Thermodynamic

2nd year Electromechanical

Engineering Department
University of Technology

https://electrical-engineering-portal.com/9-power-generating-units
 Thermodynamic
• Ideal gas
An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly elastic and in which there are no
intermolecular attractive forces. One can visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide, but which otherwise
do not interact with each other.
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇 𝑝𝜐 = 𝑅𝑇
Where R, is the gas constant = 287 KJ/Kg.K

Boyle's law:
Boyle's law, also referred to as the Boyle–Mariotte law, or Mariotte's law, is an experimental gas law that describes how the
pressure of a gas tends to increase as the volume of the container decreases. 𝑃 1
!
!
P∝ " 𝑃" 2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 3
𝑃#
𝑃! 𝑉! = 𝑃# 𝑉# = 𝑃$ 𝑉$
𝑉! 𝑉" 𝑉#
Charles's law
is an experimental gas law that describes how gases tend to expand when heated. A modern statement of Charles's law is: When
the pressure on a sample of a dry gas is held constant, the Kelvin temperature and the volume will be in direct proportion.
3
V∝𝑇 𝑇#
𝑉 2
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. 𝑇"
𝑇 1
𝑇!
𝑉! 𝑉# 𝑉$
= = 𝑉! 𝑉" 𝑉#
𝑇! 𝑇# 𝑇$
 Thermodynamic
P 1
• Combining Boyle's law & Charles's law for Ideal gases
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇
2 3
𝑃𝑉 𝑃! 𝑉! 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑃$ 𝑉$
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡. = =
𝑇 𝑇! 𝑇# 𝑇$ V

• Ideal gas constants

𝐾𝐽
𝐶% = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 .𝑘
𝐾𝑔
𝐾𝐽
𝐶& = 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 .𝑘
𝐾𝑔
𝐾𝐽
𝑅 = 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 .𝑘
𝐾𝑔
𝐶&
𝛾 = 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝛾= 𝐶& − 𝐶% = 𝑅
𝐶%

𝑅 𝛾𝑅
𝐶% = 𝐶& =
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
 Thermodynamic
• Close system -Thermodynamic Processes
There are several types of thermodynamic processes, including
(a) Isothermal, where the system's temperature is constant;
(b) Adiabatic, where no heat is exchanged by the system;
(c) Isobaric, where the system's pressure is constant;
(d) Isochoric, where the system's volume is constant.
(e) Polytropic process, special case

Ø Isothermal Process:
T1 = T2 and ΔT = T2 -T1 = 0 T
In such operations, the system housing must be a good conductor of heat, B
1 2
allowing heat to escape or enter the system when there is a decrease or
T
To
increase in the system temperature during the process. =
C
Changes of state or phase changes of different liquids through the process of A V
melting and evaporation are examples of the isothermal process V1 V2

∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 T1 = T2 and ΔT = T2 -T1 = 0 (T-V Diagram)

∆𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶% ∆𝑇 = 0 # ##
𝐶 𝑑𝑣 𝑉# 𝑉# 𝑉#
𝑄=𝑊 𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 = J 𝑝𝑑𝑣 = J 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑐 J = 𝑐 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑃𝑉𝑙𝑛 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛
! ! 𝑉 ! 𝑣 𝑉! 𝑉! 𝑉!
𝑉#
𝑄 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇(𝑙𝑛 ) 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
𝑉!
 Thermodynamic
P
2
• Adiabatic: no heat is exchanged by the system, Know as (Isentropic), no heat added or removed
1
It is a process where there is a gas compression and heat is generated. One of the simplest examples would be the
𝑃𝑉 ' = 𝐶
release of air from a pneumatic tire 1
𝑊 2
𝛾 = 𝐴𝑑𝑖𝑏𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 , 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 V

𝛾 = 1.2 … . . 1.5 , 𝑢𝑠𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑡 = 1.4

∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 ∆𝑢 = 𝑊

𝑃! 𝑉! − 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑚𝑅(𝑇! − 𝑇# )
𝑊!(# = 𝑊!(# =
𝛾−1 𝛾−1

𝑃# 𝑇# ' , 𝑃# 𝑉! 𝑇# 𝑉!
= ( )'(! = ( )' , = ( )'(!
𝑃! 𝑇! 𝑃! 𝑉# 𝑇! 𝑉#

𝑇# 𝑃# '(!
=( ) '
𝑇! 𝑃!
 Thermodynamic
• Isobaric the system's pressure is constant
An example of the isobaric process includes the boiling of water to steam or the freezing of water to ice. In the process, a gas
either expands or contracts to maintain constant pressure and hence the net amount of work is done by the system or on the
system.
P
𝑃! = 𝑃# = 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
1 𝑃=𝑐 2

2 1
𝑊!(# = 𝑃(𝑉# − 𝑉! ) , 𝑊!(# = 𝑚𝑅(𝑇# − 𝑇! )
W
V
• Isochoric the system's volume is constant
The volume is held constant, meaning that the work done by the system will be zero. It follows that, for the simple system of two dimensions, any heat
energy transferred to the system externally will be absorbed as internal energy.
An example of an isochoric process when it is assumed that the burning of the gasoline-air mixture in an internal combustion engine car is instantaneous.
There is an increase in the temperature and the pressure of the gas inside the cylinder while the volume remains the same
P V=𝑐
∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊

∆𝑢 = 𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶% (𝑇# − 𝑇! )

V
 Thermodynamic
• polytropic process
The polytropic process equation can describe multiple expansion and compression processes which include heat transfer.
An example of a polytropic process is the expansion of the combustion gasses in the cylinder of a water-cooled reciprocating engine.
𝑛= expansion or compression index ∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
1<𝑛<𝛾 P 2
𝑃! 𝑉! − 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑚𝑅(𝑇! − 𝑇# ) !"#
𝑊!(# = , 𝑊!(# = , 𝑄= . 𝑊$"% 1
𝑃𝑉 ) = 𝐶
𝑛−1 𝑛−1 !"$

1
𝑃# 𝑇# ) 𝑃# 𝑉! 𝑇 𝑉
= ( ))(! , = ( )) , # = ( ! ))(! 𝑊 2
𝑃! 𝑇! 𝑃! 𝑉# 𝑇! 𝑉# V

• All the processes in one diagram

P
V=𝑐
2

1
𝑃=𝑐 2

T=
C 2
2 𝑃𝑉 $ = 𝐶
2
𝑃𝑉 % = 𝐶 V
 Thermodynamic
Example:
A mass at volume 0.28 m3, temperature 302 k, and pressure 1.035 bar has been polytropic compressed to be 0.028 m3 and then expanded
at constant pressure to be 0..56 m3. Considering that the Cv = 1.06 KJ/Kg.K, Cp = 0.75 KJ/Kg.k , n = 1.3. Find T2 , T3 , ∆𝑢!"# , 𝑃$, 𝑃#,
W1-2 , W2-3
P
𝑇$ 𝑉! 2 𝑃=𝑐 3
= ( )*"!
𝑇! 𝑉$
𝑃𝑉 !
+.$- !.#"! =
𝑇$ = 302 ∗ ( ) …………….. 𝑇$= 602 k 𝐶 1
+.+$-
V
*!"! *""" +" "" 0.056
= ……………. + = " …………… 𝑇# = 602 ∗ = 1204 𝑘
+! +" ! ! 0.028

∆𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶. (𝑇# − 𝑇!)

𝑃! 𝑉!
𝑃! 𝑉! = 𝑚𝑅𝑇! … … … … . . 𝑚 = … … … . 𝐶& − 𝐶% = 𝑅 … … . . 𝑅 = 1.06 − 0.75 = 0.31 KJ/Kg.k
𝑅𝑇!
1.035 ∗ 10$ ∗ 0.28
𝑚= = 0.3 𝐾𝑔
0.31 ∗ 302

∆𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶. (𝑇# − 𝑇!)…………. 0.3 *1.06*(1204-302) = 286.83 KJ

𝑃! 𝑉! − 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑃# 𝑉! )
𝑊!(# = =( )
𝑛−1 𝑃! 𝑉#
 Thermodynamic
𝑃! 𝑉! − 𝑃# 𝑉#
𝑊!(# =
𝑛−1
"# )
*! " 𝑃 = 𝑃! " ) ………..
( 𝑃$ = 2065 Kpa
= ( # )) …….. # !
*# "!

!.-$.∗!-!∗-.#0 ((#-.2.∗!-!∗-.-#0)
𝑊!(# = = -96 KJ
!.$(!

𝑊#($ = 𝑃 𝑉$ − 𝑉# = 2065(0.056-0.028) = 58 KJ
 Thermodynamic
Example:
A mass of air is expanded parabolically from an initial volume 0.042 m3, pressure 8.3 bar, and temperature 316 oC to be at a final state
volume 0.168 m3. Considering that the specific heat at constant volume and pressure are 0.718 and 1.005 KJ/Kg.k, respectively.
Determine the work done and final temperature of this process, assuming that the process is 1) isotherm 2) adiabatic.
Solution: P
1
1) Isothermal process: T = constant …… T1 = T2, Therefore, T2 = 316 oC.

∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 ∆𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶% ∆𝑇 = 0
2
𝑉# 𝑉#
𝑄 = 𝑊 … … . 𝑄 = 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑅𝑇(𝑙𝑛 ) … … … 𝑊 = 𝑃! 𝑉! 𝑙𝑛 𝑉 V
𝑉! !
0.168
= 8.3 ∗ 10$ ∗ 0.042 ln = 48.3 𝐾𝐽
0.042
2) Adiabatic process:
𝑃# 𝑉! ' 𝑃! 𝑉! − 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑇# 𝑉! '(!
∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 =( ) 𝑊 !(# = = ( )
𝑃! 𝑉# 𝛾 − 1 𝑇! 𝑉#
𝑉! ' 𝑉! '(!
𝑃! 𝑉! − 𝑃# 𝑉# 𝑃# = 𝑃! ( ) 𝑇 = 𝑇 ( )
𝑊!(# = (830 ∗ 0.042) − (119 ∗ 0.168) # !
𝑉
𝛾−1 𝑉# 𝑊!"$ = #
1.4 − 1 0.042 !.4(!
0.042 !.4
𝐶& 1.005 𝑃# = 830 ∗ ( ) 𝑇# = 316 + 273 ∗ ( )
𝛾= … … . . = 1.4 0.168 𝑊!(# = 37 𝐾𝐽 0.168
𝐶% 0.718 𝑃# = 119 𝐾𝑝𝑎 𝑇# = 338.3 𝐾 … … 65.3 𝑜𝐶
 Thermodynamic
Example:
A gas within a close system is isobaric expanded from pressure 17.25 bar, temperature 149 oC, and volume 0.028 m3 to
be at volume of 0.14 m3. Considering that the specific heat at constant volume and pressure are 0.718 and 1.005 KJ/Kg.k, respectively.
Determine the work done, change in the internal energy, and heat energy.
Solution: P 𝑃! = 𝑃#
∆𝑢 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 1 𝑃=𝑐 2

𝑊!(# = 𝑃(𝑉# − 𝑉! ) … … . 𝑊!(# = 1725 ∗ 0.14 − 0.028 = 193 𝐾𝐽

W
∆𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶% ∆𝑇 𝑃! 𝑉! 𝑃# 𝑉# V
=
𝑃! 𝑉! = 𝑚𝑅𝑇! 𝑇! 𝑇#
𝑃! 𝑉! 𝑉# 0.14
𝑚= 𝑇# = 𝑇! … … . . 𝑇# = 149 + 273 = 2110 𝑘
𝑅𝑇! 𝑉! 0.028
𝐶& − 𝐶% = 𝑅 ∆𝑢 = 𝑚𝐶% ∆𝑇 … … . . = 0.39 ∗ 0.718 ∗ 2110 − 422 = 472.6 𝐾𝐽
𝐾𝐽 𝑄 = ∆𝑢 + 𝑊
𝑅 = 1.005 − 0.718 = 0.287
𝐾𝑔. 𝑘
1725 ∗ 0.028 𝑄 = 472.6 + 193 = 665 𝐾𝐽
𝑚= = 0.39 𝐾𝑔
0.287 ∗ (149 + 273)