THERMODYNAMICS AND

HEAT TRANSFER

ENGR. RICHELLE MAE MENDOZA-OLPOT

1ST SEMESTER 2022-2023
FOCUS OF DISCUSSION

• Definition & Advantages

• Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
• Conduction
• Temperature Profile for Unidirectional Heat Transfer
• Convection
• Radiation
DEFINITION AND ADVANTAGES

• Heat transfer is the movement of energy from one point to another by virtue of a
difference in temperature.
• Heating and cooling are manifestations of this phenomenon, which is used in industrial
operations and in domestic activities.
DEFINITION AND ADVANTAGES

• An understanding of the mechanisms of heat transport is needed in order to recognize

limitations of heating and cooling systems, which can then lead to adoption of
practices that circumvent these limitations.

• In industrial and domestic heating and cooling, energy use audits can be used to
determine total energy use and energy use distribution within the process, to
identify areas of high energy use, and to target these areas for energy conservation
measures.
MECHANISMS OF HEAT TRANSFER
CONDUCTION

This is the process when heat is transferred between adjacent molecules. This is the
mechanism of heat transfer in solids.
The heat flux, in conduction heat transfer, is proportional to the temperature gradient
according to Fourier’s 1st Law of Heat Transfer:
Temperature Gradient

Heat Flux

Thermal Conductivity
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF MATERIALS
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF MATERIALS
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF FOOD
THERMAL
CONDUCTIVITY
OF FOOD
TEMPERATURE PROFILE FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL
HEAT TRANSFER
If heat is transferred under steady-state conditions, and A is constant along the distance x,
the temperature gradient, dT/dx, will be constant, and integration will result in an
expression for temperature as a linear function of x.

Substituting the boundary condition, T=T1 at x=x1

TEMPERATURE PROFILE FOR UNIDIRECTIONAL
HEAT TRANSFER
If the temperature at two different points in the solid is known (i.e., T=T1 at x=x1 and T=T2
at x=x2)
EXAMPLES

Thermocouples embedded at two points within a steel bar, 1 and 2 mm from the surface,
indicate temperatures of 100°C and 98°C, respectively. Assuming no heat transfer occurring
from the sides, calculate the surface temperature.

Solution:
Thermal conductivity is constant.
T2 = 98°C, T1 = 100°C, x2 = 2 mm, and x1 = 1 mm.
EXAMPLES

The temperature gradient ΔT/Δx = (T2-T1)/(x2-x1)= (98–100)/ 0.001(2–1) = -2000.

T = - (-2000)(x1 – x) + T1

At the surface, x = 0, and at point x1 = 0.001, T1 = 100. Thus:

T = 2000(0:001) + 100
T = 102°C
ACTIVITY

Conduction Heat Transfer Through Walls of a Cylinder

CONVECTION

This mechanism transfers heat when molecules move from one point to another and
exchanges energy with another molecule in the other location.
Bulk molecular motion is involved in convection heat transfer. Bulk molecular motion is
induced by density changes associated with difference in fluid temperature at different
points in the fluid, condensation, or vaporization (natural convection) or when a fluid is
forced to flow past a surface by mechanical means (forced convection).
CONVECTION

The rate of heat transfer by convection is proportional to the temperature difference and
is expressed as:

where h is the heat transfer coefficient, A is the area of the fluid-solid interface where heat
is being transferred, and ΔT, the driving force for heat transfer, is the difference in fluid
temperature, Tm, and the solid surface temperature, Ts.
Convection heat transfer is often represented as heat transfer through a thin layer of
fluid that possesses a temperature gradient, at the fluid surface interface.
NATURAL CONVECTION

Natural convection depends on gravity and density and viscosity changes associated with
temperature differences in the fluid to induce convective currents.
This is also referred to as free convection.
The magnitude of the heat transfer coefficient in free convection is very low.
Air: 60 W/(m2- K)
Water: 60–3000 W/(m2- K)
NATURAL CONVECTION

Natural Convection is also manifested through nucleate boiling.

When the surface temperature exceeds the boiling point of the liquid, bubbles of superheated
vapor are produced at the solid-liquid interface.
As these bubbles leave the surface, the boundary layer is agitated resulting in very high heat
transfer coefficients.
The heat transfer coefficient for water is 5000–50,000 W/(m2- K).
When the ΔT is very high, excessive generation of vapor at the interface produces an insulating
layer of vapor that hinders heat transfer. This process of heat transfer is called film boiling, and the
heat transfer coefficient is much lower than that in nucleate boiling.
NATURAL CONVECTION

Another form of natural convection is the transfer of heat from condensing vapors. Condensing
vapors release a large amount of energy on condensation.
When the vapors condense as droplets, which eventually coalesce and slide down the surface,
the vapor is always in direct contact with a clean surface, and therefore, heat transfer
coefficients are very high.
This type of heat transfer is called dropwise condensation.
Heat transfer coefficient is 10,000 W/(m2- K).
When vapors condense as a film of liquid on a surface, the liquid film forms a barrier to heat
transfer, and heat transfer coefficients are lower. This process of heat transfer is called filmwise
condensation, and the magnitude of the heat transfer coefficient may be in the order of 5000
W/(m2- K).
FORCED CONVECTION

Heat transfer coefficients depend on the velocity of the fluid, its thermophysical properties,
and the geometry of the surface. In general, heat transfer coefficients for noncondensing
gases are about two orders of magnitude lower than that for liquids.
RADIATION

Electromagnetic waves traveling through space may be intercepted by a suitable surface and
absorbed, raising the energy level of the intercepting surface.
When the electromagnetic waves are of the frequency of light, the phenomenon is referred
to as radiation.
All bodies at temperatures higher than absolute zero emit energy in proportion to the
fourth power of their temperatures. In a closed system, bodies exchange energy by
radiation until their temperatures equalize.
RADIATION

Radiation heat transfer is a surface phenomenon (the conditions at the surface determine
the rate of heat transfer).
Thermal radiation includes the spectrum ranging from the high ultraviolet (0.1 μm) through
the visible spectrum (0.4–0.7 μm) to infrared (0.7–100 μm).
Radiation may be expressed as a spectral intensity (intensity at each wavelength, or a total
intensity, which is the integral of the energy emitted over a range of wavelengths).
RADIATION

Surfaces also receive energy from the surroundings.

The total energy received by a surface is called irradiation, which could also be considered as
spectral or total. The irradiation received by a surface may be absorbed or reflected.
The total energy leaving a surface is the sum of the emitted energy by virtue of its temperature
and the reflected energy and is called the radiosity.
The fraction of incident energy absorbed by a surface is called the absorptivity (α), and the
fraction reflected is called the reflectivity (ρ).
Some of the energy may be transmitted across the surface, and the fraction of incident energy
transmitted is the transmissivity (τ).
Thus, α + ρ + τ = 1.
RADIATION

Surfaces may be classified according to their ability to absorb radiation, as black or gray
bodies.
A black body is one that absorbs all incident radiation. Emissivity is equal to 1.
A gray body has emissivity of less than 1.

Emissivity (ε) is a property that is the fraction of radiation emitted or absorbed by a black
body at a given temperature that is actually emitted or absorbed by a surface at the same
temperature.
LAWS GOVERNING RADIATION

1. Kirchhoff’s Law
A body at constant temperature is in equilibrium with its surroundings, and the amount of
energy absorbed by radiation will be exactly the same as that emitted.
Thus, the absorptivity of a surface (α) is exactly the same as the emissivity (ε), and these
two properties may be used interchangeably.
LAWS GOVERNING RADIATION

2. Wein’s Displacement Law

The wavelength for maximum energy flux from a body shifts with a change in temperature.
The product of the wavelength for maximum flux intensity and absolute temperature is a
constant.
λmax . T = 2.884 x 10-3 m-K.
LAWS GOVERNING RADIATION

3. Lambert’s Law
This is also called the cosine law. The energy flux over a solid angle ω in a direction φ from
a normal drawn toward the surface is a function of cos φ:
LAWS GOVERNING RADIATION

4. Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The energy flux emitted by a black body is directly proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature:

σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant which has a value of 5.6732 x10-8 W/(m2-K4).

RADIANT ENERGY EXCHANGE (VIEW FACTORS)

This is used when there is distance between objects of heat transfer

1. Small object (A1) surrounded by a large object:

2. Large parallel planes with equal areas:

RADIANT ENERGY EXCHANGE (VIEW FACTORS)

3. Two parallel disks with centers directly in line (from Rohsenow and Hartnett 1973): a =
diameter of one disk and b=diameter of the other; c=distance between disks. A1 is the area
of the larger disk with diameter b
RADIANT ENERGY EXCHANGE (VIEW FACTORS)

4. Two parallel long cylinders of equal diameters, b separated by distance 2a

EXAMPLES

Problem:
Cookies traveling on a conveyor inside a continuous baking oven occupy most of the area
on the surface of the conveyor. The top wall of the oven directly above the conveyor has an
emissivity of 0.92, and the cookies have an emissivity of 0.8. If the top wall of the oven has a
temperature of 175 °C, calculate the average rate of heat transfer by radiation between the
cookies per unit area on the side that faces the top wall of the oven when the cookie
surface temperature is 70 °C.
EXAMPLES

Solution:
Assume the layer of cookies on the conveyor and the top oven wall constitute a set of long
parallel plates.
MICROWAVE AND DIELECTRIC HEATING

Microwaves like light are also electromagnetic vibration. Heat transfer is dependent on the
degree of excitability of molecules in the absorbing medium and the frequency of the field to
which the medium is exposed.
Dielectric heating is the term used when relatively low frequencies are used and the material
is placed between two electrodes to which an electric current is passed. Frequencies from 60
Hz to 100 MHz may be used for dielectric heating.
Microwave heating refers to the use of electromagnetic waves of very high frequency making
it possible to transmit the energy through space. The most common frequencies used for
microwave heating are 2,450 MHz and 915 MHz. Domestic microwave ovens operate at 2,450
MHz.The equations that govern heat transfer by microwave and dielectric systems are the same.
ENERGY ABSORPTION BY FOODS IN A
MICROWAVE FIELD
The energy absorbed by a body is:

where q/V = energy absorbed, W/cm3;

f = frequency, Hz;
e = dielectric constant, an index of the rate at which energy penetrates a solid; dimensionless tan(δ) = dielectric loss factor, an
index of the extent to which energy entering the solid is converted to heat; and dimensionless
E = field strength in volts/cm2
e and tan(δ) are properties of the material and are functions of composition and temperature.
f and E are set by the type of microwave generator used.
DIELECTRIC
PROPERTIES OF
FOOD AND
OTHER
MATERIALS
EXAMPLES

Problem: The dielectric constant of beef at 23 °C and 2450 MHz is 28 and the loss
tangent is 0.2. The density is 1004 kg/m3 and the specific heat is 3250 J/(kg-K).
Potato at 23 °C and 2450 MHz has a dielectric constant of 38 and a loss tangent of
0.3. The density is 1010 kg/m3 and the specific heat is 3720 J/(kg-K).
A microwave oven has a rated output of 600 W. When 0.25 kg of potatoes were
placed inside the oven, the temperature rise after 1 min of heating was 38.5 °C.
When 60 g of potato was heated in the oven, a temperature rise of 40 °C was
observed after 20 s. Calculate the average power output of the oven.
EXAMPLES

Solution:
Assume that 0.25 kg mass of product is sufficient to make microwave power availability the rate limiting factor for
microwave absorption:

When a small amount of material is heated:

The amount absorbed with the small mass in the oven is much smaller than when a larger mass was present; therefore,
it may be assumed that power absorption by the material limits the rate of heating:
LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Nusselt Number (Nu)

This expression involves the heat transfer coefficient (h), the characteristic dimension of
the system (d), and the thermal conductivity of the fluid (k). This dimensionless expression
may be considered as the ratio of the characteristic dimension of a system and the
thickness of the boundary layer of fluid that would transmit heat by conduction at the same
rate as that calculated using the heat transfer coefficient:
LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Reynolds Number (Re)

This expression involves the characteristic dimension of the system (d), the velocity of the
fluid (V), the density (ρ), and the viscosity (μ). It may be considered as the ratio of inertial
forces to the frictional force.
LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Prandtl Number (Pr)

This expression involves the specific heat (Cp), the viscosity (μ), and the thermal
conductivity (k). It may be considered as the ratio of rate of momentum exchange between
molecules and the rate of energy exchange between molecules that lead to the transfer of
heat:
LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Grashof Number (Gr)

This quantity involves the characteristic dimension of a system (d), the acceleration due to
gravity (g), the thermal expansion coefficient (β), the density of the fluid (ρ), the viscosity
(μ), and the temperature difference ΔT between a surface and the fluid temperature
beyond the boundary layer. This number may be considered as a ratio of the force of gravity
to buoyant forces that arise as a result of a change in temperature of a fluid:
LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Peclet Number (Pe)

This dimensionless number is the product of the Reynolds number and the Prandtl
number:

Rayleigh Number (Ra)

This dimensionless number is the product of the Grashof number and the Prandtl number:
LOCAL HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS

Graetz Number (Gz)

This is similar to the Peclet number. It was derived from an analytical solution to the
equations of heat transfer from a surface to a fluid flowing along that surface in laminar
flow. The Graetz number is:

where m is the mass rate of flow, kg/s

NEXT MEETING

• Problems about Heat Transfer