of the sewer.
 Moreover, care should be taken to see that at the time of
maximum flow, the velocity generated does not exceed the
scouring value.
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Minimum Velocity in a Sewer
The velocity should be such that:

A) It will not allow the particles to settle inside

the sewer

B) Even if there is a deposition, it will promote

scouring of the particles so that it can
self - cleanse itself

 The generation of Self-cleansing velocity should occur within the sewer for
at least once in a day.

13
 Self Cleansing Velocity

1 61
VS  R k(S S 1)Dp
n
n = roughness coefficient
R = Hydraulic Mean Radius = A
P
A= Area of the channel
P= Wetted perimeter of the channel

Ss = Specific gravity of the particle

k = Dimensionless constant, 0.04 for granular particles, 0.8 for

organic matters
DP = Diameter of the particle for which the sewer will be designed, this
is the maximum particle size the sewer can safely carry

 Sewers are always designed to attain the self cleansing velocities

14
Characteristics of hydraulic elements of circular sewer section running full
or partial

 Capital Letters denote the situation when

the sewers run full
α/2 α/2 D

d
 Depth proportionate
 Depth at partial flow

 [1cos ]
D D d 1
d [  cos ]
2 2 2 D 2 2

 Area proportionate

A  D2  Area at partial flow
 2 
a  D [   sin
a =  sin  4
 4 360 2 ]
A [ ]
360 2
15
  Perimeter at full flow

P  D
 Perimeter at partial flow
D p  D *


α/2 α/2 360
D * 
 Perimeter proportionate
d
p 360  
 Hydraulic radius at full flow P D 360
D2  Hydraulic radius at partial flow
A 4 D
R  r  a  D [1 360sin  ]
P D 4 p 4 2
 Mean hydraulic radius proportionate

r  [1 360sin  ]
R 2
16
  Velocity at full flow

V  1 R2 / 3S1/ 2
n
α/2 α/2 D Velocity at partial flow

v 1 r 2 / 3s1/ 2
d n

 Velocity proportionate
 360sin  
2 /3
 r   1
2/3 2 /3
v  r
     
V R2 / 3 R  2 

 Discharge proportionate

q  a.v  a * v     sin 1 360sin 

2 /3

 
Q A.V A V 360 2  2 



17
  Summary d 1 
[1cos ] ,Depth proportionate
D 2 2
r  [1 360sin  ] ,H.radius proportionate
α/2 α/2 D R 2 2 / 3
 360sin  
v  1
  ,Velocity proportionate
d
V  2 
q     sin  360sin  
2 /3

  1
Q 360 2  2 
Discharge proportionate,

 In all the above expressions, α is the only variable, all other

parameters are constant.
 Thus at different values of α, the above proportional elements
can be easily calculated

18
d/D a/A v/V q/Q
1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
0.9 0.949 1.124 1.066
0.8 0.858 1.140 0.988
0.7 0.748 1.120 0.838
0.5 0.5 1.000 0.500
0.4 0.373 0.902 0.337

 Capital Letters denote the situation

when the sewers run full

 Maximum velocity is achieved

when the sewers are designed to
run at 80% of the full depth.

19
 v  1 r 2 / 3s1/ 2
n

r  a  D [1 360sin  ]
p 4 2




s
1000
360sin
2/ 3
V  1 2  
Velocity at partially full flow v
Velocity at full flow
 

For Partially-full flow v is not influenced by the diameter of the

pipe, rather is much influenced by the slope of the channel
20
FROM THE SEWAGE TREATMENT MANUAL

 After finding the minimum slope required, the pipe size is decided on the
basis of ultimate design peak flow rate and the permissible depth of flow.
Adoption of the above slopes would ensure minimum flow velocity of 0.6
m/s

 Minimum size for a public sewer is 150 mm diameter

 Minimum size for a public sewer in hilly terrain is 100 mm diameter22
Part I:- Lecture 4
Sewer construction,
appurtenance used
and maintenance

1
Objectives of the session
⚫ Identify constraints of sewerage line construction
and engineering considerations

⚫ Evaluate the most important factors considered

to select sewer material

⚫ Understand the role of sewer appurtenant

structures on ventilation, efficient operation and
maintenance of sewerage system
2
Sewer Materials
⚫ The following factors are to be carefully considered
while making selection for the materials of sewer.
i. Resistance to corrosion
ii. Resistance to abrasion
iii. Strength and durability
iv. Light weight
v. Imperviousness
vi. The economy and cost
vii. Hydraulically efficient (Smooth )

3
Forces Acting on Sewer Pipes

⚫ The structural design of the sewer pipes

should be such as to enable them to
withstand the various forces likely to
come on them.
⚫ The following forces generally come into
play in the sewer pipes:
1. Internal pressure of sewage
2. Pressure due to external loads
3. Flexural stresses

4
Cont…
1. For pipes resting on or projecting above
undisturbed ground in cohesion less soils and
covered with fills, such as in a high way culvert
◦ the external load likely to come per unit length of
pipe (W) is given by:

Where
🞄 Cp - a coefficient whose value depends upon the
type of pipe and character of foundation backfill.
Typical values of Cp are given in table below
🞄  - Sp.Wt. of fill material
🞄 D - the external diameter of the pipe

5
6
2. For flexible pipes (such as steel pipes) buried in
narrow trenches and with thoroughly compacted
side fills, such as shown in Fig. below,
◦ the external load per unit length of the pipe
is given by:

⚫ Where
🞄 C = a coefficient, characterizing the fill material
and the ratio H/B. Typical values are given in table
below.

7
3. For rigid pipes (such as concrete, cast iron, vitrified clay, etc.)
buried in narrow trenches and thoroughly compacted with
cohesion less fills, the external load per unit length of the pipe is
given by:

8
4. The amount of superimposed loads (such as traffic
load, etc.) which is transmitted to the pipe can be
evaluated by using Boussinesq's equation. Assuming
the fill surface to be horizontal, the equation is:

⚫ Where
🞄 Pt - unit pressure developed at any point in the fill at a
depth H below the surface due to traffic load
🞄 P - Load superimposed
🞄 H - Distance of the top of pipe below the surface of the fill
🞄 Z - the slant height of the considered point from the load P.

9
⚫ The following are the various materials, which
are used for sewers.
i. Asbestos cement sewers
ii. Cast-Iron sewers
iii. Cement concrete sewers
iv. Stoneware sewers
v. Brick sewers
vi. Corrugated iron sewers
vii. Plastic sewers
viii. Steel sewers

10
Asbestos Cement Pipes
⚫ These sewers are made from a mixture of
asbestos fibers, cement and silica.
⚫ They are available up to sizes of 900mm and 3 to
4m in length.
Advantages:
i. Easy to cut and join.
ii. Durable and good resistance to corrosion.
iii. The inside surface is smooth.
iv. Light in weight and hence easy to handle.

11
Disadvantages:
1. Brittle and cannot stand impact forces during handling
operations.

2. The structural strength is poor and hence cannot be

laid to resist heavy external loads.

3. They are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric

acid from H2S gas generated in sanitary waste
water or by some industrial chemicals.

12
Cement Concrete Sewers

⚫ The cement concrete sewers may be plain or

reinforced.
⚫ The plain cement concrete sewers are used up to
the diameter of 600mm and beyond 600mm
reinforcement is provided.
Advantages:
1. These are strong and impervious.
2. Larger diameter can be made.
3. Inner surface of sewer is smooth.
4. For attack of chemical and erosive actions the
inner surface should be lined with vitrified clay.

13
Disadvantages:
1. They easily get corroded and pitted by the
action of sulphuric acid produced from H2S
gas.
2. They are also susceptible to erosion by sewage
containing too much silt and grit
3. Heavy weight, transportation and handling is
difficult.
4. Joints should be carefully filled.

14
Stoneware Sewers
⚫ The stoneware sewers are also known as the
vitrified clay sewers or salt-glazed sewers

⚫ They are prepared from various clays and shapes

in required proportion, allowed to dry and then
burnt in a kiln.

⚫ A small quantity of salt is added to kiln get glass

like glaze on the surface of pipes.
15
⚫ Advantages:
1. These pipes are strong enough to take backfilling and
traffic
2. The interior surface of sewers are smooth and
impervious
3. The overall performance is very good
4. These sewers are cheap and easily available
5. These sewers are durable and better resistance to
corrosion & erosion
6. These sewers are capable of withstand hydraulic
pressure up to 0.15N/mm2 and bear a load of soil of
about 4.5m depth
16
Disadvantages:
1. These are brittle in nature and may damage in
handling or transport.

2. These are not strong enough to allow sewage under

pressure. Because they are weak in tension.

3. These are difficult to handle or transport because of

heavy weight.

17
Laying of Sewers

⚫ The construction of sewer consists of the

following works:
a. Marking center lines of sewers
b. Excavation of trenches
c. Checking the gradient
d. Preparation of bedding
e. Laying of sewers
f. Jointing
g. Back filling
18
Marking Center Line of Sewer

⚫ The center line of a sewers are marked on the

streets and roads from the plans starting from the
lowest point or outfall of the main proceeding
upwards.
⚫ For checking the levels of sewer pipes and their
alignment temporary benchmarks are established
at 200 - 400m intervals.
⚫ The reduced level (R.L) of these benchmarks
should be calculated
⚫ On the center line position of sewer
appurtenances are also marked
19
 Excavation Trenches
⚫ After marking the layout of the sewer lines on the ground, the
first step is the removal of pavement
⚫ After removing pavements, the excavation of trenches is done
manually or by machinery.
⚫ The width of excavation at any level will depend upon
the width of the trench at the bottom, and the additions
due to side slopes and due to timbering etc.
⚫ The trench is excavated between two manholes, and the
sewer is laid between them.
⚫ The width of sewer line is 15cm more than external diameter
of sewer for easiness in lowering and adjusting the sewer pipe.

20
Preparation of Bedding

⚫ When a sewer has to be laid in a soil underground strata

the trench shall be excavated deeper than what is
ordinarily required trench bottom or rock.
⚫ In the case of very bad soil the trench bottom shall be
filled in with cement concrete of appropriate grade.
⚫ In areas subject to subsidence the pipe sewer shall be laid
on a timber platform or concrete cradle supported on
piles.
⚫ In the case of cast-in-site sewers and R.C.C section with
reinforcement, bearing capacity is encountered and soil
stabilization shall be done either by rubber, concrete or
wooden crib.
21
Jointing and laying of Sewers
⚫ The Cast Iron pipes
◦ shall be examined for line and level and the space left
in the socket shall be filled in by pouring molten pig
lead of best-quality
⚫ For concrete pipes,
◦ the collars shall be placed symmetrically over the end
of two pipes and the annual space between the inside
of the collar and the outside of the pipe shall be filled
with cement slurry.
⚫ For stoneware:
◦ All the joints shall be caulked with tarred gasket in
one length for each joint and sufficiently long to
entirely surround the spigot end of the pipe.

22
Back-filling of Trenches
◦ The trenches are back filled with excavated soil after
removal of pebbles and stone-pieces by ramming the soil in
layers using with water.
◦ When the height reaches to 60cm above the crown of the
pipe, back filling is stopped for at least one weak for
weathering.
◦ After a week, again backfilling is started in layers and the
trench is filled 15cm above the ground level.
◦ During the course of time the back filled soil gets
compacted and the filled soil comes to the ground level.
◦ Back filling will be after 7 days for precast pipes and 14 days
after in the case of cast-in-site sewers.
25
26
27
Testing of sewer
 The testing of sewers is necessary as any leakage,
improper joints, straightness or obstruction of sewers
may occur during laying of sewers.
 These defects may be removed or repaired after
detection.
 So there are various tests by which these defects may
be detected. These tests are :-
 Water Test.
 Smoke Test.
 Test For Obstruction
Testing of sewer
Water Test: for leakage
◦ Each section of the sewer is tested for water
tightness preferably between the manholes.
◦ Testing of sewers done by plugging the lower end of
the sewer and fill water in the manhole in the
upper end.
◦ The depth of the water in the manhole is
maintained to the testing head of about 1.5m.
◦ The sewer line is watched by moving along the
trench.

29
Smoke Test
 The purpose of smoke testing is to find potential
points of inflow and infiltration in the sanitary sewer
system that could lead to high flows during a storm.

 Smoke testing forces smoke-filled air through a

sanitary sewer line.
 The smoke under pressure will fill the main line plus
any connections and then follow the path of any leak
to the ground surface, quickly revealing the source of
the problem.
 Only enough force to overcome atmospheric pressure
is required.
Test For Obstruction
 For straightness or obstruction of pipe, this test can be
used. There are many methods for obstruction or
straightness :
1. To check the obstruction of sewer pipe, a ball of
suitable diameter is rolled down from upstream side.
The diameter of ball should be less then the diameter
sewer. If there is no obstruction, the ball can be taken
out at downstream side.
2. The straightness can also be checked by placing a
lamp at one end and a mirror at the other end.

If the full circle of light is visible at other end, then the

sewer is straight and there is no obstruction.

If there is any obstruction within the sewer line, it can

also be traced out.
Sewer Appurtenances

 Sewer appurtenances are the various accessories on

the sewerage system and are necessary for the efficient
operation of the system.

 They include man holes, lamp holes, street inlets,

catch basins, inverted siphons, and so on.
 Man-holes: Man holes are the openings of either
circular or rectangular in shape constructed on the
alignment of a sewer line to enable a person to enter
the sewer for inspection, cleaning and flushing.
 They serve as ventilators for sewers, by the provisions
of perforated man-hole covers.
 Also they facilitate the laying of sewer lines in
convenient length.
 Man-holes are provided at all junctions of two or more
sewers, whenever diameter of sewer changes,
whenever direction of sewer line changes and when
sewers of different elevations join together.
Special Man-holes
 Junction chambers: Man-hole constructed at the
intersection of two large sewers.

 Drop man-hole: When the difference in elevation of

the invert levels of the incoming and outgoing sewers
of the man-hole is more than 60 cm, the interception
is made by dropping the incoming sewer vertically
outside and then it is jointed to the man-hole chamber.
 Flushing man-holes: They are located at the head of a
sewer to flush out the deposits in the sewer with water.

 Lamp-holes: Lamp holes are the openings constructed

on the straight sewer lines between two man-holes
which are far apart and permit the insertion of a lamp
into the sewer to find out obstructions if any inside the
sewers from the next man-hole.
 Street inlets: Street inlets are the openings through
which storm water is admitted and conveyed to the
storm sewer or combined sewer. The inlets are located
by the sides of pavement with maximum spacing of 30
m.
 Catch Basins: Catch basins are small settling chambers
of diameter 60 - 90 cm and 60 - 75 cm deep, which are
constructed below the street inlets. They interrupt the
velocity of storm water entering through the inlets and
allow grit, sand, debris and so on to settle in the basin,
instead of allowing them to enter into the sewers.
 Inverted siphons: These are depressed portions of
sewers, which flow full under pressure more than the
atmospheric pressure due to flow line being below the
hydraulic grade line.
 They are constructed when a sewer crosses a stream or
deep cut or road or railway line.
 To clean the siphon pipe sluice valve is opened, thus
increasing the head causing flow.
 Due to increased velocity deposits of siphon pipe are
washed into the sump, from where they are removed.
Maintenance, Cleaning and Ventilation of Sewers

⚫ Maintenance of Sewers
◦ Sewer maintenance generally involves their
cleaning to keep them free from any clogging
and to carry out the repairs to the damaged
portions if any, so as to prolong their life and to
ensure efficient functioning.
◦ The proper maintenance of sewers is therefore
absolutely necessary in order to make a sewerage
system function efficiently.
◦ The sewer maintenance generally includes:
a) Their frequent inspection and supervision,
b) Measuring the rate of flow,
c) Cleaning and flushing,
d) Repairing the leaking joints or any other damaged
portions.
45
Cleaning of Sewers
⚫ Sewers should be periodically cleaned so as
to avoid their complete clogging.
⚫ For cleaning small sewers which cannot be
entered into by manual labour, flushing
operations are essential.
⚫ Large sized sewers which can be entered into by
men are generally cleaned by manual labour.
⚫ Precautions to be taken while entering sewers
various poisonous and explosive gases which are
generally found in sewers are: hydrogen
sulphide (H2S), carbon dioxide (CO2), and (CH4)
along with petrol vapors.
46
Ventilation of Sewers
⚫ The sewers must be properly ventilated for the
following reasons:
i. The decomposition of sewage inside the sewers
may result in the production of various sewer
gases, such as, CO2, CO, CH4, H2S, NH3, N2, etc.
🞄 These gases, if not removed, may cause serious
problems, and prove hazardous to the workers
entering the sewers.
🞄 Methane gas being highly explosive, if not
removed, may even blow off the manhole
covers.
47
 ii. To ensure a continuous flow of sewage
inside the sewer.
🞄 This is achieved by ventilation by keeping the
surface of sewage in contact with free air and thus
preventing the formation of air-locks in the sewage.
⚫ Methods of Ventilation
i. Use of ventilating columns (placed at intervals of 150 to
300m along the sewer lines)
ii. Use of ventilating manhole covers (provided with
perforations)
iii. Proper Design of Sewers (designed partially full)
iv. House vent and Soil pipes (ventilating house drains and
public sewers) Example: -1 Finding out population density
based on Floor Space Index method

1. A well-planned city has following areas earmarked for its development in the planning
 stage: Roads- 20%; Gardens- 15%; Schools – 5%; markets and Commerical places –
2%; Hospital and medical facilities – 2% and rest is residential area. The Floor Space
Index (FSI) for the city is fixed at 2. If the floor area is 9 sqm/ person, find out the
projected population density of the city in numbers/ hecatare.
Solution:

Residential Area (%) = 100 – (20+15+5+2+2) = 56

Actual Floor Area = Area of the land X FSI
Population that can reside in the area = Actual Floor area / Area required by a person
= 0.56*2/9 persons/m2
Population density (numbers / hectare) = (0.56*2*1000)/9
= 1244

1
 Example:-2
1. Determine designed discharge for a combined system serving population of 50000 with rate of
water supply of 135 LPCD. The catchment area is 100 hectares and the average coefficient of runoff
is 0.60. The time of concentration for the design rainfall is 30 min and the relation between intensity of
rainfall and duration is : I = 1000/(t + 20).
Solution
 Estimation of sewage quantity
 Considering 80% of the water supplied will result in wastewater generation,
the quantity of sanitary sewage = 50000 x 135 x 0.80/1000 = 5400 m3/day = 0.0625m3/sec
 Considering peak factor of 2.5, the design Q for sanitary sewage = 0.0625 x 2.5 = 0.156 m3/sec
 Estimation of storm water discharge Intensity of rainfall, I = 1000/(t + 20)
Therefore, I = 1000/(30 + 20) = 20 mm/h
Hence, storm water runoff, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.6 x 20 x 100/(360) = 3.33 m3/sec
Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 3.33 + 0.156 = 3.49 m3/sec

2
 2. The catchment area is 300 hectares. The surface cover in the catchment can
be classified as given below:

Type of cover Coefficient of runoff Percentage

Roofs 0.90 15
Pavements and yards 0.80 15
Lawns and gardens 0.15 25
Roads 0.40 20
Open ground 0.10 15
Single family dwelling 0.50 10

Calculate the runoff coefficient and quantity of storm water runoff, if intensity of rainfall
is 30 mm/h for rain with duration equal to time of concentration. If population density
in the area is 350 persons per hectare and rate of water supply is 200 LPCD, calculate
design discharge for separate systems and combined system.

3
 Solution for #2

 Estimation of sanitary sewage quantity

Considering 80% of the water supplied will result in wastewater generation,
the quantity of sanitary sewage = 350 x 300 x 200 x 0.80/1000
= 16800 m3/day
= 0.194 m3/sec
Considering peak factor of 2.5,the design discharge for
sanitary sewage = 0.194 x 2.5 = 0.486 m3/sec
 Estimation of storm water discharge
Intensity of rainfall, I = 33 mm/h
C= 0.9 x 0.15 + 0.8 x 0.15 + 0.15 x 0.25 + 0.4 x 0.2 + 0.1 x 0.15 + 0.5 x 0.1 = 0.4375
Hence, storm water runoff, Q = C.I.A/360
= 0.4375 x 33 x 300/(360) = 12.03 m3/sec
Therefore, design discharge for combined sewer = 12.03 + 0.486 = 12.516 m3/sec

4
 3. Find out the maximum design runoff at the
/1.2 ha discharge point
Assume: C = 0.3 (Entire area), 5-year frequency, vel. In
sewers = 0.6 m/s
110 mm/hr
200
/120 m
175

Rainfall Intensity, mm/hr

150 110
125 mm/hr
/2.4 ha

100

75

50

/180 m 25

/1.8 ha

5
 Solution:-
 Flow time in sewer from MH 1  MH 2
= (120 m)/ (0.6 m/s) (60 s/ min) = 3.3 min

 Flow time in sewer from MH 2  MH 3

= (180 m)/(0.6 m/s) (60 s/ min) = 5.0 min

Time of concentration from remote points of 3 separate areas to MH 3: Area

1: 5.0 + 3.3 + 5.0 = 13.3 min
Area 2: 5.0 + 3.3 = 8.3 min
Area 3: 8.0 min (inlet time only)

 Max. time conc. = Duration of rainfall = 13.3 min

I = 110 mm/hr. for 5 year frequency

Sum of CA values = 0.3 (1.2 + 2.4 + 1.8) = 1.62

Q = 10 x 110 x 1.62 = 1782 m3/hr.

6
 Example:- 3
1. A trunk sewer is to be sized for a 25 km2 (2,500 ha) city. It will be 60% residential,
30% commercial, and 10% industrial. The residential area will have 40% large lots,
55% small lots, single - family and 5% multistory apartments. The average domestic
wastewater flow rate is 800 L/d/capita (9.26x10-6 m3/sec/person), the average
commercial flow rate is 25,000 L/D/ha (2.89x10-4m3/sec/ha), and the average
industrial flow rate is 40,000 L/d/ha (4.63x10-4m3/sec/ha). I & I is 1,000 L/d/ha for
the entire area. Estimate the peak and minimum flows to be handled by the trunk
sewer. The saturation densities for the residential areas are given in the table:

7
 Solution:
Step 1:- The residential area will be 60% of 2,500 ha = 1,500 ha. The flow rates
for each residential area will be:
Type Area (ha) Density Population Flow (m3/s)
(person/ha)
Large lots 0.40*1500 = 600 6 600*6 = 3,600 9.26*10-6*3600
= 0.03
Small lots, 0.55*1500 = 825 75 825*75 = 61, 875 9.26*10-6*61,875
single family = 0.57
Multistory 0.05*1500 = 75 2,500 75*2,500 = 187,500 9.26*10-6*187,500
apartments = 1.74
Total 252975 2.34

Step 2:- The commercial area will be 30% of 2,500 ha, 0.3*2,500 = 750 ha, with a
flow rate of 2.89x10-4 m3/sec/ha, the average flow for commercial areas will
therefore be
= 2.89x10-4 m3/sec/ha *750 ha
= 0.22m3/sec.

8
Step 3:- The industrial area covers 10% of 2,500 ha then, 0.1*2,500 = 250 ha,
with a flow rate of 4.63x10-4m3/sec/ha, the average flow for industrial
areas will therefore be
= 4.63x10-4m3/sec/ha *250 ha
= 0.12 m3/sec.
Step 4:- The Inflow & Infiltration (I & I) for the entire area is:
(1,000 L/ha)*(2500 ha) = 2.5x106L/day = 0.03m3/sec
 The total city flow, excluding I&I, will therefore be:
2.34 + 0.22+ 0.12 = 2.68 m3/sec.
 The total city population will be 252,975 (or 252.975 thousands of
people).
Step 5:- The peak and minimum flow rates can therefore be estimated:
Q peak/Q av = 5.5/ P 0.18 = 2.0, and Q min/Q av = 0.2*P 0.16 = 0.48 then,

 The peak flow is therefore estimated to be, = 2.0 (2.68 m3/sec) + 0.03 m3/sec
= 5.39 m3/sec
 The minimum flow is estimated to be, = 0.48 (2.68 m3/sec) + 0.03 m3/sec
= 1.32 m3/sec
9
 Example :4

1. Calculate the velocity of flow and corresponding discharge in a sewer of

circular section having diameter equal to 1 m, laid at a slope of 1 in 500.
Sewer runs at a depth of 0.6 depth. Use Manning’s n = 0.012
Solution:-
When sewer runs full
Q = A V = ((3.14) (12)/4) x(1/0.012) x(1/4) 2/3 x (1/500) ½
= 1.162 m3/s
V = ((1/0.012)) x(1/4) 2/3 x (1/500) ½ = 1.479 m/s
When sewer runs partially full (d/D = 0.6)
From table when d/D = 0.6; q/Q = 0.671, v/V = 1.072
So, q = 0.671 (1.162) = 0.78 m3/s, and
v = 1.072 ( 1.479) = 1.586 m/s
10
 2. A town has a population of 100,000 persons with a per capita water supply of 200 L/d.
Design a sewer running 0.7 times full at maximum discharge. Take Manning’s n=
0.013 at all depths of flows. The sewer is to be laid at a slope of 1 in 500. Take a peak
factor of 3.
Solution:-
Average sewage flow =(100000)*(200)*(0.8)/(24x3600x100)
= 0.185 m3/s.
Peak flow = (3)*(0.185) = 0.555 m3/s, This is q at 0.7 depth;
Now from table for d/D = 0.7, q/Q is 0.85 and v/V is 1.12
So, Q = 0.555/0.85 = 0.6536 m3/s
When sewer runs full
Then Q = A V = 0.6536 = (3.14) (D2)/4 (1/0.013) (D/4) 2/3 (1/500) ½
0.6536 = 1.052 D 8/3
Solving for D
11
D = 0.836 m
 Contd.

V = Q/A = 0.6536/ (3.14x 0.836x0.836/4) = 1.19 m/s

So, v at 0.7 depth shall be
1.12(V) = 1.12(1.19) = 1.33 m/s ok (1.0-1.6)
qmin = 1/3 of average flow = 0.185/3 = 0.0617 m3/s
qmin/Q = 0.0617/0.6536 = 0.0944
For qmin/Q = 0.0944; d/D = 0.21 and vmin/V = 0.625
So, vmin = 0.625 (1.19) = 0.744m/s which is more than 0.6 m/s …. Ok
 Part II
Lecture 3
PRELIMINARY AND PRIMARY
WASTEWATER TREATMENT
METHODS

1
 1.1 Preliminary Treatment
 Preliminary treatment consists in separating the floating
materials (like dead animals, tree branches, papers, pieces of
rags, wood, etc.), and also the heavy settle able inorganic solids.
 It also helps in removing the oils and greases, etc. from the
sewage.
 This treatment reduces the BOD of the wastewater, by about 15
to 30%.
 The processes used are:
 Screening for removing floating papers, rags, clothes, etc
 Grit chambers or Detritus tanks for removing grit and sand
 Skimming tanks for removing oils and greases

2
 3.1.1 Screening
 Screening is the very first operation carried out at a sewage
treatment plant.
 It consists of passing the sewage through different types of
screens, so as to trap and remove the floating materials.
 The main idea of providing screens is to protect the pumps and
other equipments from the possible damages due to the floating
matter of the sewage.
 Screens should preferably be placed before the grit chambers.
 They may sometimes be accommodated in the body of the grit
chambers themselves.

3
 Types of Screens, their Designs and Cleaning
 Depending upon the size of the openings, screens may be classified as
coarse screens, medium screens, and fine screens.
A) Coarse screens:
 They are also known as Racks, and the spacing between the bars (i.e.
opening size) is about 50 mm or more.
 These screens do help in removing large floating objects from sewage.
 They will collect about 6 liters of solids per million liter of sewage.
 The material separated by coarse screens, usually consists of rags,
wood, paper, etc., which will not putrefy, and may be disposed of by
incineration, burial, or dumping.

4
5
 Coarse Screen

Manual screening removal

6
 B) Medium screens:
 The spacing between bars is about 6 to 40 mm.
 These screens will ordinarily collect 30 to 90 liters of material per
million liter of sewage.
 The screenings usually contain some quantity of organic material.
 which may putrefy and become offensive and must therefore, be
disposed of by incineration, or burial (not by dumping).
 Coarse and medium screens are made of steel bars, fixed parallel to
one another at desired spacing on a rectangular steel frame, and are
called bar screens.
 These screens are generally kept inclined at about 30 to 60° to the direction
of flow, so as to increase the opening area and to reduce the flow
velocity; and thus making the screening more effective.
7
  While designing the screens, clear openings should have sufficient
total area, so that the velocity through them is not more than 0.8 to
1m/sec.
8
 C) Fine Screens:
 Have perforations of 1.5 mm to 3 mm in size.
 They remove as much as 20% of the suspended solids from sewage.
 These screens however, get clogged very often and need frequent
cleaning.
 They are, therefore, used only for treating the industrial wastewaters.
 These screens will considerably reduce the load on further treatment
units.
 Brass or Bronze plates or wire meshes are generally used for
constructing fine screens.
 The metal used should be resistant to rust and corrosion.

9
  The fine screens may be disc or drum type, and are operated continuously by
electric motors.

Flow direction

10
 3.1.2 Grit Removal Basins
 The grit chamber remove the inorganic particles (specific gravity
about 2.65 and nominal diameter of 0.15 to 0.20mm or larger)
such as sand, gravel, grit,..etc
 Other non putresible materials that may clog channels or damage
pumps due to abrasion, and to prevent their accumulation in
sludge digesters.
 Grit chambers are, nothing but like sedimentation tanks, designed
to separate the intended heavier inorganic materials by the process
of sedimentation due to gravitational forces.
 And to pass forward the lighter organic materials. They causing
septicity of sewage and requiring unnecessary labor and expenses
11 for disposal of removal.
 Divide wall
Grit chamber

12
Screening
  The grit quantity may vary between 0.004 - 0.037m3/1000m3 of
sewage for separate sewage system;
 While this may range between 0.004 - 0.180 m3/1000 m3 for
combined sewage system.
 Generally, grit chambers are designed to remove all particles with a
nominal diameter of 0.02mm having settling velocity of about
2.3cm/s (at 10ºc).
 Although some grit removal devices are designed to remove 0.15mm
sand particles having settling velocity of about 1.3cm/s (at 10°c).
 They are designed to have constant velocity horizontal flow at varying
discharges.
 The constant velocity is achieved by providing a velocity control
section; such as a proportional flow weir at the effluent end of a
rectangular chamber.
13
 I. Constant Velocity Horizontal Flow Grit Chambers
 Such a grit channel is an enlarged channel to:
 increase the cross-section then,
 reduce the flow velocity of sewage then,
 to settle down the heavy inorganic materials do by
gravity, and
 the lighter organic materials remain in suspension, and,
then
 go out along with the effluent of the grit basin.

14
  the flow velocity should neither be too low as to cause the
settling of lighter organic matter, nor should it be so high as
not to cause the settlement of the entire silt and grit present
in sewage.
 The flow velocity should also be enough to scour out the settled
organic matter, and reintroduce it into the flow stream.
 Such a critical scouring velocity is, given by the modified Shield's
formula, which states that horizontal velocity.
 Critical scour velocity

NB:
 In practice, a flow velocity of about 0.25 to 0.3m/sec is
adopted for the design of grit basins..
15
 3.1.3 Tanks for Removing Oils and Grease
1. Skimming Tanks
 Skimming tanks are sometimes employed for removing oils and
grease from the sewage, and placed before the sedimentation-tanks.
 They are used where sewage contains too much of grease or oils
which include fats, waxes, soaps, fatty acids, etc.
 These materials may enter into the sewage from the kitchens of
restaurants and, houses, from motor garages, oil refineries, soap and
candle factories, etc.
 They are, thus, normally present in large amounts in the industrial
wastewaters.
 It interfere with the activated sludge treatment process, and prevent
biological growth on the trickling filters.
 A detention period of about 3 to 5 minutes is usually sufficient.

16
  The amount of compressed air required is about 300 to 6000m3
per million liters of sewage.
 The surface area required for the tank can be found out by using the
formula:

 The efficiency of a skimming tank can be increased considerably (three to four

times) by passing chlorine gas (2mg/liter of sewage) along with the compressed air.
17
2. Vacuators
 Grease can also be removed from the sewage by vacuum floatation
method, by subjecting the aerated sewage to a vacuum pressure of
about 0 - 25cm of mercury for 10 to 15 minutes in a vacuator.

 This causes the air bubbles to expand and move upward through the
sewage to the surface.
 The rising bubbles lift the grease and the lighter waste solids to the
surface, where they are removed through skimming troughs.
 Heavier solids settle to the tank bottom, where they are collected and
carried away for sludge treatment and disposal.
3. Disposal of Skimming's
 The oil and greasy material removed as skimmings from the skimming
tanks or vacuators can be disposed of either by burning or burial.
 It is generally too polluted to be of any economic use.


 Part II Lecture 4
SECONDARY & TERTIARY WASTEWATER TREATMENT
1
The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment

 Micro-organisms are important in the treatment of WW.

 They are (bacteria, fungi, protozoa, and crustaceans) play an
essential role in the conversion of organic waste to more stable
or less polluting substances.
How?
► Waste from humans is a useful food substrate for the micro-
organisms.
► And they require cellular building blocks, such as (carbon) C,
(hydrogen) H, (oxygen) O, (nitrogen) N, (phosphorus) P, and
minerals for growth.
► These can be obtained through consuming organic substances
containing these elements, or from inorganic materials, such
as carbon dioxide, water, nitrate and phosphate.
2
The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment
► Micro-organisms also require energy.
► They obtain this through respiration. In this process organic
carbon is oxidized to release its energy.
► Oxygen or other hydrogen acceptors is needed for the respiration
process.
► Algae and photosynthetic bacteria utilize energy from sunlight,
while certain types of bacteria can utilize energy from chemical
reactions not involving respiration.
► These building blocks and energy are used to synthesize more
cells for growth and also for reproduction.
► Finally new cells die-off and settle down/removed by other
means.
3
The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment
 Three types of processes to represent the conversion of organic
wastes by micro-organisms.
1. Aerobic oxidation : utilize oxygen to oxidize organic substances
to obtain energy for maintenance, mobility and the synthesis of
cellular material.

2. Anaerobic oxidation: utilize nitrates, sulphates and other

hydrogen acceptors to obtain energy for the synthesis of cellular
material from organic substances.
4
The Role of Microorganisms in Wastewater Treatment

 Methane (CH4) is a source of heat but, if released to the

atmosphere without being combusted, it contributes to the
greenhouse gas effect.
 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) contributes to WW odor which is
rotten egg smell.
3. Photosynthetic.

5
 Microbial Growth Kinetics
 Growth of a microbial population is defined as an increase in
numbers or an increase in microbial mass.
 Growth rate is the increase in microbial cell numbers or mass per
unit time.
 Microbial populations can grow as:
1. Batch cultures (closed systems) or
2. Continuous cultures (open systems)

6
 Microbial Growth Kinetics
1. Batch Cultures
 When a suitable medium is inoculated with cells, the growth of
the microbial population shows four distinct phases.
The lag phase is a period of cell
adjustment to the new environment
At log/exponential phase the
number of cells increases exponentially
At stationary phase microorganisms
cannot grow indefinitely, mainly
because of lack of nutrients and
electron acceptors, and the production
and the accumulation of toxic
metabolites.
During death phase, the death
(decay)
7
rate of the microbial
population is higher than the growth Figure of Microbial growth curve
 Microbial Growth Kinetics
2. Continuous Culture of Microorganisms
 the exponential growth phase over a long period of time can be
achieved by growing continuously the cells in a completely
mixed reactor in which a constant volume is maintained.
 The most commonly used device is the chemostat

8
 Microbial Growth Kinetics
Physical and Chemical Factors Affecting Microbial
Growth are :-

1. Substrate Concentration

2. Temperature

3. pH

4. Oxygen Level

9
 Biological Wastewater Treatment
 To introduce WW contact with bacteria (cells) which feed organic
matter in WW.
 The purpose of biological treatment is BOD reduction.
Principle:
→ Simple bacteria (cells) eat the organic material.
→ Through their metabolism, the organic material is transformed into
cellular mass,
→ This cellular mass can be precipitated at the bottom of a settling tank
or retained as slime on solid surfaces or vegetation in the system.
→ Then, the WW exiting the system is much clearer than it entered.
→ Cells need oxygen to breath, so adequate supply of oxygen should be
for the operational biological WWT.
10
 Biological Wastewater Treatment
The common methods of biological wastewater treatment are:
a) Aerobic processes such as trickling filters, rotating biological

contactors, activated sludge process, oxidation ponds and

lagoons, oxidation ditches, constructed wetland
b) Anaerobic processes such as anaerobic digestion, and
c) Anoxic processes such as denitrification.

11
 Biological Wastewater Treatment
1. TRICKLING FILTERS
 consist of tanks of coarser filtering media(see figure-next page).
I. Principles of operation
 over tanks of coarser filtering media the WW is allowed to sprinkle
or trickle down, by means of spray nozzles or rotary distributors.
 The percolating sewage is collected at the bottom of the tank through
a well designed under-drainage system.
 sufficient quantity of oxygen is supplied by providing suitable
ventilation facilities in the body of the filter
 The purification is done mainly by the aerobic bacteria, which form a
bacterial film around the particles of the filtering media.
 The effluent must be taken to the secondary sedimentation tank for
12 settling out the organic matter oxidized while passing down the filter.
Biological Wastewater Treatment
Solid Waste Management

1
 Contents
 A general Overview of SW
 Solid Waste Management

 Functional Elements of Solid Waste

Management Systems
 Integrated Solid Waste Management

 Planning for Integrated Solid Waste

Management

2
General Overview
Solid wastes are the wastes arising from
human activities which are solid and discarded as
useless or unwanted.
The term municipal solid waste, refers to
solid wastes from houses, streets and public
places, shops, offices, and hospitals.
 A society receives energy and raw material as
inputs from the environment and gives solid waste
as output to the environment. Fig. below.
 In the long-term perspective, such an input-output
imbalance degrades the environment.
3
Fig. 1 Materials flow and the generation of solid waste in a
technological society

4
 I. Environmental Impact of Solid Waste
Disposal on Land
 When solid waste is disposed off on land in open
dumps or in improperly designed landfills, it causes
the following impact on the environment.
a. ground water contamination
- by the leachate generated from the waste dump
b. surface water contamination
- by the run-off from the waste dump
c. bad odour, pests, rodents and wind-blown litter in and
around the waste dump
d. generation of inflammable gas (e.g. methane) within
the waste dump
e. bird menace above the waste dump which affects flight of
aircraft
f. release of green house gas
g. fires within the waste dump

5
 Solid Waste Management
 Solid waste management may be defined as:
a) the discipline associated with the control of generation,
storage, collection, transfer and transport, processing
and disposal of solid waste.
b) It is one among the basic essential services
provided by municipal authorities in the country to
keep urban centersclean.

6
 Objective of Solid Waste Management
1) To protect the health of the population
2) To promote environmental quality and sustainability,
3) To support economic productivity and employment generation
4) To reduce the quantity of solid waste disposed off on land by
recovery of materials and energy from solid waste
 The scope of SWM encompasses
◦ planning and management systems, waste generation
processes, and organizations, procedures and facilities
for waste handling

7
 ii. Functional elements of SWM
 Means activities associated with the management of solid wastes
from the point of generation to the final disposal point.

Waste Generation

Waste handling, separation,

storage and processing
at the source

Collection

Transfer and Separation and processing and

Transport transformation of solid waste

Disposal
8
 Cont…
1. Waste generation
🞄 activities in which materials are identified as no longer
useful and are either thrown away or gathered together for
disposal
2. Waste handling, separation, storage and processing at source
🞄 activities related to management of waste until they are put
in storage containers for collection
◦ Handling
🞄 Movement of loaded containers
to point of collection

9
 Cont…

⚫ Separation
 this is grouping the waste into
various categories depending on
the nature of SW e.g.
🞄 Organics
🞄 Paper
🞄 Bottles
🞄 Cans etc
 Important step in recovering
materials for recycling and
reuse, and storage at source

10
 Cont…
⚫ Storage
 On site storage important
for the following reasons:
🞄 Public health concerns
🞄 Aesthetic considerations

⚫ Processing at source
 involves activities such as
compacting and yard
composting

11
 Cont…
3. Collection
 includes gathering of solid wastes and recyclable
materials, transport of these to the location where
collection vehicle is emptied
🞄 location could be
 processing facility
 transfer station
 landfill site

12
Cont…
4. Separation, Processing and Transformation
 Occurs primarily in locations away from the source
of waste generation.
 Sorting of commingled (mixed) wastes usually
occurs at a materials recovery facility, transfer
stations, combustion facilities, and disposal sites.
 Sorting often includes
🞄 the separation of bulky items,
🞄 separation of waste components by size using screens,
🞄 manual separation of waste components,
🞄 separation of ferrous and non-ferrous metals

13
Cont…
 Waste processing is undertaken:
◦ to recover conversion products and energy
🞄 transform organic fraction by
🞄 biological process – aerobic composting
🞄 chemical process – combustion/incineration
 Transformation processes are used
◦ to reduce the volume, weight, size of waste requiring
disposal without resource recovery.
🞄 size reduction by shredding
🞄 volume reduction by compaction and combustion

14
 Cont…
5. Transfer and Transport
 The functional element of transfer and transport
involves two steps:
i. the transfer of wastes from the smaller collection
vehicle to the larger transport equipment and
ii. the subsequent transport of the wastes, usually over
long distances, to a processing or disposal site. (i.e
when disposal sites are far from point of collection)

15
Transfer station

16
Cont…
6. Disposal
 Land filling or Dumping
 Incineration/combustion
🞄 Combustion is the controlled burning of waste in a
designated facility to reduce its volume and, in some
cases, to generate electricity.
🞄 These activities are used to manage waste that cannot
be prevented or recycled.

17
 iii. Integrated Solid Waste Management
 ISWM is the selection and application of suitable
techniques, technologies and management programs
covering all types of solid wastes from all sources to
achieve the twin objectives of:
◦ waste reduction (produce ‘more with less’)
◦ effective management of waste still produced after waste
reduction
⚫ ISWM
 refers to the strategic approach to sustainable
management of solid wastes covering all sources and all
aspects covering generation, segregation, transfer,
sorting, treatment, recovery and disposal in an
integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximizing
resource use efficiency
18
Cont…
 Aneffective ISWM System considers how to prevent,
recycle, and manage solid waste in ways that most
effectively protect human health and the
environment
 ISWM activities and hierarchy are:
1. Waste prevention/ Source reduction
2. Recycling
3. Waste transformation(composting/ combustion)
4. Landfilling

19
ISWM hierarchy

20
ISWM: Waste Prevention
 Prevent waste from being generated through the
following Strategies:
🞄 less packaging
🞄 packaging with minimum toxic content
🞄 design products to last longer
🞄 reuse products and materials, repair broken items
◦ The modern concept of waste minimization is based
on the three ‘R’s are:
◦ Reduce, Reuse and Recycle.

21
 ISWM: Recycling
 Involves collecting, reprocessing and/or recovering
certain waste materials (e.g. glass, paper, metals,
plastics) to make new materials or products.
 Environmental and economic benefits
🞄 jobs and income
🞄 supply raw material to industry
🞄 reduce demand on resources and amount of waste
requiring disposal by landfilling

22
 ISWM: Waste transformation
 Involves physical, chemical, or biological alteration of
waste, techniques are applied to:
 Improve efficiency of SWM systems and operations
 recover conversion products (e.g. compost) and energy (heat
and combustible biogas)
 results in reduced use of landfill capacity

23
ISWM: Landfilling
 Activities
used to manage waste that cannot be
prevented or recycled
◦ Waste is placed in properly designed, constructed
and managed land fills
🞄 Methane recovery (biogas)
 Represents the least desirable means of dealing with
society’s wastes

24
 iv. Need for ISWM
 Cities are facing an increasing growth in population,
◦ increasing quantities of waste being generated
 Due to changing lifestyles and consumption patterns,
◦ the quantity of waste generated has increased with quality and
composition of waste becoming more varied and changing
 Industrializationand economic growth has produced more
amounts of waste, including hazardous and toxic wastes
 LocalGovernments are now looking at waste as a business
opportunity:
a. to extract valuable resources contained within it that can still be
used and
b. to safely process and dispose wastes with a minimum impact on
the environment
25
v. Planning for ISWM
 Planningis the first step in designing or improving a
waste management system.
 Waste management planners should take into
consideration the following factors;
 Institutional,
 Social,
 Financial /Economic,
 Technical, and
 Environmental factors.

26
 Technical Factors
 location and equipment
 Proper collection systems
 Separation at the source/Disposal
 Properly designed and operating
sanitary land fills

Economic/Financial Factors
Institutional Factors  Initial investment cost
 Clear authorities and  Long term OM costs
sanitation rules  Public’s ability and
IMSWM
 Organizational capacity willingness to pay
 Potential for job creation
 Funding

Social Factors
Environmental Factors
 local customs
 natural resources
 religious practices,
 human health
 public education

27
Source, Composition and Properties of
Solid Waste

22 April, 2020 28
1. Sources of municipal solid wastes
 Solid waste can be categorized based on the source:
🞄 Residential • Municipal services
🞄 Commercial • Treatment plant sites
🞄 Institutional
• Industrial
🞄 Construction and demolition
• Agricultural
 Municipal solid waste (MSW) is normally assumed to include all
community wastes with the exception of industrial and
agricultural wastes.
 Residential and commercial
◦ Organic and inorganic solid wastes from residential and
commercial areas
🞄 Food waste, paper of all types, card board, plastics of all types,
textiles, rubber, leather, wood and yard wastes, glass, ceramics, tin
cans, aluminum, ferrous metals, and dirt
22 April, 2020 29
1. Composition of solid wastes

⚫ Composition is the term used to describe the individual

components that make up a solid waste stream and their
relative distribution, usually based on percent by weight.
⚫ Information and data on the physical composition of solid
wastes are important in the
 selection and operation of equipment and facilities
 assessing feasibility of resource and energy recovery
 analysis and design of landfill disposal facilities

22 April, 2020 30
II. Physical, chemical, and biological properties
of municipal solid waste
⚫ These properties must be known to develop and design integrated
solid waste management of MSW.
1. Physical properties:
a. Specific weight
b. Moisture content
c. Particle size and size distribution
d. Field capacity
e. Permeability of compacted waste
2. Chemical properties of MSW
i. Proximate analysis
ii. Fusing point of ash
iii. Ultimate analysis (elemental analysis) (major elements)
iv. Energy content
3. Biological properties of MSW
⚫ The production of odours and the generation of flies are related to
the putrescible nature of the organic materials.
22 April, 2020 31
Hazardous Waste (HW)
 Wastes or combinations of wastes that pose potential
hazard to humans or other living organisms since such
wastes:
- are non-degradable or persist in nature
- Can be biologically magnified
- Can be lethal
- May otherwise cause or tend to cause detrimental cumulative
effect
 Any substance or mixture of substances having properties
capable of producing adverse effects on health and safety
of a human beings and environment.

22 April, 2020 32
Properties of Hazardous Waste

 Properties of waste materials that have been used to assess whether a

 Safety related properties  Health related properties

- Corrosivity - Carcinogenicity
- Explosivity - Infectivity
- Irritant
- flammability
- Mutagenicity
- Ignitability
- Toxicity
- Reactivity
- Radioactivity
- Teratogenicity

22 April, 2020 33
Sources and Types of Hazardous Waste

 Typical HW from residential sources

- Household cleaners
- Personal products
- Automotive products
- Paint products
- Garden products
 They are toxic and can be hazardous
to health and the environment.
 The most effective way to eliminate the
small quantities of hazardous wastes now
found in municipal solid waste is to
separate them at the point of
generation.

22 April, 2020 34
Mismanagement of HW causes;
 Ground water pollution
 Pollution of streams, rivers, lakes, and other surface
waters
 Killing aquatic life
 Destroy wildlife
 Cause respiratory illness, skin diseases, elevated levels of
toxic materials on the blood and tissue of human and
domestic livestock.
 Resulted in fires, explosives, the generation of toxic
gases that have killed or seriously injured workers and
firefighters.

22 April, 2020 35
Engineering Principles of solid waste management

 The quantities of solid waste generated and collected are of critical

importance:
- In selecting specific equipment
- In designing of:
 waste collection routes
 materials recovery facilities (MRF’s) and
 disposal facilities

 The design of special vehicles for the curbside collection of source-

separated wastes depends on the quantities of the individual waste
components to be collected.
 The sizing of MRFs depends on the amounts of waste to be collected
as well as the variations in the quantities delivered hourly, daily, weekly
and monthly.
 The sizing of landfills depends on the amount of residual waste that
must be disposed of after all the recyclable materials have been
removed.

36
Measures and Methods Used to Assess Quantities

 The principal reason for measuring the quantities of solid

waste generated, separated for recycling and collected for further
processing or disposal can be used to develop and implement
effective SWM.
 Methods commonly used to assess solid waste quantities
are:
a. Load-count analysis
b. Weight- volume analysis
c. Material-balance analysis

37
Factors that affect generation rates
 Factors that influence the quantity of municipal wastes
generated include:
1. Source reduction (rate of generation)
2. Extent of recycling (rate of collection)
3. Geographic location
4. Season of the year
5. Collection frequency (affects amount of waste)
6. Use of kitchen food waste grinders
7. Public attitudes
8. Legislation

38
 Collection System Types
 The collection systems have been classified according to
their mode of operation into two categories

 Hauled Container System  Stationary Container

(HCS) System (SCS)
◦ Container is moved to disposal ◦ Container remains at site
site (residential and
◦ Used for construction & commercial)
demolition waste ◦ May be manually or
◦ High generation rates (open mechanically loaded
markets) ◦ Container size and
◦ One drive and frequent trips utilization are important
◦ low volume utilization unless
loading aids are provided

39
Recovery of Materials in MSW
 Materials separated from MSW can be used directly as:
• raw material for remanufacturing and reprocessing
• feedstock for production of biological and chemical
conversion products
• fuel source for the production of energy
• land reclamation
 In assessing the opportunities for recycling
• the available options for separation and processing of
waste materials
• the economics of material recovery and
• material specifications

40
Development and Implementation of MRFs
 Engineering considerations:
i. Definition of the function of the MRF
ii. Selection of the material to be separated
iii. Identification of the material specification
iv. Development of separation process flow diagrams
v. Determination of process loading rate
vi. Layout and design of the physical facilities
vii. Selection of equipment & facilities used
viii. Environmental studies
ix. Aesthetic considerations
x. Adaptability of the facility to potential changes

41
 Need for transfer operations
 Factors that make the use of transfer operations
attractive and a necessity :When;
1) Direct hauling is not economically feasible.

2) Processing centers cannot be reached directly by highway.

3) Illegal dumping due to excessive haul distances

4) Use of small-capacity collection vehicles

5) Existence of low-density residential service areas

6) HCS with small containers for collection of wastes from

commercial sources

42
Types of Transfer Stations
 Depending on the method used to load the transport
vehicles, transfer stations may be classified into three
general types:
◦ Direct-load

◦ Storage-load

◦ Combined direct-load and discharge-load

43
Direct-load transfer stations

44
Transfer Station Design
 Important factors in the design of transfer stations:
i. Type of transfer operation
◦ An adequate area is necessary in case of waste recovery
ii. Storage and throughput capacity requirements
◦ Collection vehicles do not have to wait too long to unload
iii. Equipment and accessory requirements
◦ Depends on the capacity of the station
iv. Sanitation requirements

45
Location of Transfer Stations
 Transfer stations should be located:
 As near as possible to the solid waste production areas to be
served
 Within easy access of major arterial highway routes as well
as near secondary or supplemental means of transportation
 Where there will be a minimum of public and environmental
objection to the transfer operations
 Where construction and operation will be most economical

 Additionally, if the transfer station site is to

be used for
processing operations involving materials recovery and/or
energy production, the requirements for those operations
must also be assessed.

46
Biological and Chemical
Conversion Technologies

47
Biological conversion of MSW
 The two common biological processes used to transform
organic materials into gaseous, liquid and solid conversion
products are:
◦ Aerobic Composting

◦ Anaerobic Digestion (AD)

 Anaerobic processes offer the benefit of energy recovery in the form of
methane gas and thus net energy producers.
 Aerobic processes are net energy users b/c oxygen must be supplied
for waste conversion but can significantly reduce the volume of organic
portion of MSW

48
Comparison of composting and AD
Table: Comparison of aerobic composting and AD for processing the of MSW

49
Process description
Composting operations consist of three basic steps:
1. Pre-processing of the MSW
◦ Receiving
◦ Removal of recoverable materials
◦ Size reduction
◦ Adjustment of waste properties (C/N ratio, addition of
moisture and nutrients and etc.)
2. Decomposition of the of MSW
3. Preparation and marketing of the final compost product

50
Anaerobic Digestion (AD)
 Anaerobic digestion of organic material is basically a 3-
stage process: large organic polymers are first hydrolyzed
and then fermented into short-chain volatile fatty acids
 These acids are then converted into CH4 and CO2.

51
Chemical processes for the recovery of
conversion products from SW

⚫ Acid hydrolysis at 180 - 230c and under slight pressure is used

to recover glucose from cellulose containing waste (e.g.,
newsprint).

52
Disposal of Solid Wastes and Residual
Material

Landfill

53
Landfilling Process

 Landfills are physical facilities used for the disposal of

residual solid wastes in the surface soils of earth.
 Sanitary landfill is an engineered facility for the disposal of
MSW, designed and operated to minimize public health and
environmental impacts.
 Landfilling is the process by which residual solid waste is
placed in a landfill.
 It includes:
◦ Monitoring of the incoming waste stream
◦ Placement and compaction of waste, and
◦ Installation of landfill environmental monitoring and control
facilities
54
Landfilling terms

⚫ Cell is the volume of material placed in a landfill during one operating period,
usually one day.
⚫ Lift is a complete layer of cells over the active area of landfill.

55
Landfilling terms

⚫ Daily cover is the soil or alternative materials such as compost that are applied
to the working faces of the landfill at the end of each operating period. usually
consists of 15 to 30 cm of native soil
⚫ Intermediate covers are placed at the end of each phase (series of lifts); these
are thicker than daily covers, typically 45 cm
⚫ Final cover is applied to the entire landfill surface after all landfilling operations
are complete. 56
Landfilling terms

⚫ Bench (or terrace) is used to maintain the slope stability of the landfill, for
placement of surface water drainage channels and for the location of landfill gas
recovery piping.
⚫ Landfill gas is mixture of gases found within landfill. It mainly consists of CH4 &
CO2
57
Landfilling terms

⚫ Liquid that collects at the bottom of a landfill is known as leachate.

⚫ It is a result of percolation of precipitation and uncontrolled runoff.
⚫ It can also include water initially contained in the waste as well as
infiltrating groundwater.

58
Landfilling terms

⚫ Environmental monitoring involves the activities associated with collection and

analysis of water and air samples, that are used to monitor the movement of
landfill gases and leachate at the landfill site.

59
Landfill planning, design and operation

The principal elements that must be considered:

 Landfill layout and design

 Landfill operations and management

 Reactions occurring in landfill

 Management of landfill gases

 Management of leachate

 Environmental monitoring

 Landfill closure and post-closure care

60
Landfill operations and processes

61
Preparation of site for landfilling
 Existing site drainage is modified to route any runoff away
from the intended landfill area
 Access roads and weighing facilities are constructed and
fences are installed
 Landfill bottom and subsurface sides are excavated and
prepared. Excavations are carried out over time, rather
than preparing the entire landfill bottom at once
 The bottom is shaped to provide drainage of leachate and
a low-permeability (clay, geo-membrane) liner is installed.
 Leachate collection and extraction facilities are placed
within or top of the liner.

62
Preparation of site for landfilling

63
Solid Waste Placement and Compaction

64
Placement of wastes

65
Reactions occurring in landfills
I. Biological reactions
 Organic material in MSW leads to the evolution of landfill
gases and leachate.

II. Physical reactions

 Lateral diffusion of gases in landfill and emission of landfill
gases to the surrounding environment

 Movement of leachate within landfill & into underlying soils

 Settlement caused by consolidation and decomposition of

landfilled material

66
Reactions occurring in landfills
III. Chemical reactions
 Dissolution and suspension of landfill material and biological
conversion products in leachate
 Evaporation and vaporization of chemical compounds into
landfill gas
 Sorption of volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds into
landfilled material
 Dehalogenetaion and decomposition of organic compounds
 Oxidation-reduction reactions affecting metals and solubility of
metal salts

67
Concerns with landfilling
 The goal for the design and operation of a modern landfill
is to eliminate or minimize:
1. uncontrolled release of landfill gases might cause odor and
other potential dangerous conditions
2. impact of uncontrolled discharge of landfill gases on
greenhouse effect in the atmosphere
3. uncontrolled release of leachate might migrate down to
underlying groundwater or to surface water
4. breeding and harboring of disease vectors in improperly
managed landfills
5. health and environmental impacts associated with the
release of the trace gases arising from hazardous materials
placed in the landfills in the past
68
Landfilling Methods
1. Excavated cell/trench Method
 It is ideally suited to areas where an adequate depth of
cover material is available at the site and where water
table is not near the surface.
2. Area Method
 It is used when the terrain is unsuitable for excavation.
 High-groundwater conditions necessitate the use of this
type.
3. Canyon/depression Method
 Dry borrow pits and quarries are used.
 Control of surface drainage often is critical factor in
the development of depression sites. 

69
Landfill Siting Considerations
 Haul distance Pond/Lake > 200m
River > 100m
 Location restrictions Flood plain > 100 year flood
Highway > 200m
Habitated area > 500m
 Available land area Public parks > 300m
Airports Aviation Authorities
 Site access Ground Water Table > 2m

 Soil conditions and topography

 Climatologic conditions
 Surface water hydrology
 Geologic and hydro-geologic conditions
 Local environmental conditions
 Ultimate use of completed landfills

70
Control of Landfill Gases

 The movement of landfill gases is controlled:

i. to reduce atmospheric emissions
ii. to minimize the release of odorous emissions
iii. to minimize subsurface gas migrations and
iv. to allow the recovery of energy from methane
 In passive control systems, the pressure of the gas that is
generated within landfill serves as the driving force for the
movement of the gas.
 In active control systems, energy in the form of an induced
vacuum is used to control the flow of gas.
71
Management of Landfill Gas
 Flaring (thermal destruction)
◦ CH4 and VOCs in landfill gas are combusted in the presence
of oxygen contained in air to CO2, SO2, NOx and other
related gases.
 Energy recovery
◦ Landfill gas is usually converted to electricity using internal
combustion engines, gas or steam turbines.
 Gas purification and recovery
◦ Separation of CO2 from CH4 can be accomplished by
physical/chemical adsorption and membrane separation.

72
Leachate collection systems

Leachate collection system with graded terraces

73
Leachate management options
 Leachate recycling
◦ An effective method for the treatment of leachate is to
collect and re-circulate the leachate through the landfill.
 Leachate evaporation
◦ One of the simplest leachate management systems involves
the use of lined leachate evaporation ponds.
 Leachate treatment
◦ Where leachate recycling and evaporation is not used and the
direct disposal of leachate to a WWTP is not possible, some
form of pretreatment or complete treatment will be required.
 Discharge to municipal wastewater collection system

74
 Surface Water Management
⚫ Surface water control systems:
 Surface water drainage facilities

 Storm water storage basins

 Intermediate cover layers

 Final cover layers

Intermediate cover layers;

 They are used to cover the wastes placed each day:
 to eliminate harboring disease,
 to enhance aesthetic appearance of landfill site and
 to limit the amount of surface infiltration
75
Final cover layers

76
Layout & Preliminary Design of Landfills
 Important topics that must be considered in a
landfill design:
 Layout of landfill site
 Types of wastes that must be handled
 The need for a convenience transfer station
 Estimation of landfill capacity
 Evaluation of the geology and hydrology of the site
 Selection of landfill gas and leachate control facilities
 Layout of surface drainage facilities
 Aesthetic design considerations
 Monitoring facilities
 Determination of equipment requirements
 Development of an operations plan
77
Layout of Landfill Sites
 In planning the layout of a landfill site, the location of the
following must be determined: 
 Access roads, office space and plantings

 Equipment shelters and (if used) scales

 Storage and/or disposal sites for special wastes

 Areas to be used for waste processing

 Areas for stockpiling cover material

 Drainage facilities

 Location of landfill gas management facilities

 Location of leachate treatment facilities

 Location of monitoring wells

78
Layout of Landfill Sites

79
 Design of Landfills
⚫ Important factors to consider in the design of landfills:
 Access (roads to landfill site, temporary roads to unloading
area)
 Land area (large enough for 10 - 25 years)
 Landfilling method (excavated cell/trench, area, canyon)
 Completed landfill characteristics (slope of final cover: 3 -6%)
 Surface drainage (to divert surface water runoff)
 Intermediate cover material (waste to cover ratio: 5 – 10: 1)
 Final cover (multilayer design)
 Landfill liner (multilayer design, leachate collection system)
 Cell design and construction

80
Waste Volume and Landfill Capacity
 The total landfill area should be approximately 15% more
than the area required for landfilling to accommodate all
infrastructure and support facilities.
 Thereis no standard method for classifying landfills by their
capacity.
 However, the following nomenclature is often observed in
literature:
◦ Small size landfill : less than 5 hectare area
◦ Medium size landfill : 5 to 20 hectare area
◦ Large size landfill : greater than 20 hectare area.

81
Landfill Closure and Post closure Care
 They are the terms used to describe what is to happen to
a completed landfill in the future.
 Development of Long-Term Closure Plan
 Cover and landscape design
 Control of landfill gases
 Collection and treatment of leachate
 Environmental monitoring systems
 Post closure Care
 Routine inspections
 Infrastructure maintenance
 Environmental monitoring systems
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