Chapter 1

Introduction

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Introduction 1-1
Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 what is the Internet?

1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-2
Internet: history

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

generation generation generation generation
of computer of computer of computer of computer UNIX
ARPANET System V

1942 1956 1960’s 1964 1966 1970’s 1976 1978 1983 1984 1985
OSI
ENIAC Transistor IC MULTICS VLSI Apple UNIX
BSD Windows
router

1966-1967 – ARPANET – Message Switching – Leonard Kleinrock

1977 – IP (Internet Protocol)
1984 – OSI Model
1989 - University of California, Berkeley agreed to place the TCP/IP code developed
for BSD UNIX
1991 – Linux – a free OS with the TCP/IP protocol

1-3
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view

PC mobile network
❖ millions of connected computing
server devices:
▪ hosts = end systems global ISP
wireless
laptop ▪ running network apps
smartphone
home
❖ communication links network
regional ISP
▪ fiber, copper, radio,
wireless satellite
links
▪ transmission rate:
wired bandwidth
links

❖ Packet switches: forward packets

router (chunks of data) institutional
▪ routers and switches network

Introduction 1-4
What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view

mobile network
❖ Internet: “network of networks”
▪ Interconnected ISPs
❖ protocols control sending, receiving of global ISP
msgs
▪ e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.11
❖ Internet standards home
network
▪ RFC: Request for comments regional ISP
▪ IETF: Internet Engineering Task Force

institutional
network

Introduction 1-5
What’s the Internet: a service view

mobile network
❖ Infrastructure that provides services
to applications:
global ISP
▪ Web,VoIP, email, games, e-commerce,
social nets, …
❖ provides programming interface to
home
apps network
▪ hooks that allow sending and receiving regional ISP
app programs to “connect” to Internet
▪ provides service options, analogous to
postal service

institutional
network

Introduction 1-6
What’s a protocol?

human protocols: network protocols:

❖ “what’s the time?” ❖ machines rather than humans
❖ “I have a question” ❖ all communication activity in
❖ introductions Internet governed by protocols

… specific msgs sent

… specific actions taken when msgs
received, or other events

protocols define format, order of

msgs sent and received among
network entities, and actions
taken on msg transmission,
receipt

Introduction 1-7
What’s a protocol?

a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi
TCP connection
response
Got the
time?
Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

Introduction 1-8
Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 what is the Internet?

1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-9
 A closer look at network structure:

❖ network edge: mobile network

▪ hosts: clients and servers

▪ servers often in data centers global ISP

home
❖ access networks, physical network
regional ISP
media: wired, wireless
communication links

❖ network core:
▪ interconnected routers
▪ network of networks
institutional
network

Introduction 1-10
Host: sends packets of data

host sending function:

❖ takes application message

❖ breaks into smaller chunks, known as

packets, of length L bits two packets,
L bits each
❖ transmits packet into access network at
transmission rate R
▪ link transmission rate, aka link
capacity, aka link bandwidth
2 1
R: link transmission rate
host

packet time needed to L (bits)

transmission = transmit L-bit = R (bits/sec)
delay packet into link

1-11
Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 what is the Internet?

1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-12
The network core

❖ mesh of interconnected routers

❖ packet-switching: hosts break
application-layer messages into
packets
▪ forward packets from one router to
the next, across links on path from
source to destination
▪ each packet transmitted at full link
capacity

Introduction 1-13
Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

source 2 1
destination
R bps R bps

❖ takes L/R seconds to transmit (push

one-hop numerical example:
out) L-bit packet into link at R bps
▪ L = 7.5 Mbits
❖ store and forward: entire packet must
arrive at router before it can be ▪ R = 1.5 Mbps
transmitted on next link ▪ one-hop transmission delay = 5 sec

❖ end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming zero

propagation delay) more on delay shortly …

Introduction 1-14
Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A

R = 1.5 Mb/s
D
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

❖ If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of link for a period of
time:
▪ packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
▪ packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

Introduction 1-15
 Two key network-core functions
routing: determines source-destination route forwarding: move packets from router’s input
taken by packets to appropriate router output
▪ routing algorithms

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100 3 1
0101 2
0111 2 3 2
1001 1

1
01
1

dest address in arriving

packet’s header
Network Layer 4-16
Alternative core: circuit switching

end-end resources allocated to, reserved

for “call” between source & dest:
❖ In diagram, each link has four circuits.
▪ call gets 2nd circuit in top link and 1st
circuit in right link.
❖ dedicated resources: no sharing
▪ circuit-like (guaranteed) performance
❖ circuit segment idle if not used by call (no
sharing)
❖ Commonly used in traditional telephone
networks

Introduction 1-17
Packet switching versus circuit switching

packet switching allows more users to use network!

example:
▪ 1 Mbps link

▪ each user:

…..
N
• 100 kbps when “active” users
• active 10% of time 1 Mbps link

❖ circuit-switching:
▪ 10 users
❖ packet switching:
▪ with 35 users, probability > 10 active Q: how did we get value 0.0004?
at same time is less than .0004 *
Q: what happens if > 35 users ?

* Check out the online interactive exercises for more examples Introduction 1-18
Packet switching versus circuit switching

is packet switching a “slam dunk winner?”

❖ great for bursty data
▪ resource sharing
▪ simpler, no call setup
❖ excessive congestion possible: packet delay and loss
▪ protocols needed for reliable data transfer, congestion control
❖ Q: How to provide circuit-like behavior?
▪ bandwidth guarantees needed for audio/video apps
▪ still an unsolved problem

Q: human analogies of reserved resources (circuit switching) versus

on-demand allocation (packet-switching)?

Introduction 1-19
Internet structure: network of networks

❖ End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet Service

Providers)
▪ Residential, company and university ISPs

❖ Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.

❖ So that any two hosts can send packets to each other

❖ Resulting network of networks is very complex

❖ Evolution was driven by economics and national policies

❖ Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet structure

Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them together?

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

…
…

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
… access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks

Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
… … access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

…
…

to each other directly doesn’t

…
access access
…

net
scale: O(N2) connections. net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
…

net
… access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks

Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer

and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

…
…

global
access ISP access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
… access access …
net access net
net
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors ….

… access
net
access
net
…
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

…
…

access access
net ISP B net

ISP C
access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
… access access …
net access net
net
Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 what is the Internet?

1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-25
How do loss and delay occur?

packets queue in router buffers

❖ packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds output link capacity
❖ packets queue, wait for turn

packet being transmitted (delay)

B
packets queueing (delay)

free (available) buffers: arriving packets

dropped (loss) if no free buffers

Introduction 1-26
Four sources of packet delay

transmission

A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dproc: nodal processing dqueue: queueing delay

▪ check bit errors ▪ time waiting at output link for
▪ determine output link transmission
▪ typically < msec ▪ depends on congestion level of router

Introduction 1-27
Four sources of packet delay

transmission

A propagation

B
nodal
processing queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans + dprop

dtrans: transmission delay: dprop: propagation delay:

▪ L: packet length (bits) ▪ d: length of physical link
▪ R: link bandwidth (bps) ▪ s: propagation speed in medium (~2x108
▪ dtrans = L/R m/sec)
dtrans and dprop ▪ dprop = d/s
very different

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay Introduction 1-28
Caravan analogy

100 km 100 km
ten-car toll toll
caravan booth booth

❖ cars “propagate” at 100 km/hr ▪ time to “push” entire caravan

❖ toll booth takes 12 sec to service car (bit through toll booth onto highway =
transmission time) 12*10 = 120 sec
❖ car ~ bit; caravan ~ packet ▪ time for last car to propagate from
1st to 2nd toll both:
❖ Q: How long until caravan is lined up 100km/(100km/hr)= 1 hr
before 2nd toll booth?
▪ A: 62 minutes

Introduction 1-29
Queueing delay (revisited)

average queueing delay

❖ R: link bandwidth (bps)
❖ L: packet length (bits)
❖ a: average packet arrival rate

traffic intensity
= La/R

❖ La/R ~ 0: avg. queueing delay small La/R ~ 0

❖ La/R -> 1: avg. queueing delay large

❖ La/R > 1: more “work” arriving
than can be serviced, average delay infinite!

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss La/R -> 1
Introduction 1-30
Packet loss

❖ queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer has finite capacity

❖ packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka lost)
❖ lost packet may be retransmitted by previous node, by source end system,
or not at all

buffer
(waiting area) packet being transmitted
A

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss Introduction 1-31
Throughput

❖ throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which bits transferred

between sender/receiver
▪ instantaneous: rate at given point in time
▪ average: rate over longer period of time

server, with link capacity link capacity

file of F bits R bits/sec R bits/sec
to send to client s c

Introduction 1-32
Chapter 1: roadmap

1.1 what is the Internet?

1.2 network edge
▪ end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
▪ packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks
1.5 protocol layers, service models

Introduction 1-33
Protocol “layers”

Networks are complex,

with many “pieces”:
▪ hosts
▪ routers Question:
▪ links of various media is there any hope of organizing
structure of network?
▪ applications
▪ protocols
…. or at least our discussion of
▪ hardware, software
networks?

Introduction 1-34
Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain)

baggage (check) baggage (claim)

gates (load) gates (unload)

runway takeoff runway landing

airplane routing airplane routing

airplane routing

❖ a series of steps

Introduction 1-35
Layering of airline functionality

ticket (purchase) ticket (complain) ticket

baggage (check) baggage (claim baggage

gates (load) gates (unload) gate

runway (takeoff) runway (land) takeoff/landing

airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing airplane routing

departure intermediate air-traffic arrival

airport airport
control centers

layers: each layer implements a service

▪ via its own internal-layer actions
▪ relying on services provided by layer below

Introduction 1-36
Why layering?

dealing with complex systems:

❖ explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex
system’s pieces
▪ layered reference model for discussion

❖ modularization eases maintenance, updating of system

▪ change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to rest of system
▪ e.g., change in gate procedure doesn’t affect rest of system

❖ layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-37
Internet protocol stack

❖ application: supporting network applications

▪ FTP, SMTP, HTTP
❖ transport: process-process data transfer application 7
▪ TCP, UDP
❖ network: routing of datagrams from source transport 4
to destination
▪ IP, routing protocols
network 3
❖ link: data transfer between neighboring
network elements
▪ Ethernet, 802.11 (WiFi), PPP link 2
❖ physical: bits “on the wire”
physical 1

Introduction 1-38
ISO/OSI reference model

❖ presentation: allow applications to

interpret meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression, application
machine-specific conventions
presentation 6

❖ session: synchronization, checkpointing, session 5

recovery of data exchange transport

❖ Internet stack “missing” these layers! network

▪ these services, if needed, must be
implemented in application link
▪ needed? physical

Introduction 1-39
 source Encapsulation
message M application
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
switch

destination network Hn Ht M

M
application Hl Hn Ht M link Hl Hn Ht M

Ht M
transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

Introduction 1-40