CHAPTER 1 : The Electromagnetic Model

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 Introduction

• Electromagnetics is a branch of physics which studies the

electric and magnetic phenomena of electric charges.

• There are two kinds of charges, that is, the positive (+q) and
negative (-q) charge. Both charges can produce a field.

• An electric field is a spatial distribution where a charge will

experience an electric force. A moving charge will produce an
electric current and the electric current will then set up a
magnetic field. A varying magnetic field can produce an
electro motive force (e.m.f.) in a closed circuit. Thus,
time varying electric and magnetic fields are coupled
resulting in what is called an electromagnetic field.
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• For the electric case, same charges repel and
opposite charges attract. For magnets, the same
thing applies, that is, same poles repel and different
poles attract.

• Light is an example of an electromagnetic entity.

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 The electric charges: Basic philosophy

• In physics, the term charge refers to electric charge (or electrical charge,
electrostatic charge) and defined as the physical property of matter that causes it
to experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field.

• Just like energy, charge does not exist on its own; its existence manifests in the
form of physical interaction with electric or magnetic fields. Likewise, energy
manifests itself in the form of mechanical work.

• So, charge is a physical quantity and we denote it with the symbol q or Q.

• The SI unit for charge is Coulomb (C).

• The quantity of charge found in nature is an integral multiple of 1.60218 ×10-19 C

ONE QUESTION THOUGH: DOES CHARGE HAVE MASS?

Well, there is a long never ending debate about this. At present it is enough for us
to assume that charge has NO mass just like many other physical quantities.
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 The electric charge

1. Charge comes in two varieties, which we call “plus” and “minus,” because
their effects tend to cancel (if you have +q and −q at the same point, electrically
it is the same as having no charge there at all). The extraordinary fact is that plus
and minus charges occur in exactly equal amounts, to fantastic precision, in bulk
matter, so that their effects are almost completely neutralized.

2. Charge is conserved: it cannot be created or destroyed—what there is now

has always been. (A plus charge can “annihilate” an equal minus charge, but
a plus charge cannot simply disappear by itself—something must pick up that
electric charge.) So the total charge of the universe is fixed for all time.

3. Charge is quantized. Although nothing in classical electromagnetism

requires that it be so, the fact is that electric charge comes only in discrete
lumps—integer multiples of the basic unit of charge. If we call the charge on
the proton +e, then the electron carries charge −e; the neutron charge zero.
This fundamental unit of charge is extremely small, so for practical purposes
it is usually appropriate to ignore quantization altogether.

e = 1.60218 × 10-19 C 5
 Electric Flux, Ψ
• Electric flux is a concept built on imaginary electric field lines that
come out of a positive charge or that go into a negative charge.
This is just a mathematical model to help visualize the electric field.
A bunch of electric filed lines is called the electric flux.

• The electric flux density, D ie the quantity of the electric field line
per unit area is the measure of the electric field intensity, the
higher the flux density the stronger the electric field.
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• Conventionally, the electric field lines do not cross
each other; parallel lines represent uniform electric
field, while non-uniform fields are represented by
either converging or diverging lines.

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The electric field lines

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 The electric field:
The electric force (Coulomb’s law)

Coulomb’s law
(describes the electric force between two charges)
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 The electric field

The electric field intensity E due to a charge q is

where R is the distance between the charge and the observation point,
and is the radial unit vector pointing away from the charge. The
field intensity is measured in N/C or V/m.

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 Magnetic fields
• Magnetic field is a region where a charged particle will experience a magnetic force due
to its motion. It is also a region where a current carrying loop will experience force due to
the flowing current.
• Magnetic field may arise form a permanent magnet (made from ferromagnetic materials
Fe, Ni, Co, Gd, Dy) or by current flowing in coil (the solenoid).
• Any permanent magnet have two poles, the North pole and the South pole and the
magnetic field lines are complete loops that out from the North pole into the South pole.
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.

Solenoids 11
 Magnetic fields
The following metal elements can be magnetic:

•Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co), Gadolinium (Gd), only below room temperature.
•Dysprosium (Dy), only at very cold temperatures
•Erbium (Er), only at very cold temperatures
•Holmium (Ho), only at very cold temperatures

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https://jdamagnet.com/ferromagnetic-materials/
 The magnetic field

• The magnetic field is characterized by the density of magnetic flux (ie,

the amount of magnetic field lines per unit area). It is a vector quantity
called the magnetic flux density or simply, the magnetic field denoted by
B. Unit for B is Tesla, T.

• Magnetic field strength denoted by H is part of a magnetic field that does

NOT cause by the magnetization of a material.

• A current carrying solenoid has a magnetic field strength

The magnetic field intensity of a solenoid is

where µo is the permeability of vacuum. NB: In general

where N is number of loops, I is current and 𝑙 is length.

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• When a magnetic material is inserted into the solenoid, the
magnetic flux density in the solenoid becomes

where M is the magnetization of the material.

• The magnetization M depends on the magnetic susceptibility of

the material, χ where

• So, we may write

where

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 Today ’s Permanent Magnets

Alnico
Ceramic Ferrite
Alloy of Al, Ni, Co and Fe
(Fe2O3 + other elements
Alnico + Rare Earth (RE) Mn-Zn, Ni-Zn, Sr, Ba, Co)

Neodymium Iron Boron magnets (Nd2Fe14B)

So far, the strongest permanent magnets
Flexible Rubber Magnets
Alnico or ferrite magnets are used in
SrO6Fe2O3) blended with
electric guitar pickup. Steel strings are
polyethylene and additives
magnetized and when they vibrate ac
voltages are induced in the coil

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 Calculating the magnetic field due to
current carrying conductor
Oersted’s
discovery 1819 Biot-Savart’s Law Ampere’s Law

Hans Christian Oersted

(1777-1851)

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 The electromagnetic waves
• The EM waves are the results of oscillation of electric dipole. The EM waves are
sinusoidal when the dipole oscillates in simple harmonic motion (SHM).

• Motion of positive and negative charges gives

rise to electric current. The electric current
produces magnetic field line around it.

• The direction of electric field is always

perpendicular to the direction of the
Pattern of electric field lines Oscillation of an electric magnetic field.
around an electric dipole dipole produce oscillation of
electric current

• The production of EM waves can be accomplished electronically or occurs naturally as a result

of atomic or molecular vibration.

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The spectrum of EM radiations

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 Brief notes about visible light
• Light is an EM radiation that produces visible sensation to human eyes
• The wavelength of visible light is in the range of 350 nm to 700 nm and the yellow
light of 550 nm is taken as the industry standard for visible light.
𝑐
• The EM energy of light is calculated using equation 𝐸= ℎ
λ
where
h = 6.63 ×10−34 Js (Planck’s constant)
c = speed of light
λ = wavelength

So, the range of light energy is 1.78 eV (red 700 nm) – 3.55 eV (violet 350 nm)

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 Non-stationary electromagnetic theory
Maxwell’s Equations
The modern theory of electromagnetism is based on a set of
four fundamental relations known as Maxwell’s equations:

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

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 The three branches of electromagnetics

By formulating these equations, published in a classic treatise in 1873, James

Clerk Maxwell established the first unified theory of electricity and magnetism.
His equations, deduced from experimental observations reported by Coulomb,
Gauss, Ampere, Faraday, and others, not only encapsulate the connection between
the electric field and electric charge and between the magnetic field and electric
current, but also capture the bilateral coupling between electric and magnetic
fields and fluxes. Together with some auxiliary relations, Maxwell’s equations
comprise the fundamental tenets of electromagnetic theory.

Under static conditions, none of the quantities appearing in Maxwell’s equations

are functions of time (i.e., ∂/∂t = 0).
This happens when all charges are permanently fixed in space, or, if they move,
they do so at a steady rate so that ρv and J are constant in time.

Under these circumstances, the time derivatives of B and D in Eqs. (2) and (4)
vanish, and Maxwell’s equations reduce to

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 Stationary electromagnetic theory:
Electrostatic and magnetostatic Fields
Electrostatics Magnetostatics

Maxwell’s four equations separate into two uncoupled pairs, with the first pair
involving only the electric field and flux E and D and the second pair involving
only the magnetic field and flux H and B.

Lorentz force (electric and magnetic forces

acting on a charge Q moving with velocity u)
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The three branches of electromagnetics

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 Maxwell’s Equations
The mathematical representation of the relations
that govern the electromagnetic phenomena.

Comparison of Maxwell’s equations for static and time-varying electromagnetic fields.

Differences in the time-varying case relative to the static case are highlighted in blue. 24
 Important quantities and units

Quantity Unit
E (electric field intensity) NC-1 or Vm-1
D (electric flux density) Cm-2
B (magnetic flux density) T (tesla) or kg⋅s−2⋅A−1 or NmA-1
H (magnetic field strength) Am-1

electric permittivity of free space

F/m (farad per meter)

magnetic permeability of free space

H/m (henry per meter)

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 EM devices
Electromagnetics is at the heart of numerous systems and applications

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