REVIEW

Sexual Desire Discrepancy: A Position Statement of the European

Society for Sexual Medicine
Dewitte Marieke, PhD,1 Carvalho Joana, PhD,2 Corona Giovanni, MD, PhD,3 Limoncin Erika, PhD,4
Pascoal Patricia, PhD,5,6,7 Reisman Yacov, MD, PhD,8 and Stulhofer
 Aleksandar, PhD9

ABSTRACT

Introduction: There is a lack of theoretical and empirical knowledge on how sexual desire functions and interacts
in a relationship.
Aim: To present an overview of the current conceptualization and operationalization of sexual desire discrepancy
(SDD), providing clinical recommendations on behalf of the European Society of Sexual Medicine.
Methods: A comprehensive Pubmed, Web of Science, Medline, and Cochrane search was performed.
Consensus was guided by a critical reflection on selected literature on SDD and by interactive discussions be-
tween expert psychologists, both clinicians and researchers.
Main Outcome Measure: Several aspects have been investigated including the definition and operationalization
of SDD and the conditions under which treatment is required.
Results: Because the literature on SDD is scarce and complicated, it is precocious to make solid statements
on SDD. Hence, no recommendations as per the Oxford 2011 Levels of Evidence criteria were possible.
However, specific statements on this topic, summarizing the ESSM position, were provided. This resulted in
an opnion-based rather than evidence-based position statement. Following suggestions were made on how
to treat couples who are distressed by SDD: (i) normalize and depathologize variation in sexual desire; (ii)
educate about the natural course of sexual desire; (iii) emphasize the dyadic, age-related, and relative nature
of SDD; (iv) challenge the myth of spontaneous sexual desire; (v) promote open sexual communication; (vi)
assist in developing joint sexual scripts that are mutually satisfying in addition to search for personal sexual
needs; (vii) deal with relationship issues and unmet relationship needs; and (viii) stimulate self-
differentiation.
Conclusion: More research is needed on the conceptualization and underlying mechanisms of SDD to develop
clinical guidelines to treat couples with SDD. Marieke D, Joana G, Giovanni C, et al. Sexual Desire
Discrepancy: A Position Statement of the European Society for Sexual Medicine. J Sex Med
2020;8:121e131.
Copyright
2020, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of the International Society for Sexual Medicine.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Key Words: Sexual Desire; Sex Therapy; Relationship; Couple

6
Received December 13, 2019. Accepted February 5, 2020. Universidade Lusófona, Escola de Psicologia e Ciências da Vida, Lisboa,
1
Department of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Portugal;
7
Maastricht, the Netherlands; Faculdade de Psicologia e Ciências da Educação & CPUP, Universidade do
2
Escola de Psicologia e Ciências da Vida, Universidade Lusófona de Porto, Portugal;
8
Humanidades e Tecnologias, Lisbon, Portugal; Health Clinic, Amstelland Hospital, Amsterdam, the Netherlands;
3 9
Endocrinology Unit, Medical Department, Azienda USL, Maggiore-Bellaria Department of Sociology, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Hospital, Bologna, Italy; Zagreb, Croatia
4
Chair of Endocrinology and Medical Sexology (ENDOSEX), Department of Copyright ª 2020, The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. on behalf of
Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy; the International Society for Sexual Medicine. This is an open access
5
CICPSI, Faculdade de Psicologia, Universidade de Lisboa, Alameda da article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/
Universidade, Lisboa, Portugal; licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esxm.2020.02.008

Sex Med 2020;8:121e131 121

122 Marieke et al

INTRODUCTION more broadly, intimacy-related cues, and it results from beginning

arousal.19 Without denying the important role of hormones,
Issues regarding sexual desire are among the most commonly
neurotransmitters, physiological, and psychological changes that
reported complaints among couples.1e3 Given that sexual desire
unfold within the individual and may be experienced as “sponta-
problems manifest themselves mainly in the context of a
neous,” the SDD literature emphasizes the subjective experience of
relationship,4e7 it is remarkable that low and high sexual desire
desire and points towards the boundaries of our current knowledge
are typically approached from an individualistic perspective that
on sexual desire because it stems mainly from research on indi-
reduces the problem to the individual desire levels of the part-
vidual responses and puts too much emphasis on quantifying
ners, thereby disregarding the dyadic interaction in which it
sexual desire levels.20 The way sexual desire is defined on an in-
develops.7 In line with recommendations by Masters and John-
dividual level is likely different from how it functions in a rela-
son,8 most clinicians involve both partners when treating sexual
tionship. Hence, desire-related problems do not arise from the
desire problems. Yet, we still lack theoretical and empirical
(level of) sexual desire as such but from discrepant meanings and/or
knowledge on how sexual desire functions and interacts in a
levels of sexual desire, which develop as a function of the rela-
relationship. Sexual desire discrepancy (SDD) was first defined
tionship.7 This will be the central focus of this study.
by Zilbergeld and Ellison (1980)9 to describe when 2 partners in
an intimate relationship desire different levels or a different fre-
quency of sexual activity. Although the concept has been intro- Research Methods
duced decades ago and is likely as prevalent in today's sexual A comprehensive Pubmed, Web of Science, Medline, and
relationships, research on this topic is scarce, and we lack clear Cochrane search was performed including the following words:
clinical guidelines to support couples who are distressed by SDD. sexual desire discrepancy, sexual desire and dyadic, sexual desire
Most of the literature on SDD focuses on conceptualization and and interpersonal, sexual desire and relationship, and sexual
how to approach SDD in light of current classification systems of desire and agreement/disagreement. Publications up to July 1,
sexual dysfunctions, pointing towards the risk of pathologizing 2018, were included. We screened the abstracts and included
normal variation in sexual desire.10,11 There are only a few empirical only articles that explicitly mentioned SSD, or discussed the role
studies on the effects of SDD, examining mainly relationship and of sexual desire in a relationship, or measured sexual desire within
sexual satisfaction as outcome variables.11e13 To our knowledge, no a couple. The final selection of articles was based on the clinical
clinical intervention studies have been published so far. and research expertise of 5 expert clinical psychologists,
composing the ESSM sexology subcommittee. Note that we did
The aim of the present study is to perform a critical analysis of the
not aim to provide a comprehensive, systematic analysis of all
current knowledge on SDD to provide the European Society for
available literature on (hypoactive) sexual desire and SDD but
Sexual Medicine (ESSM) position on this topic. We will identify
focused on defining the concept and deducing suggestions for
theoretical and methodological gaps, set priorities for future
assessment, counseling, and treatment.
research, and make suggestions for therapeutic intervention. Given
the lack of systematic evidence on SDD, this position statement is Owing to limited evidence on clinical implications of SDD
mainly based on expert opinions and focuses on how couples and a lack of good study quality, no recommendations as per the
perceive their level of sexual desire within a relationship context. Oxford 2011 Levels of Evidence criteria were possible [all level 4
evidence, https://www.cebm.net/2009/06/oxford-centre-
evidence-based-medicine-levels-evidence-march-2009/]. ESSM
How to Define Sexual Desire?
A full understanding of SDD requires a definition of sexual statements on this topic will be provided in which we summarize
desire. We forgo a detailed analysis of different theories on sexual current knowledge on SDD, give our opinion about the
desire and focus mainly on how sexual desire is conceptualized in conceptualization of and treatment approach to SDD, and pro-
the SDD literature. Although sexual desire has clear biological vide first suggestions to develop a coherent treatment protocol.
underpinnings (involving cortical, limbic, and endocrine
structures)14e16 that drive patterns of initiation and receptivity, SDD as a Sexual Problem
the literature on SDD makes little notice of these biological forces. Statement 1: SDD is a relative and dyadic concept, rather than
Definitions of sexual desire in the SDD literature emphasize the the outcome of individual characteristics or traits
motivation and wish to behave sexually and how these are shaped
Statement 2: SDD does not necessarily cause distress or
or blocked by individual characteristics, partner behavior, inter-
require treatment
personal dynamics, and/or sociocultural standards.15,17 This cor-
responds with current views indicating that sexual desire is an
emotional-motivational response that emerges from beginning Evidence
arousal in response to stimulation that signals reward.18 Accord- SDD is not a clinical condition and is assigned no official
ingly, sexual desire should not be regarded as an inner drive or diagnosis as per the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
bodily tension that pops up spontaneously, urging to be released. Disorders or the International Classification of Diseases.
Often, sexual desire is experienced as responsive to sexual and, Although the most recent International Classification of

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Sexual Desire Discrepancy 123

Diseasese11 does include relationship and partner issues as de- relationship, SDD may be less distressing.29 To better under-
scriptors of low desire, different levels of sexual desire between stand the clinical implications of SDD, it is important to
partners are still described in terms of hypoactive sexual interest investigate under what conditions SDD is experienced as a
disorders (HSDDs), identifying the partner with the lowest problem and what enables some couples to maintain satisfaction
desire as the patient.7 Such individual diagnosis stems from a despite their discrepant desire levels. Whether or not SDD will
health model in which desire serves only to initiate sexual elicit distress may depend on social norms and myths about
function, thereby placing more emphasis on quantity rather than sexuality and relationships, and individual psychopathology and
quality.5,21 Quantifying individual desire levels on a continuum also on the personal experience of missing a sense of desire that
between low and high implies that the focus of intervention lies has been there before.2 Gender specificity represents another
on increasing sexual frequency instead of targeting the meaning issue to be evaluated.13,30 Because gender stereotypes tend to
of sexual desire within the couple. More recently, it has been portray male sexual desire as an active, internally driven force that
proposed that sexual desire in a relationship should be concep- spontaneously unfolds, it has been suggested that SDD will be
tualized, studied, and treated as a relative and dyadic concept, experienced as more distressing and evoke more negative out-
rather than an individual characteristic or trait.2,4,5,13,22 Instead comes when men are the low-desire partner.25,31
of pathologizing the low-desire partner and using the high-desire
partner as a benchmark, it has been proposed to reframe sexual
Remarks
desire problems as a mismatch in desire.7 Although we lack
At present, there are no data available on how large or dis-
systematic studies on clinicians’ beliefs and treatment approaches
tressing a SSD must be to be reported as clinically significant.11
to SDD, we acknowledge that most clinicans nowadays evaluate
An important question here is whether we actually need objective
the context and the partner before ever diagnosing an individual
criteria for a clinical decision, as SDD relies on the subjective
with HSDD. Forcing a diagnosis onto one of the partners may
experience of both partners.7,32 If we argue that the impact of
contradict the observation that a decline in sexual desire is
SDD becomes clinically relevant only when both partners are
common over the course of a relationship.23e25 Given that any 2
distressed and request consultation, this might raise the problem
individuals likely differ in their level of sexual desire, which
whether SDD is clinically relevant when only one partner is
fluctuates over contexts and time, discrepancies in desire have
distressed by the discrepancy. In the latter case, it may become a
been described as an inevitable feature of long-term sexual re-
relational problem, bearing on other aspects of relational life. It
lationships [refer to Table 1].2,26,27
also important to consider that a clinical diagnosis of SDD would
SDD is not necessarily a clinical condition that causes imply the loss of sexual desire is persistent and generalized and
distress and requires treatment.7 It is thus crucial to determine not a temporally or context-dependent condition. The issue of
the level of distress evoked by the SDD, distinguishing between distressing SDD needs further study to identify clinical needs of
personal e because one of the partners is missing something affected couples and develop tailored interventions.
(that has been there before) e and relational distress because
the SDD strains the relationship. Note that we should be
careful not to approach evey case of low sexual desire as a Current Research on SDD: Conceptual and
relational problem, thereby forgoing an individual diagnosis of Methodological Issues
HSDD or ignoring the individual distress caused by low levels Several conceptual and methodological issues complicate the
of sexual desire. There are also situations in which one partner interpretation of findings on SDD.
does indeed qualify for a clinical diagnosis of HSDD, which
can still lead to SDD. Conceptual Issues
Statement 4: Actual and perceived level of sexual desire should
SDD as a Clinical Problem be compared during the clinical evaluation of SDD.
Statement 3: SDD becomes a clinically relevant problem when Statement 5: The focus on actual versus desired sexual fre-
both or one of both partners are distressed by it and request quency represents one of the most important conceptual prob-
consultation lems in evaluating SDD.

Evidence Evidence
Table 2 summarizes the most important factors to be In many studies, SDD is defined as a difference between both
considered when dealing with SSD. In some cases, SDD may partners' scores on sexual desire and is often referred to as the
elicit considerable levels of distress and dissatisfaction in one or “actual desire discrepancy.”11e13,33 Other studies have focused
both partners, when, for example, the mismatch in desire persists on “perceived desire discrepancy” by asking each partner to es-
or grows over time.10,12,28 Conversely, when both partners’ level timate how discrepant their sexual desire is.11,28 Actual and
of sexual desire declines at a similar rate or when the couple perceived SDD reflect different perspectives and thus yield
accepts the ebbs and flows in sexual desire over the course of the different results. A systematic comparison between actual and

Sex Med 2020;8:121e131

124 Marieke et al

Table 1. Brief characterization of sexual desire discrepancies (SDD)

Individual approach (not recommended) Dyadic approach (recommended)
Clinical targets
Quantity: Frequency/level of sexual desire Quality: Sexual pleasure and emotional intimacy
Distress associated with low desire Distress associated with SDD
Main focus
Focus on the low desire partner Focus on the (relational) meaning of SDD, preferences and motives
Focus on diagnostic criteria for hypoactive desire Focus on the mismatch between partners

perceived levels of sexual desire is useful because partners tend to Remarks

show biased perceptions of each others' sexual desire, which often Closely related to the concept of SDD is the literature on the
results in misinterpretations and unnecessary distress.34 sexual interdependence dilemma, which describes how people
Probably the most common conceptualization of SDD fo- make sexual decisions when their own sexual needs are not
cuses on the discrepancy between actual and desired sexual aligned with their partner's needs.40,42 SDD can be considered as
frequency among partners.35 Behavior is, however, not a good the most common sexual interdependence dilemma. Several data
indicator of desire because people have sex for different reasons have shown that being responsive to one's partner leads to more
and thus often engage in sexual activity without experiencing sexual and relationship satisfaction than deciding not to engage
sexual desire.36,37 This type of consensual, but initially unde- in sex because of lower sexual desire.38 Another related concept is
sired, sex is common among couples and can be driven by sexual compliance versus sexual restraint, which refers to a
different motives such as wanting to please the partner, wanting partner engaging in sex with low sexual desire versus a partner
to feel sexually attractive, stress relief, sense of obligation, and having little sex despite high sexual desire, respectively.43
routine.38e40 Another problem with the focus on sexual fre- Although sexual restraint is psychologically and physiologically
quency is that sex may mean different things for different demanding for partners, engaging in sex for avoidance reasons
people.37,41 When sexual desire is defined as a motivational state has detrimental effects as well, as it may lead to lower relation-
that can be fulfilled by other needs than sexual activity, SDD ships quality and higher physiological and emotional stress.44 A
may actually reflect a lack of motivation for particular sexual acts final related concept is sexual compatibility, which implies that
with a particular partner.40 This implies that problems between partners desire and enjoy similar things sexually, and this is
partners may arise not only from different levels of sexual desire believed to be beneficial to the relationship.2 Although largely
but rather from differences in the understanding of sexual hailed and promoted, sexual compatibility may not be realistic or
desire, the object of desire (ie, sexual preferences), and the desirable to strive to. When taking into account individual
motives of sexual desire and sexual activity.40 Overall, the variability in sexual desire responding, it seems unlikely that 2
distress evoked by SDD resides mainly in the actual or perceived individuals will desire the same, at the same moment, and in the
difference in desire, timing, activities, and communication about same way.
intimacy and sexual behavior rather than one partner having a
disorder. Methodological Issues
Statement 6: The lack of uniformly accepted definition of
SDD and the heterogeneity of its assessment make the results
difficult to compare.
Table 2. Recommendations for assessment of sexual desire
discrepancies (SDD)
Evidence
Consider the dyad rather than the low desire partner The lack of uniform definition of SDD makes it difficult to
Focus on mismatch (discrepancy) rather than absolute levels of make direct comparisons between the results of different
desire studies.33 Furthermore, it has been argued that existing measures
Consider actual versus perceived SDD of sexual desire and SSD have an inconsistent structure and lack
Consider levels of distress associated with SDD (distinguish
systematic validation studies.32,45
individual versus relational distress)
Learn about the ebb and flow of sexual desire and SDD in the Another methodological difficulty is the variability in sampling
couple's past (identify critical events) strategies. These range from recruiting perimenopausal and
Explore the mechanisms that promote or hinder sexual postmenopausal women with low sexual desire, couples tran-
adaptation to SDD sitioning to parenthood, and couples with sexual problems to
Explore the function of SDD and examine whether SDD reflects adolescents and college students.30,41,46e48 Only a few empirical
an underlying relationship problem studies have relied on community samples and most of them are

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convenience based.35,39,48 Furthermore, most studies have been responsiveness), and well-being. In addition, we currently lack a
carried out among heterosexual individuals or couples. It is clear understanding of what it means for partners to experience
generally assumed that discrepancies in sexual desire are larger different levels of sexual desire and why some couples handle
and more distressing in a heterosexual context because women differences in sexual desire better than the other.29,52 Finally,
are assumed to show a stronger decline in sexual desire than current knowledge on the underlying processes and moderators
men.23e25 However, there are no reasons to expect that SDD is of SDD is mainly based on clinical impressions and not sup-
exclusive to heterosexual couples and would not occur or cause ported by systematic research. For example, SDD is often
distress in gay or lesbian relationships.28,49 Future research on described as a symptom of an underlying relationship prob-
SDD needs to include non-heterosexual couples and different lem.47,50,53 Because the agreement of both partners is needed to
relationship types (eg, consensual non-monogamy). Lack of enter sexual activity, refusing sex may act as a strategic tool to
cross-cultural findings is another limitation of the available regain or balance power in the relationship.50 SDD could also be
literature on SDD. Most studies so far have been carried out in regarded as a passive and relatively safe or non-challenging way to
Western European and North American heterosexual samples. express dissatisfaction with sexual and/or non-sexual parts of the
relationship.54,55 Although desire discrepancy can present itself
Remarks for a variety of reasons and may serve many different relationship
Reaching consensus on how to define SDD remains an functions, it may also originate from biological factors such as
important task. A standard definition would bring more opera- menopause, medical treatment, and disease or from simple
tional clarity and methodological cohesion, which could stimu- practical issues such as lifestyle patterns, preferred times for
late research and ultimately advance our knowledge on SDD. sleeping, parenting, or work-related stress.56e58
When measuring SDD, we recommend taking a dyadic approach
in which SDD is indicated by (i) the degree of discrepancy be- Gender Differences in (the Impact of) SDD
tween partners' actual sexual desire, (ii) the degree of (dis) As gender is the most common moderator variable in sex
concordance between partners' assessment of SDD in their research, it is not surprising that most research on the outcomes
relationship, (iii) the level of partners' distress over SDD, and (iv) of SDD has focused on gender differences in whether or not
partners' evaluation of the duration of (distressing) SDD. Given SDD will elicit distress. Given the evidence that women have a
that the clinical value of SDD may depend on both partners’ lower or more context-sensitive sexual desire than men,25,27 it
level of distress, we need specific psychometric tools that can has been assumed that women are more likely to be the low-
capture couple distress in addition to individual discomfort. desire partner in SDD couples than men. There is, however,
Building a consensus on how SDD should be defined and no solid evidence to support this claim. Moreover, when women
measured will also benefit the development of treatment pro- are diagnosed with hypoactive sexual desire, it is often not the
tocols that tap into the core themes of SDD but leave enough low desire in itself that causes distress but rather the relational
room for tailoring the interventions as per the duration, source, impact of the couple's discrepancy in sexual desire.5,59
underlying reasons, and distress level of SDD.
Whether or not SDD will be experienced as distressing de-
pends on how important sexual desire is for both partners. It has
Current Research on the Outcomes of SDD been suggested that women value the emotional quality of sex
Statement 7: More research is needed on the predictors, cor- more than its quantity and are driven less towards sexual
relates, and underlying factors that promote or hinder a couple's activity.5,26,51,55,59,60 Accordingly, women may experience dis-
adaptation to SDD. crepancies in sexual desire levels or desired sexual frequency as
Statement 8: Because sexual desire naturally fluctuates, it is less important than differences in how sexual desire is embedded
difficult to make uniform conclusions on the positive or negative in the relationship and which emotional needs are linked to
impact of SDD or to consider any impact of SDD to be gender desire.39 It is plausible that women use feelings of closeness and
specific. commitment as an indicator of sexual desire, whereas for men, it
is the sexual desire itself that generates the motivation to become
Evidence intimate with their partner.39,60 On the other hand, there are
Research on the outcomes of SDD yields conflicting findings, also indications that women's sexual desire is important to both
which is probably related to the diversity in conceptualization her own and her partner's sexual satisfaction.12,61
and measurement of SDD. Some studies report positive out- Another relevant gender difference that may explain differ-
comes of SDD on the (sexual) relationship,35,50 whereas others ences in the impact of SDD on (sexual) satisfaction is that
show negative effects.11,13,27,51 Most often, the outcome vari- women place less value on who initiates sexual activity, whereas
ables are broadly defined in terms of relationship and sexual men pursue a balance between partners to take sexual initiative.62
satisfaction,11e13,29,32,48,51,50 leaving unexplored how SDD may Studies have shown that holding the belief that men should al-
affect other parts of individual functioning (eg, mood, coping), ways initiate sexual interactions lowers sexual satisfaction in both
relationship functioning (eg, communication, support, partner partners, whereas sexual initiation in both genders would increase

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126 Marieke et al

sexual satisfaction.62,63 Although balancing sexual initiative teach partners to schedule intimacy, making efforts to generate
would benefit the relationship climate, it has been found that sexual desire, and systemic explorations of the relational function
men report more satisfaction when the woman takes the initia- of SDD.
tive to have sex because among other things, this contradicts
social norms and expectations about sexually initiating men,
which would then increase a men's sense of sexual desirability.64 Evidence
Table 3 summarizes the most important aspects to consider
These differences in the meaning and function of SDD could during SDD treatment. Although SDD is not necessarily a sexual
possibly explain the finding that lower levels of SDD leads to problem, we do need an evidence-based treatment to help sub-
better outcomes in men. When confronted with a partner with jects who are distressed by SDD.68 Currently, no evidence-based
higher sexual desire, men often adopt the role of the suffering treatment for SDD exists. Only a few studies on SDD have used
one, whereas women tend to self-sacrifice.6 Women tend to take clinical samples69,70 and, so far, no comprehensive treatment
a leading responsibility for maintaining the relationship and are program has yet been described. Several therapeutic recom-
thus more prone to prioritize relationship needs over personal mendations have been made to treat low sexual desire, but these
needs.65 As a result, women may hide their lack of sexual desire, cannot simply be transferred to a couple-focused treatment of
so that their partners are not even aware of the discrepancy.13 SDD.71 Most treatments of sexual desire problems take an in-
Gender differences in the impact of SDD on the relationship dividual approach and focus on increasing and expanding the
may also vary as a function of relationship duration. Although a sexual desire of the low desire partner.68 Partners are then
couple may experience similar levels of sexual desire early in the instructed to find a compromise in their level and type of sexual
relationship, the sexual desire of both partners may diverge as the activity, which ignores the fact that SDD often results from
relationship develops. Accordingly, it has been suggested that partners’ interaction and is an important part of their conflict
SDD would be more prevalent and more problematic in long- management.50
term compared with short-term relationships.2,29 It is also Although some articles on SDD and sexually related con-
important to note that SDD may not necessarily be caused by structs discuss clinical implications,12,13,33 none of these sug-
gender differences in the level of sexual desire and motivation but gestions are research-informed and evidence-based. The
rather by differences in the definition of sexual desire and the following treatment suggestions are thus only speculative and
type of sexual acts they desire.39,40,51,66 Sexual preferences may based mainly on clinical rather than research experiences.
change in the course of the relationship. Hence, a sexual script Furthermore, most of these treatment suggestions are already
that elicited arousal in the beginning of the relationship may standard practices in sex and couple therapy.
become less exciting over the years.

Psychoeducation and Normalization

Remarks Most often, a couple will not consult for SDD but will present
It is important to note that the observed gender differences in
the problem as one partner suffering from hypoactive sexual
how men and women experience SDD should not be regarded as
desire.39 Instead of taking part in this allocation of blame, a
absolute differences. We need to be careful not to put too much
clinician may try to reframe the complaint as a couple problem in
weight on gender differences, because there may be as much
which both partners are involved.6,43 It is also important to
variation within each gender as there is between genders.
normalize SDD as a common experience in long-term sexual
Differences in the impact of SDD could be more strongly related
to differences in age and cultural or societal influences than to
gender differences.67 Table 3. Recommendations for intervention (expert opinion)
Psychoeducation
Suggestions for the Treatment of Distressing SDD Build non-pathologizing/normalizing narratives
Statement 9: The main focus of the treatment should be Target social norms and myths; adjust sexual expectations
directed towards decreasing the distress associated with SDD and Break sexual routine (create opportunities to generate sexual
assisting partners in better coping with discrepant levels of desire. desire)
Broaden sexual repertoire (find non-sexual strategies)
Statement 10: Treatment should focus on the dyadic inter-
Increase open communication (tune sexual responses and
action and function of SDD within the relationship, rather than
compromise to sexual opportunities and types of sexual
individual levels of sexual desire. This implies exploring the stimulation)
meaning for each partner of having or not having sex within the Strive towards a satisfying sexual script for both partners
relationship. Actively search for adequate sexual stimulation
Statement 11: Treatment options are psychoeducation, Emotional needs
improving communication to broaden the couple's understand- Explore emotional and intimacy needs (decide whether
ing of sex and their sexual repertoire, homework assignments that relationship therapy fits the couple's interest best)

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Sexual Desire Discrepancy 127

relationships.2,6,25 The main focus of treatment should not be on physical intimacy, and increase awareness that sex is a mutual
reducing SDD but on decreasing distress and helping partners to responsibility.8 One of the benefits of giving homework assign-
better cope with discrepant levels of desire.26 ments is that partners learn to schedule occasions for sexual in-
Aligning with a stepped care approach to sexual problems,61 timacy.80 Instructing them to pursue sexual desire by creating
psychoeducation about the course, function, and context de- opportunities for sex (eg, date nights) goes against the popular
pendency of sexual desire should be a first-line strategy. Giving belief that partners should just go with the flow and wait for
permission to talk about SDD and providing information to spontaneous sexual desire to emerge.18,81 Sexual desire does not
normalize the discrepancy may in some cases already be sufficient pop up “out of the blue” but is triggered by a stimulus that
to reduce distress and lower the urgency of the complaint.72 A predicts reward. Although sexual desire may feel as spontaneous,
focus on pursuing positive and realistic expectations about how it is always initiated in response to a sexual or even non-sexual
to integrate sex in daily life may be helpful. This fits with the cue (eg, relational intimacy). Hence, partners need to actively
Good-Enough Sex Model that has been proposed as a key factor search for adequate sexual stimulation, which often includes
in mainting sexual satisfaction in long-term relationships.73 A flirting and seduction.73 Eventually, the couple gets a more
potential way to prevent disappointment and distress is to make realistic view on long-term sexual relationships and learns that
couples realize that the desire for and quality of sex may vary sexual desire requires effort, intentionality, intimacy, and
from day to day, that it is normal to have mediocre and less planning.
satisfying sex once in a while, and that efforts are needed to keep
the sparkle alive, especially in the face of daily stress and life Compliance and Positive Rejection
changes.73 In addition to working together on developing the couple's
sexual script, therapeutic advice can also be directed at
Specific Advice to Break the Routine, Broaden the normalizing and depathologizing having sex without direct,
Sexual Repertoire, and Tune Sexual Responses initial desire.34,36,38,40,42,43,52 The desire may grow over the
An important challenge in treating SDD is finding non-sexual course of the sexual act as a result of (physiological) sexual
strategies to balance the discrepancy and diminish the distress arousal responses.18 Yet, having sex without sufficient sexual
associated with it. Specific advice can be provided to break the arousal is clearly not indicated. Research has also shown that
routine, activate both partners erotically, broaden their definition positive rejection yields better relationship outcomes compared
of sex, and help them tune their sexual desire levels. Open with having sex for avoidance goals.42,43 Drawing on a sys-
communication in which both partners can willingly express temic perspective on SDD, partners should learn to understand
their sexual wishes and communicate their sexual concerns is an each other's need to have sex but also the need not to have
important skill that may help couples to deal with SDD.74e76 sex. Both partners' motives need to be acknowledged. This
Communication skill training may facilitate the discussion on implies that the low-desire partner is not the only one modi-
how each partner defines sex and whether they agree on this fying or justifying his/her sexual desire. It works better when
conceptualization.77,78 This may eventually help to clarify if the both partners try to meet halfway.2,7,26,32,33 In this context, it
lower sexual desire is linked with reduced arousability (which is important to empower mutual consent and assertiveness
may be due to a range of biological or psychosocial factors), between partners in order to manage discrepant levels of sexual
dissatisfaction, or specific preferences and practices. Couples are desire.26,38
often too much focused on intercourse and a narrowly defined
“sex.”39,78 To help the couple broaden their sexual repertoire and Meaning of SDD in the Relationship
develop a joint sexual script that is satisfying to both, therapeutic When SDD serves important relationship functions such as
interventions should be directed at stimulating mutual agreement controlling and balancing power and/or dissatisfaction, the
on sexual acts and pleasurable interactions instead of increasing couple may benefit from prioritizing relationship therapy. When
sexual frequency.77,78,79 being more satisfied with the relationship, partners may feel less
Once the couple has developed shared and realistic expecta- distressed by SDD, even if it does exist, or they may feel more
tions, it is beneficial to make explicit what type of sexual stim- motivated (to make efforts) for sexual contact.52 Taking the
ulation each partner wants and to compromise on when and how relationship as a starting point for treatment and exploring the
to get it.77 It is also important to explore whether the partner underlying meaning of SDD fits with the basic principles of
with the lowest desire actually wants to expand his or her desire. emotionally focused therapy (EFT), which has recently been
Several strategies such as making a list of desired sexual acts to be proposed as a possible therapeutic model in the context of
discussed among the partners or sensate focus exercises to SDD.53 EFT uses emotional intimacy as a catalyst to sexual
discover what type of sexual stimulation each partner likes can be desire, redefines sexual desire in terms of unmet attachment
used. This gradual approach towards reintroducing and needs, and tries to identify negative sexual cycles in which one
expanding sexual touch may help to improve communication partner desires intimacy as precursor for sex, whereas the other
about sexuality, minimize pressure and expectations, rebuild partner uses sex to feel emotionally close. By focusing on

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128 Marieke et al

relationship closeness, the EFT approach has a potential to Table 4. Directions for future research on Sexual Desire
decrease SDD-related distress.69 Some clinicians have challenged Discrepancies (SDD)
the notion of emotional intimacy as a mediator of sexual desire, Building consensus over how to define SDD
promoting the concept of differentiation and prioritizing
unpredictability and novelty over safety and stability.82e85 They Explore dominant gendered norms and beliefs about SDD
Select diary methods and prospective designs to explore
direct their interventions towards balancing togetherness and
variability over time and across different contexts
personal autonomy and valuing the perception of otherness and
Construct and validate measures focusing on the dyadic
self-differentiation.86 Within this perspective, SDD may actually experience of SDD and the related distress
open up possibilities for each partner's self-differentiation and Build measures focusing on relational distress and dyadic
personal growth. experience of desire
Focus on the predictors, functions, and mechanisms underlying
SDD
Remarks
Clinical endpoints and treatment success are often defined in
terms of increased sexual frequency and decreased sexual distress. negative outcomes. Furthermore, research on SDD would
This contradicts our proposal that couples who suffer from SDD benefit from new measurement tools that align with a dyadic
need to explore their preconditions to experience sexual desire perspective and tap into the dynamical interaction between
and learn to pursue sexual pleasure, both individually and partner's sexual (desire) responses. Instead of questionnaires that
together with the partner. The essence of sexuality is to experi- provide only a snapshot of sexual responding, diary methods, for
ence sexual intimacy and pleasure and not penetration. Another example, may be better suited to capture fluctuations in sexual
issue that needs further attention is the lack of information on desire within the context of the daily relationship. In addition,
treatment modalities. We strongly encourage working with the prospective designs are much needed to explore how SDD de-
couple as a unit of the treatment. However, in case only one velops and evolves in relationships.
partner is available for therapy, it is recommended to take an Although no systematic and evidence-based treatment pro-
individual systemic approach and to integrate the partner's re- tocols are available, we make the following tentative suggestions
sponses into therapy by asking circular questions (eg, How would for treatment, which are based on standard sex therapeutic in-
your partner react to this? What are your partner thoughts and terventions. A treatment for SDD should (i) normalize and
feelings about this? How could you communicate this to your depathologize the between- and within-individual variation in
partner?). It is also important to provide written instructions of sexual desire; (ii) educate about the natural course of sexual
the homework assignments to ensure an accurate understanding desire; (iii) emphasize the dyadic, age-related, and relative nature
and cooperation of the partner not present in therapy. Although of SDD; (iv) challenge the myth of spontaneous sexual desire; (v)
it is most evident to treat the couple as a unit and not as 2 promote open sexual communication; (vi) assist in developing
individuals,11e13,87 it is also worth exploring if other modalities joint sexual scripts that are mutually satisfying in addition to
such as group therapy would lead to similar or even better out- searching for personal sexual needs; (vii) deal with relationship
comes. The value of group therapy is not only indicated by its issues and unmet emotional needs; and (viii) promote self-
cost-effectiveness, treating couples in a group setting allows them differentiation. The ultimate goal of non-clinical and clinical
to share experiences, which may help to normalize their SDD. In research is to develop a treatment for SDD that effectively and
addition, interactive online platforms, including e-health efficiently increases sexual pleasure and well-being, as well as
information-based services, and virtual psychotherapy, may prove sexual and relationship satisfaction.
useful.
Corresponding Author: Dewitte Marieke, PhD, Department
of Clinical Psychological Science, Maastricht University, Maas-
CONCLUSIONS tricht, the Netherlands. Tel: 0031433884558; E-mail: marieke.
Research on SDD is characterized by conceptual and meth- [email protected]
odological difficulties, which may explain the lack of empirical Conflict of Interest: The authors report no conflicts of interest.
and clinical data on how to define, measure, and treat SDD. To
develop effective treatment protocols, we need a better under- Funding: None.
standing of the function, determinants, and underlying mecha-
nisms of SDD and more insight into the sources of distress
associated with SDD (see also table 4). Given that many couples
STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP
appear to cope well with sexual disagreements and accept dif- Category 1
ferences in sexual desire without feeling threatened or distressed, (a) Conception and Design
SDD is not a uniform clinical phenomenon that always requires Dewitte Marieke; Carvalho Joana; Corona Giovanni; Limoncin

Erika; Pascoal Patricia; Reisman Yacov; Stulhofer Aleksandar
an intervention. More research is needed to understand the
moderators and conditions under which SDD yields positive or (b) Acquisition of Data

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Sexual Desire Discrepancy 129

Dewitte Marieke; Carvalho Joana; Limoncin Erika; Pascoal 14. Rauch S, Shin LM, Dougherty DD, et al. Neural activation

Patricia; Stulhofer Aleksandar during sexual and competitive arousal in healthy men. Psych
(c) Analysis and Interpretation of Data Res Neuroimaging 1999;91:1-10.
Dewitte Marieke; Carvalho Joana; Limoncin Erika; Pascoal
 15. Levine SB. More on the nature of sexual desire. J Sex Marital
Patricia; Stulhofer Aleksandar
Ther 1987;13:35-44.
Category 2 16. Corona G, Isidori AM, Aversa A, et al. Men's sexual desire and
(a) Drafting the Article arousal/Erection. J Sex Med 2016;13:317-337.
Marieke Dewitte 17. Levine SB. The nature of sexual desire: a clinician’s perspec-
(b) Revising It for Intellectual Content tive. Arch Sex Beh 2003;32:279-285.
Dewitte Marieke; Carvalho Joana; Corona Giovanni; Limoncin

Erika; Pascoal Patricia; Reisman Yacov; Stulhofer Aleksandar 18. Both S, Everaerd W, Laan E. Desire emerges from excitement:
a psychophysiological perspective on sexual motivation. In:
Category 3 InJanssen E, ed. The Psychophysiology of sex. Bloomington:
(a) Final Approval of the Completed Article Indiana University Press; 2017.
Dewitte Marieke; Carvalho Joana; Corona Giovanni; Limoncin 19. McCall K, Meston C. Differences between pre- and post-

Erika; Pascoal Patricia; Reisman Yacov; Stulhofer Aleksandar menopausal women in cues for sexual desire. J Sex Med
2007;4:364-371.
20. Basson R. The female sexual response: a different model.
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