Received 1 March 2024, accepted 19 March 2024, date of publication 8 April 2024, date of current version 15 April 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3385429

Emerging Trends and Challenges in Thermal

Management of Power Electronic
Converters: A State of the
Art Review
S. M. IMRAT RAHMAN 1 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE),
ALI MOGHASSEMI 1 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE),
ALI ARSALAN 1,2 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE),
LAXMAN TIMILSINA 1 , (Graduate Student Member, IEEE),
PHANI KUMAR CHAMARTHI 1 , (Member, IEEE),
BEHNAZ PAPARI 1,2 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
GOKHAN OZKAN 1,3 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND CHRISTOPHER S. EDRINGTON 1 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 Holcombe Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
2 Department of Automotive Engineering, Clemson University, Greenville, SC 29607, USA
3 Energy Innovation Center, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA

Corresponding author: S. M. Imrat Rahman ([email protected])

This work was supported by Clemson University’s Virtual Prototyping of Autonomy Enabled Ground Systems (VIPR-GS)
through the U.S. Army DEVCOM Ground Vehicle Systems Center (GVSC), under Grant W56HZV-21-2-0001.

ABSTRACT Recently, the thermal management of power electronic converters has gained significant
attention due to the continuous trend of developing very compact power electronic converters with high
power density. With the evolution of power semiconductor devices, high operating temperatures and large
thermal cycles have become possible, necessitating a significant improvement in thermal system designs.
Researchers have made significant efforts to develop effective thermal management systems to improve
the reliability and lifetime of power electronic converters. This article intends to present a thorough review
of thermal management systems employed in power electronics cooling. The applied thermal management
techniques have been reviewed from the perspective of electrical parameter regulation and heat dissipation
control. Regulation of electrical parameters involves active thermal control, which is a method for controlling
junction temperature and thermal cycling of power semiconductor devices. The active thermal control
implementation processes reviewed in this article consist of increasing overload capacity, manipulating
switching and conduction losses, employing modified modulation processes, balancing thermal stress at
the converter level, and controlling thermal stress at the system level. Control of heat dissipation can
be achieved through direct and indirect cooling of power electronic converters with air or liquid as the
coolant. The effectiveness and implementation methods of these cooling techniques, such as channel cooling,
phase change material-based cooling, immersion cooling, jet impingement and spray cooling, are reviewed
in this paper. Moreover, performance-enhancing ideas and challenges for these techniques are discussed.
The primary objective of this review paper is to bridge the existing gap in the literature by offering a
comprehensive comparison of commonly employed thermal management techniques.

The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and

approving it for publication was Zhilei Yao .

2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
VOLUME 12, 2024 For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ 50633
 S. M. I. Rahman et al.: Emerging Trends and Challenges in Thermal Management of PEC

INDEX TERMS Active thermal control (ATC), power semiconductor device (PSD), microchannel, spray cooling,
jet impingement, immersion cooling, phase change material (PCM), active cooling.

NOMENCLATURE
SVM Space Vector Modulation.
ALT-60◦ DPWM Alternative 60◦ Discontinuous Pulse
SVPWM Space Vector Pulse Width Modulation.
Width Modulation.
ST Smart Transformer.
ATC Active Thermal Control.
TE Thermo Electric.
ANPC Active Neutral-Point-Clamped.
THD Total Harmonic Distortion.
CHB Cascaded H-Bridge.
THIPWM Third Harmonic Injected Pulse Width
CHF Critical Heat Flux.
Modulation.
CONV-60◦ DPWM Conventional 60◦ Discontinuous
TMS Thermal Management System.
Pulse Width Modulation.
WBG Wide Bandgap.
CTE Coefficients of Thermal Expansion.
DAB Dual Active Bridge.
DPWM Discontinuous Pulse Width
Modulation. I. INTRODUCTION
EV Electric Vehicle. A. BACKGROUND
FACTS Flexible Alternating Current Trans- The application of power electronic converters (PEC) in
mission System. transportation systems and electrical grids has increased
FCS-MPC Finite Control Set Model Predictive immensely as they provide better controllability and flex-
Control. ibility for these systems [1]. Moreover, the efficiency and
FCC Flying Capacitor. power density of power electronic-based systems have risen
GaN Gallium Nitride. due to the recent developments in circuit configuration,
HTC Heat Transfer Coefficient. novel control strategies, novel semiconductor materials,
HVDC High-Voltage Direct Current. DSPs, and system integration technologies [2]. These latest
IGBT Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor. advancements in power electronics have contributed to the
LVDC Low-Voltage Direct Current. development of sustainable and affordable renewable energy-
LVRT Low-Voltage Ride-Through. based sources [3], robust, reliable, and high-quality dis-
MCM Multi Chip Modules. tributed electrical grid [4], [5], [6], [7], efficient and low-cost
MEA More Electric Aircraft. electric vehicles (EV) [8], [9], low-fuel-consumption cargo
MLC Multi Level Converter. ships, more electric aircraft (MEA) [10], electric motorbikes,
MMC Modular Multilevel Converter. electric cars [11], [12], robust high-speed trains, efficient
MWCNT Multiwall Carbon Nanotubes. subways with regenerative breaking, public electric buses,
MOSFET Metal–Oxide–Semiconductor Field- and so on [13]. In recent years, the transportation sector,
Effect Transistor. aerospace industries, and energy sectors have extended the
MVAC Medium-Voltage Alternating requirements regarding the reliability of power electronic
Current. systems. Accordingly, the interest in developing innovative
NPC Neutral-Point-Clamped. and sustainable technologies to ensure the safe and reliable
NPS Neutral-Point-Shift. operation of PECs has also grown. The stringent reliability
OPT-ZSSPWM Optimal Zero Sequence Injection demands have initiated additional challenges due to the
Pulse Width Modulation. following factors [14]:
OHP Oscillating Heat Pipe. • Demand for high power density in power electronic
PCM Phase Change Material. converters.
PEC Power Electronic Converter. • Strict cost and resource constraints as well as safety
PI Proportional-Integral. compliance.
PSD Power Semiconductor Device. • Added complexity of power electronic systems due
PWM Pulse Width Modulation. to increased components and sophisticated control
QAB Quadruple Active Bridge. algorithms.
RUL Remaining Useful Life. • Unpredictable performance of new materials and tech-
Si Silicon. nologies such as Silicon Carbide (SiC) and Gallium
SiC Silicon Carbide. Nitride (GaN) devices.
SPWM Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation. Therefore, the continuous growth of critical applications
SoH State of Health. such as aerospace, medical centers, data centers, automotive,
SVC Static VAR Compensation. etc., is a significant instigator for reliable power electronics.

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and solder joints, which are significant causes of device aging

and breakdown [21]. The influence of increased thermal
cycling on the device’s lifetime is significantly greater than
the average temperature increase [22]. The impact of average
temperature and thermal cycling on the reliability of a
standard Semikron Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT)
module is depicted in Figure 3, where it can be observed that
the effect of thermal cycle amplitude is considerably more
significant.
FIGURE 1. Fragile elements.

Moreover, performance enhancement of emerging applica-

tions such as wind turbines and PV systems is also an
essential factor behind the drive for reliable and affordable
power electronic systems [15], [16]. PECs include multiple
components, of which power semiconductor devices (PSD)
have been identified as having the highest possibility of
breakdown, according to a survey conducted in [17]. The
findings from this survey are summarized in Figure 1, which
demonstrates the strong relationship between the reliability
FIGURE 3. Standard IGBT modules Power cycling lifetime as a function of
of PSDs and PECs. 1Tj and Tjm [23].

B. MOTIVATION
Therefore, it is especially crucial to apprehend the impact
The reliable operation of PSDs must be ensured to improve of temperature on power semiconductor devices, as the reli-
the reliability of PECs as a whole. The most susceptible ability, lifetime, efficiency, and robustness of these devices
points of failure in a PSD have been found at the intercon- depend significantly on the junction temperature [24]. Recent
nections inside the device and the bond wires, as shown in developments in semiconductor technology have contributed
Figure 2 [18]. to the rapid increase in the power density and peak junction
temperature of PSDs. Although Wide band gap (WBG)
devices such as SiC and GaN can operate at very high tem-
peratures, existing packaging techniques, solder components,
reliability issues, and expenditure have limited the maximum
operating junction temperature to 175◦ C [25]. Furthermore,
the heat dissipation area of these devices has been reduced
significantly [26]. Failure to remove the generated heat
from these devices can lead to reduced performance and
breakdown. Moreover, according to US Air Force Avionics
FIGURE 2. Structure of power semiconductor device [18]. Integrity Program research, high temperature is responsible
for over 50% of electronic equipment failures [27]. The
Aluminum bond wires are generally used for electrical causes of failures identified in this study are presented in
connections between chips and terminals. During operation, Figure 4.
the PSDs are subjected to stress due to alterations in Moreover, Black’s equation [28] establishes the correlation
temperature and power, which lead to periodic cooling between device temperature and failure rate as expressed
and heating cycles within the PSDs. The occurrence of in (1) where A, J, EA , KB , and T represent a constant, current
periodic heating and cooling cycles due to the fluctuation of density, active energy, Boltzmann constant, and absolute
temperature and power is referred to as thermal cycling [13]. operating temperature, respectively. This equation indicates
Mechanical stress between different layers within a PSD the failure rate of PSDs escalates considerably when the
develops when temperature changes occur. This is due to the operating temperature increases.
differences in thermal expansion coefficients (CTE) between 1

EA

copper and ceramic [19]. While every intersection within MTF = exp (1)
a PSD has to endure stress because of CTE mismatch, the AJ2 KB T
effect of this stress is more prominent for aluminum bond The most difficult challenges experienced while develop-
wire and solder between substrate and baseplate [20]. Thus, ing reliable PECs are related to designing proper thermal
periodic thermal cycles lead to severe fatigue in bond wire management systems (TMS) to keep the semiconductor

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FIGURE 5. Thermal management approaches.

FIGURE 4. Causes of electronic equipment failures [27].

cooling can be found in literature that overlooks the ATC

aspect. The main focus of this research is to provide a
device temperature within limits. TMS regulates the degra- comprehensive overview of both ATC and control of heat
dation rate of power semiconductors by reducing the thermal dissipation through active and passive cooling techniques.
stress due to overtemperature and power cycling [29], Furthermore, the scope of future work for power electronic
[30]. These systems can be implemented considering two cooling is proposed. This work will serve as a comprehensive
approaches. The first approach is to control the electrical and valuable reference for ATC techniques at various levels
parameters by active thermal control (ATC), which is a of PECs, direct contact, and indirect contact cooling methods,
procedure for controlling the junction temperature and as well as performance-enhancing ideas for cooling system
reducing the thermal cycling of a power semiconductor. design.
ATC scales down short and medium-term thermal cycles
using temperature-related control parameters to regulate the
D. STRUCTURE OF PAPER
junction temperatures in real time. Thermal control aims to
The remaining sections of the paper are structured in the fol-
regulate the junction temperatures by adjusting the losses
lowing manner. Section II introduces various ATC methods
in the targeted devices through specific temperature-related
categorized by implementation technique. An overview of
control parameters [31]. These parameters include the
several ATC strategies is also provided. Section III provides
switching frequency [32], [33], modulation technique [34],
an overview of several thermal management frameworks
DC-link voltage [35], gate voltage [36], or distributing
found in literature and introduces several active and passive
reactive power [37]. For instance, a short-term temperature
cooling techniques. A review of several categories of active
drop can be averted or decreased when losses are escalated
cooling techniques is also provided in this section. Section IV
temporarily by increasing the switching frequency. Addi-
presents challenges and recommendations for future work in
tionally, an electrothermal model can be utilized to derive
TMSs. Moreover, discussions related to multilevel converter
real-time estimations of junction temperatures through elec-
configuration, thermal management during fault conditions,
trical measurements, enabling more accurate thermal stress
the impact of the environment on TMSs and financial
management. The second approach for thermal management
considerations are provided. Finally, Section V concludes the
is to control the devices’ heat dissipation by various active
paper.
and passive cooling methods. Several cooling methods have
been presented in [38], [39], [40], and [41]. In this approach,
a fluid is normally applied as the coolant, and based on the II. ACTIVE THERMAL CONTROL TECHNIQUES
working fluid’s type, a fan or a pump is used to produce the Several categories of ATC techniques have been investigated
coolant flow and forced convection. For passive techniques, in literature, which are summarized below.
which are called traditional cooling methods, heat sinks and
fins are employed where free convection is the dominant heat A. INCREASING OVERLOAD CAPACITY
transfer mechanism [42]. The general classification of TMSs OF POWER MODULES
is depicted in Figure 5. This approach aims to operate the semiconductor modules
near their thermal limit and reduce power losses. It has been
C. STATE OF CONTRIBUTIONS shown in [33] that switching frequency and output current
Numerous researchers have conducted research on the ther- influence power loss in IGBT modules. Thus, it is possible
mal management of PECs considering ATC. Their research to regulate the junction temperature by controlling these
focuses primarily on approaches that regulate the electrical two variables. An ATC method for field-oriented control
parameters of the cooling system without considering active (FOC) based electric cars is presented in [43]. This method
and passive cooling techniques. Independent studies on PEC reduces the maximum junction temperature by controlling

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FIGURE 6. Thermal management framework [43].

the switching frequency and load current. Figure 6 shows the

thermal management framework presented in this work.
Here, the power loss calculation and temperature esti-
mation are completed based on the semiconductor device’s
datasheet. Then, the control algorithm compares the esti-
mated temperature with a look-up table to determine the
converter’s switching frequency and maximum current.
In [44], an ATC has been proposed for IGBT-based 3-phase
inverters that estimate maximum peak operating current and FIGURE 7. Active thermal control by manipulating gate resistance and
operate the inverters at this current rating. Here, the maximum PWM frequency [45].

safe converter current has been determined as a function of

the excitation frequency and coolant temperature.

B. REGULATING SWITCHING AND CONDUCTION LOSSES

This ATC approach focuses on the reduction of thermal
cycles through the manipulation of losses. A method for
accomplishing ATC through a loss manipulation unit is
proposed in [45]. Here, the loss manipulation unit regulates
the gate resistance and PWM frequency. Figure 7 shows that
by applying the proposed method, thermal cycling has been
reduced by 38% by varying the switching frequency and gate
resistance. FIGURE 8. Impact of gate-driver parameter variation on the lifetime of PV
The design of a gate driver for controlling power inverter [36].
dissipation across grid-connected PV inverters has been
proposed in [36]. As the gate drive parameters (VGS and
RG ) affect the conduction and switching losses, they can be converters by varying the device losses. A two-step gate
manipulated to reduce thermal cycling. Figure 8 shows the driver circuit has been developed that can adjust the shape
main gate driver parameters for regulating the PV inverter of the gate voltage by controlling Ton , Toff , Von and Voff .
lifetime. The study demonstrated that For VG = 20 V, the The proposed gate driving circuit can control the device
variation of RG significantly reduces the device lifetime. switching and conduction losses and thus achieve active
The lifetime reduction is 20 and 9.85 years for RG = thermal control. Figure 9 shows the variation in the junction
7  and 70 , respectively. For low VG , the variation of temperature of a single GaN device of a bidirectional single-
RG has very little impact. A temperature-dependent gate phase DC/DC converter with and without the proposed ATC
driver for power MOSFETs has been proposed in [46]. strategy.
Here, the gate drive voltage amplitude has been varied Another ATC method is presented in [48] that manipulates
to counteract the effect of temperature variation in power the switching frequency and output power of an inverter to
semiconductors and accomplish constant power dissipation. drive the induction motor of an EV. The result from the
The gate-source voltage was regulated to maintain a specific proposed ATC is presented in Figure 10. At t = 0.2s, the
on-state resistance and subsequently control the device drive system torque becomes maximum, and the junction
temperature. temperature attains its maximum value of 150 ◦ C. Then,
A gate-driving strategy has been implemented in [47], the ATC is activated, reducing the switching frequency from
which reduces thermal cycling in GaN-based DC/DC buck 16 kHz to a set limit of 4 kHz. This reduces power loss and the

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FIGURE 9. Effect of active thermal control strategies on the junction

temperature of a GaN device [47].

junction temperature of the diode and IGBT modules inside

the inverter.

C. OPTIMIZATION OF THE MODULATION PROCESS

Optimized modulation methods can reduce thermal cycling
and high junction temperature in PECs. In [49], a method
is proposed to minimize thermal stress on semiconduc-
tor modules using discontinuous pulse-width modulation FIGURE 10. Simulation results of junction temperature and power losses
with and without ATC [48].
(DPWM). This method clamps the output voltage to the
positive or negative DC link voltage during a specific interval
to reduce the switching loss, resulting in total loss reduction
during the clamping period. As a result, the average junction IGBT-based 3-phase inverter. The proposed model is depicted
temperature and thermal cycling are reduced. Figure 11 in Figure 13.
depicts the results of this method. It can be observed that Here, the FS-MPC is applied to control the junction
thermal cycling has been reduced between Pa < Pload < temperature of the semiconductor modules and to control
Pnominal when ATC is applied. the motor current. The controller utilizes information from
A finite set model predictive control (FS-MPC) [50] a system model to generate appropriate control signals for
based approach for regulating the junction temperature of the inverter. A field-oriented control (FOC) strategy controls
a 2 level 3 phase active rectifier is presented in [51]. This the machine speed and rotor flux using Proportional-Integral
control technique minimizes a cost function based on the (PI) controllers. Another method has been proposed in [53],
predicted outcome of a physical system. For each sampling where the duty cycle of a DC/DC converter in a photovoltaic
time, this algorithm checks all possible output states and system is varied to achieve thermal management. The results
selects an optimum switching sequence for the rectifier from this method are presented in Figure 14. It can be seen
with the objectives of controlling the DC link voltage and that the maximum junction temperature derivative is reduced
regulating the junction temperature of the semiconductor by restricting the variation of the duty cycle. Moreover, the
devices. A general framework of the proposed FS-MPC is standard MPPT algorithm embedded in the converters has
presented in Figure 12. The results obtained from this study also been modified.
demonstrated that the junction temperature can be controlled In [54], a study on the thermal performance of a 3-level
between 67◦ C and 79◦ C while applying ATC. In [52], another back-to-back neutral point clamped (NPC) converter for a
FS-MPC based thermal controller is presented that generates wind turbine is presented. The configuration of the converter
an optimal switching sequence to control thermal stress in an is depicted in Figure 15. The grid and generator side

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FIGURE 14. Reduction of temperature gradients by varying duty cycle in

one IGBT module [53].

FIGURE 11. Junction temperature variation under fluctuating load [49].

FIGURE 15. 3-level back-to-back NPC configuration for wind turbines [54].

[56]; 3) Alternative zero sequence injection (ALT-ZSSPWM)

[57]; 4) Conventional 60◦ discontinuous PWM (CONV-60◦
DPWM) [58]; 5) Alternative 60◦ discontinuous PWM (ALT-
60◦ DPWM) [58]. It is concluded that Conventional 60◦
discontinuous PWM provides the best thermal performance
for both the grid side and generator side converter.

D. BALANCING THERMAL STRESS OF PARALLEL

FIGURE 12. General structure of FCS-MPC [51]. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
The distribution of thermal stress on paralleled converter
components might be unevenly balanced due to the con-
nection of nonidentical conductors from the converter to
the load, unequal tolerance of the components, physical
positioning, etc. In different literature, ATC methods have
been proposed to adjust the thermal stress of parallel power
devices inside a system. A temperature-based load-sharing
method for two parallel buck converters is presented in [59].
Here, the current of the individual converters is adjusted to
ensure equal thermal sharing between the converters. In [60],
a selective soft switching (SS) technique is presented that
can manipulate the device turn-off losses to overcome the
FIGURE 13. Thermal control framework based on FS-MPC [52]. thermal imbalance in a multichip system. Multichip systems
are a combination of multiple parallel semiconductors used
in high-power converters. In the presented method, hotter
converter can be controlled separately due to the back-to- devices are turned off earlier, and the total current is
back configuration. In this study, the following modulation redistributed to flow through the rest of the devices, reducing
techniques are considered to investigate the thermal per- their turn-off time. Hence, thermal balance is achieved
formance of the converters: 1) Sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) without affecting the performance of the system. The result
[55]; 2) Optimal zero sequence injection (Opt-ZSSPWM) from this method is depicted in Figure 16, where there is a

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FIGURE 16. Reduction of thermal stress with selective switching [60].

temperature reduction of 8.4◦ C in the most thermally stressed

device.
In [61], the impact of a pulse processing strategy on
the junction temperature of multichip modules (MCM) is
investigated. Here, thermal balancing is accomplished by
switching off the hottest devices during specific periods
to redistribute the losses among them. The impact of this
strategy is presented in Figure 17, which shows a maximum
temperature difference of 7.61◦ C between the transistors.
The temperature difference is reduced to 4.2◦ C by applying
FIGURE 18. Temperature distribution across six parallel devices under
thermal control at t = 3s. load [62].

FIGURE 17. Thermal balancing with pulse processing strategy [61].

A gate driver-based method is presented in [62] that

regulates the temperature of individual devices to increase
the reliability of a power converter. The results from this FIGURE 19. MMC framework [63].
method are depicted in Figure 18, showing the temperature
distribution across six parallel devices. Applying thermal
management reduces the temperature difference between the multiple IGBTs and diodes. The hybrid MMC framework is
hottest and coldest device to less than 0.5◦ C. presented in Figure 19.
The results from this ATC strategy are presented in
E. THERMAL STRESS CONTROL AT THE SYSTEM LEVEL Figure 20. Here, ATC is activated at t = 0.2s, and the
ATC strategies can also facilitate appropriate load-sharing temperature of T2 in HBSM is reduced by 20%. In the case
between modular converters to maintain thermal balance of FBSM, the thermal distribution becomes more balanced.
among the converters. This way, thermal cycling can be In [64], a thermal balancing approach is presented for the
reduced, and the converters can be operated near their thermal submodules of an MMC for HVDC application. A modified
limits. In [63], an ATC strategy for hybrid modular multilevel space vector PWM (SVPWM) based method is presented
converters (MMC) based high-voltage direct current (HVDC) in [65] for reducing the junction temperature of thermally
transmission system is presented. The hybrid MMC is stressed devices in multilevel inverters. Multilevel inverters
a combination of half-bridge and full-bridge submodules have redundant switching states, which can be employed to
(HBSM and FBSM), with each submodule consisting of control the junction temperature of semiconductor switches.

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FIGURE 20. Junction temperature of MMC [63]. FIGURE 21. Junction temperature across switch Sa1 of modular
inverter [65].

When the proposed algorithm detects thermal overloading in

any switch, it estimates the thermal behavior of that switch for By employing the power routing technique, each module
various switching sequences. Then, the switching sequence handles a varying amount of power based on its aging status
that produces the best thermal performance is applied across by employing the power routing technique, as illustrated in
that switch. Figure 21a shows the multilevel inverter where Figure 22b. This application of power routing allows for the
switch Sa1 is under the most thermal stress. Figure 21b optimization of maintenance schedules and the extension of
shows the junction temperature across Sa1 with conventional the lifespan of modular power converters.
SVPWM and proposed modified SVPWM. In a modular converter, the cells can be configured in
One innovative method for implementing ATC involves series, parallel, or a combination of both [66]. In the case
utilizing the power routing technique [30]. This technique of series-connected modules, the output power of each cell
efficiently distributes the thermal load across various seg- can be managed by controlling the output voltage of each
ments of a modular converter, thereby minimizing thermal cell. Likewise, for modules connected in parallel, the output
stress on the most susceptible components and extending power of each cell can be regulated by controlling the output
the remaining useful life (RUL) of these components. current of each cell. In the scenario of a combined series
With this approach, each module within a modular PEC and parallel configuration, it is possible to control either
handles a specific amount of power to mitigate the thermal the current, voltage, or both to regulate the power output of
stress resulting from temperature variations. The primary each cell. The primary goal of implementing power routing
objective of this technique is to prolong the lifespan of is to enhance the operational lifespan of a converter by
the most vulnerable modules within the converter. This is optimizing its maintenance schedule. To effectively employ
accomplished by operating these modules under variable power routing methods, it is essential to estimate the
load conditions and reducing stress on the modules that remaining useful life (RUL) and state of health (SOH) of
have deteriorated more significantly by shifting their load the converters, as discussed in [29]. With this information
to less vulnerable counterparts. Figure 22a shows a modular in hand, maintenance activities can be coordinated across
converter with three modules where modules 1, 2, and all the modules within a PEC, considering each module’s
3 handle power P1 , P2 , and P3 , respectively. The total power RUL. This concept is visually represented in Figure 23, where
PT = P1 + P2 + P3 where P1 = P2 = P3 under regular RUL equalization is achieved between two Power Electronic
operating conditions. Nevertheless, when operating under Building Blocks (PEBBs). The red bars in the diagram
conditions where load-sharing is balanced, there is a risk indicate the anticipated failure times of the two PEBBs,
of uneven module aging, potentially resulting in unexpected while P1 and P2 represent the power each PEBB processes.
module failures and the need for unscheduled maintenance. By applying the power routing method, the power handled

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FIGURE 24. Power routing in three-cell DC/DC boost converter [67].

block estimates the aging level of each cell. It accomplishes

FIGURE 22. Power routing concept. this by using information about the power system’s usage and
real-time electrical measurements. Subsequently, the SOH
block provides a temperature reference denoted as (Tn∗ ) to
the thermal controller block. This thermal controller block
determines the appropriate power-sharing factor (kn∗ ) for the
parallel cells. Then, the reference power for each cell, denoted
as (P∗n ), is calculated by dividing the total instantaneous
reference power (P∗ ) by the control factor (kn∗ ). With the
reference power values determined, it becomes possible
to calculate the reference current (In∗ ) for each cell. This
reference current is then employed to compute the voltage
(vn ) that needs to be modulated by each cell. A proportional-
integral (PI) controller is employed to determine vn . The
overall effect of this proposed algorithm is the successful
redistribution of power among the cells, thereby achieving
effective thermal management.
Another study by Marquez et al. [68] proposed a power
FIGURE 23. RUL management via power routing [30]. routing mechanism to mitigate aging imbalances in an
interleaved boost converter consisting of three modules.
Through the implementation of the proposed power routing
by each PEBB can be adjusted, ensuring that maintenance technique, the study demonstrated that the lifespan of
for both PEBBs is scheduled simultaneously. The green bar the most vulnerable power module could be extended by
symbolizes the unified maintenance schedule for both PEBBs 24 months, as depicted in Figure 25.
Several approaches have been investigated in literature Andresen et al. [69] introduced a novel power routing
for implementing power routing techniques with series technique based on virtual resistors for parallel converters
and parallel connected converters. A closed-loop controller within the low voltage stage of a smart transformer. This
has been presented in [67] to reduce the maintenance technique is activated during partial load conditions and
cost of a parallel-connected three-cell DC-DC converter by involves the adjustment of virtual resistors based on condition
considering the State of Health (SOH) of each cell. Figure 24 monitoring data, effectively optimizing power distribution
illustrates the control scheme for this converter along with among the converters to enhance overall system performance
the simulated results. Within this control scheme, the SOH and extend its operational lifespan. The proposed control

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FIGURE 25. Lifetime extension through power routing.

framework for implementing the power routing method is

depicted in Figure 26a. Here, three virtual resistors (Rv1 ,
Rv2 , and Rv3 ) are tuned based on information received from
the condition monitor and are expressed as a function of
accumulated damage as shown in (2).
Rvi = f (Dacc ) (2)
The reference current for any specific converter (i∗cn ) can FIGURE 26. A virtual resistor based power routing technique for parallel
converters in an ST [69].
be calculated by using (3).
i∗ref
 
[ic1 , ic2 , ic3 ] =
∗ ∗ ∗
Rv2 Rv3 + Rv1 Rv2 + Rv1 Rv3
accumulated damage of the converters, comparing scenarios
.[Rv2 Rv3 , Rv1 Rv2 , Rv1 Rv3 ] (3) with and without the power routing algorithm. In the absence
Figure 26b depicts how the virtual resistor-based power of any lifetime control method, the cells wear out at a different
routing technique can extend the Estimated Lifetime (ELT) rate. However, when active lifetime control through the power
of converters with different initial damage levels. routing algorithm is implemented, the accumulated damages
Further power routing algorithms designed for MEA with of the converters start to converge towards a common point,
four parallel dual active bridges (DAB) are presented in [70] as demonstrated in Figure 28b. This convergence signifies
and [71]. These algorithms aim to increase the system’s that the power routing algorithm effectively equalizes the
overall lifetime by estimating the Remaining Useful Life wear and tear on the converters, resulting in a more balanced
(RUL) of the converters based on their junction temperature and extended operational life for the entire system.
profiles, as determined by the mission profile. The total A study conducted in [72] examined how power routing
damage for each converter is calculated using 4, allowing for influences the aging of a set of 10 parallel-connected DAB
optimized power routing and enhanced system reliability. cells within a smart transformer. Another study conducted
by Liserre et al. [66] demonstrated the efficacy of power
Di = Dini,i + 6period=1
m
1Di (4) routing in mitigating the thermal cycling effects on the most
Here, Di is total accumulated damage and Dini,i is initial deteriorated cells within the low-voltage conversion stage of
damage. The RUL for a specific converter can be calculated a smart transformer (ST). A further study conducted in [73]
using 5, where 1Di is the rate of damage change over a assessed the efficiency of the power routing approach based
particular time interval. on virtual resistors in alleviating thermal stress within a mod-
ular DC/DC converter featuring multiple Quadruple Active
1 − Di Bridge (QAB) converters. The outcomes of this research
LTexp,i = (5)
1Di demonstrate the effectiveness of the control algorithm in
Due to thermal cycling, each converter experiences a prolonging the system’s operational lifespan.
varying RUL, and it is the controller’s task to determine the Modified modulation strategies offer the flexibility to
power each converter should handle to prolong its operational effectively implement power routing by allowing thermal
lifespan. It’s worth noting that the power routing algorithm stress control in each converter. A specific approach
is only operational when the system operates under partial called Discontinuous PWM (DPWM) for power routing
load conditions. In contrast, all the converters process equal in Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB) converters is introduced
power during full-load operation. Figure 28a illustrates the in [74]. The DPWM strategy minimizes switching losses

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FIGURE 28. Impact of power routing on the accumulated damage [71].

FIGURE 27. Power routing for an MEA [71]. Vref ,s , which helps offset the positive offset voltage and
maintain their optimal operation. The ATC concept, initially
introduced in [74], is further developed and extended in [75].
by clamping the output voltage at either the positive or This extended concept employs a discontinuous modulation
negative DC-link voltage. This loss reduction is substantial technique within the Medium Voltage Alternating Current
compared to continuous PWM techniques because it prevents (MVAC) to Low Voltage Direct Current (LVDC) building
semiconductor devices from switching within the clamping block of an ST to effectively achieve thermal management.
region. As depicted in Figure 29a, the proposed method After applying the proposed modulation technique, the
employs two types of modulation signals. First, a positive estimated junction temperature of a CHB cell and a DAB
offset voltage Voff ,p is added to the fundamental reference cell with a fixed clamping angle of 60◦ is shown in
voltage Vref ,fund to generate the modulation signal Vref ,ns , Figures 30a and 30b, respectively. For the CHB cell, the
which includes a clamping zone. This modulation signal is junction temperature rises to 82◦ C with the non-clamped
applied to the most vulnerable converters since the clamping signal, while for the clamped signal, the junction temperature
region helps reduce the generation of losses. On the other reaches around 43.5◦ C. For the DAB cells, the maximum
hand, the second modulation signal Vref ,s lacks a clamping junction temperature reaches 99.8◦ C with the clamped signal
region and incorporates a negative offset voltage Voff ,n . This and 78.7◦ C for the non-clamped signal. A power routing
signal is utilized for the less vulnerable converters, serving technique for STs is presented in [76], which introduces
to compensate for the clamping that occurs in the other an advanced discontinuous modulation technique for power
converters. The ultimate objective of this modulation strategy routing. This technique is designed to handle thermal stress
is to delay the failure of the most vulnerable converters by within the Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB) converters and the
optimizing the control of thermal stress. isolated DC/DC converters, enhancing the overall system’s
The application of the modulation strategy, as illustrated thermal performance. Another approach, proposed in [77],
in Figure 29b, depends on the condition of the converters. focuses on improving the thermal performance of CHB
Specifically, the choice of modulation signal depends on the converters. This method employs a non-conventional phase-
Remaining Useful Life (RUL) of each converter. When a shifted Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) technique, resulting
converter has a shorter RUL, it is modulated with the signal in an extended lifespan for the most vulnerable cells
Vref ,ns to mitigate thermal stress effectively. In contrast, while simultaneously reducing harmonic distortion in the
converters with a longer RUL are modulated with the signal cells. A multi-frequency modulation-based power routing

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FIGURE 30. Junction temperature of CHB and DAB cells with and without
clamping signal [75].

FIGURE 29. Power routing with DPWM method [74].

technique is introduced in another study, presented in [78].

This technique involves injecting a third harmonic component
into the duty cycle of CHB converters. This injection of the
FIGURE 31. Concepts of power electronic device cooling.
third harmonic component optimizes the utilization of DC-
link voltage, similar to the Third Harmonic Injected PWM
(THIPWM) method. It contributes to improved power routing
within the system. These innovative power routing techniques can be classified depending on whether there is direct contact
collectively contribute to the efficient management of thermal between the coolant and the electronic device. Based on
stress and enhanced performance in smart transformers. this classification, cooling techniques can be of two types:
direct and indirect cooling, as shown in Figure 31. Natural
III. CONTROL OF HEAT DISSIPATION convection is an economical and straightforward passive
The second approach for controlling the temperature of cooling mechanism where conductive surfaces are attached
semiconductor modules is to apply passive or active cooling to the heat-dissipating component. The generated heat from
techniques. Passive cooling systems are normally based the component is accumulated in the conductive surfaces and
on natural convection and utilize capillary or gravitational released to the environment through natural convection [80].
buoyancy forces to circulate the working fluid. In contrast, This method only applies to low-power electronic devices due
external energy must be supplied to active cooling systems to low heat flux density and is unsuitable for modern power
for higher cooling capacity and improved performance [79]. electronic devices [81]. From Figure 32, it can be seen that
Usually, a pump or compressor drives the coolant in an active the natural convection technique has the lowest capacity for
cooling system. Commonly used cooling techniques for PSDs heat removal.

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FIGURE 32. Comparison of heat removal rate from conventional FIGURE 34. Immersed spray cooling [83].
methods [82].

FIGURE 35. Jet-impingement cooler [89].

FIGURE 33. Forced air cooling method.

thermal boundary layer and a preferable HTC [88]. However,

An active method for heat removal is forced convection- the design and manufacturing process is considerably more
based air cooling, which provides improved cooling perfor- complicated than channel-based cooling.
mance by forcing air using a fan. This method is suitable for Microchannel systems have become popular for high
high-power electronic devices [82]. A schematic of forced air heat flux generating applications. Figure 36 shows the
cooling is shown in Figure 33. main components of a microchannel cooler. The coolant
Another highly effective method to achieve significant passes through the microchannel, transferring heat from
cooling performance is liquid cooling, which is compatible the electronic device to the coolant. By incorporating
with high-power density applications [20]. There are several numerous small channels in parallel, microchannel-based
emerging technologies for implementing liquid cooling, designs can substantially enhance heat transfer capabili-
which include cold plates, microchannel, jet impingement, ties. Microchannel-based designs offer the advantage of
spray cooling, and immersion cooling-based designs [83], flexibility, particularly in terms of reducing the channel
[84], [85]. A spray cooling-based technique is depicted in diameter. This flexibility allows for the development of
Figure 34, where a pressurized coolant is sprayed from a more compact TMSs [90]. However, further scaling down
nozzle that fragments the coolant into liquid droplets and can be limited due to an increase in pressure drop [91].
then cools the hot surface. This method maintains uniform Immersion cooling is a direct cooling method where the
heat flux and temperature across a hot surface. Moreover, electronic device is submerged in a coolant or dielectric
this method reduces the effect of the thermal boundary layer fluid [92]. However, the prerequisite of fluid suitable for
acting as a thermally insulating medium, as a result of electronic devices limits the utilization of this cooling
which it is suitable for compact designs that require high technique.
cooling capacity [86]. Nevertheless, spray cooling requires Liquid evaporation technology provides the highest heat
a significant pressure drop in the nozzle, which impedes its removal rate. This method converts the coolant liquid to
performance [87]. vapor when heat is transferred from the heat-dissipating
Figure 35 shows the main components of a jet- component [93]. The application of evaporation techniques
impingement based cooling system. A jet nozzle forces has emerged in heat-pipe and phase change material (PCM)
a continuous flow of coolant to a heated surface with based designs [94], [95]. Heat sinks combined with PCM
adequate pressure. This cooling method can provide a have significantly high latent heat absorption compared to
superior localized HTC (HTC) than spray cooling. This sensible heat absorption designs. Nevertheless, this technique
concept is suited for compact designs as it can provide a fine faces challenges due to the low thermal conductivity of the

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FIGURE 36. Microchannel cooler [89]. FIGURE 38. Thermoelectric cooling concept [93].

TABLE 1. Comparison of cooling techniques [82], [93].

FIGURE 37. Heat pipe structure [93].

materials used as PCM. Accordingly, improving the thermal

conductivity of PCM-based cooling systems has attracted
significant interest from researchers [96], [97]. Additionally,
heat pipes take advantage of the liquid-vapor phase change
process and reach very high thermal conductivity, which is
reasonable for TMSs [98]. Figure 37 shows the basic structure
of a heat pipe that consists of a pipe, wick, and working fluid.
Any external heat source would evaporate the fluid in the
evaporation section, and the vapor moves from the evaporator
to the condenser, where it releases the heat and turns back into
liquid. The wick allows the condensed liquid to flow back to
the evaporator through capillary pumping, and the cycle starts
again.
Thermoelectric (TE) cooling is an emerging technol-
ogy where cooling is accomplished based on the Peltier
effect [99]. A thermoelectric module employs thermoelectric
materials to create a temperature gradient between two
sides of the module by consuming electrical energy. Then
heat is transferred from one side of the device to the
other, resulting in a cooling effect [100]. Thermoelec-
tric coolers can be combined with microchannels, heat
pipes, and additional heat sinks to enhance thermal per-
formance. A thermoelectric cooling scheme is depicted in A. CHANNEL COOLING
Figure 38. This section reviews different channel- and microchannel-
A comparison of the general cooling techniques is provided based cooling system designs that have gained significant
in Table 1. attention in the design of TMSs. Tuckerman and Pease
The next segment provides a detailed overview of several introduced the idea of microchannel for the first time in
core TMSs 1981 [101]. Microchannels have demonstrated high cooling

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performance that can dissipate heat efficiently from a small where ni , nu , and f represent the thermal efficiency index,
surface area. The hydraulic diameter of the microchannels Nusselt number, and friction factor, respectively.
can be in the range of 10 to 200 µm and 1 to 100 µm accord- Nu
ing to Kandlikar et al. [102] and Mehendale et al. [103], Nup
η= f
(16)
respectively. The characteristic parameters for channel-based fp
cooling strategies can be described using the following
equations [104]. Here, η is the thermal performance factor, Nu is the Nusselt
number, and f is the friction factor. The subscript p indicates
4A a plain channel without any enhancement. Several ideas for
Dh = (6)
p enhancing channel cooling are discussed in the next section.
Here Dh , A, and P represent hydraulic diameter, flow cross-
section, and wetted perimeter, respectively. 1) EMPLOYING APPROPRIATE MATERIAL
The material employed for microchannel-based heat sinks
ρvD
Re = (7) significantly affects thermal performance. The performance
µ of heat sinks with different materials such as Si, Cu, Steel,
where Re , ρ, v, D, and µ are the Reynolds number, fluid Glass, Quartz, and Polyimide was investigated using numeri-
density, velocity, length, and dynamic viscosity, respectively. cal simulation in [85], and it was determined that the Nusselt
cp µ number reduces with materials of lower thermal conductivity.
Pr = (8) Moreover, a numerical analysis comparing the cooling
k
performance with materials like Cu alloy, Al, tungsten, and Si
Here, Pr , Cp , µ, and k represent the Prandtl number,
was performed in [105], and it was concluded that materials
specific heat, dynamic viscosity, and thermal conductivity,
with higher thermal conductivity provide superior thermal
respectively.
performance. Muhammad et al. [106] came to the same
vL conclusion while conducting a numerical investigation on
St = (9)
U microchannel heat sink materials such as copper, aluminum,
Here, St , v, L, and U represent the Strouhal number, vortex steel, and titanium. A numerical analysis employing the finite
shedding frequency, length, and flow velocity, respectively. volume method was conducted in [107] that investigated the
heat transfer performance of ZrB2, TiB2, and HfB2, which
Th − Tc
Rth = (10) are ultra-high temperature ceramic (UHTC) materials. It was
Pt found that all three materials provide optimum performance,
Here, Rth , Th , Tc , and Pt are total thermal resistance, power while HfB2 offers the maximum HTC.
loss, hot spot temperature, and inflow bulk temperature,
respectively. 2) MODIFYING CHANNEL CONFIGURATION
q An investigation of conventional and novel microchannel
h= (11) configurations was conducted in [108], which showed
Tw − Tb
that the proposed configuration accomplished homogeneous
where h, q, Tw , and Tb are convective coefficients, heat flux,
temperature distribution with minimized pressure drop and
channel wall temperature, and average coolant temperature,
pumping power due to balanced flow distribution. The
respectively.
proposed heat sink configuration in this study is shown in
hD Figure 39. Another study by Zeng et al. [109] proposed an
Nu = (12)
k air-cooled heat sink using topology optimization to achieve
Here, Nu , h, D, and K represent the Nusselt number, better thermal performance and minimize pressure drop.
convective coefficient, length, and thermal conductivity, Gunnasegaran et al. [110] investigated the heat transfer
respectively. performance of microchannels with different shapes as
depicted in Figure 40. It was determined that superior
P.P = Q1P (13) uniformity in HTC is obtained in heat sinks with minimum
hydraulic diameter, and rectangular microchannel provided
Here, P.P is pumping power, Q is volumetric flow rate, and
the best heat transfer capability out of the shapes investigated
1P is pressure drop.
in these studies.
21PDh However, few studies [111], [112] have reported that
f = (14)
ρµ2 L circular microchannels provide better thermal and hydraulic
where f, u, and L represent friction factor, average flow performance than other shapes. Dewan et al. [113] reported
velocity, and channel length, respectively. that flow disruption strategies such as modifying the shape
of the channel, dimpled surfaces, pin-fins, ribs, cavities,
Nu groove structures, porous medium, etc., can minimize the
ni = (15)
f 1/3 disadvantage of rising pressure drop while providing efficient

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FIGURE 39. Proposed heat sink configurations for uniform temperature

distribution [108].

FIGURE 41. Microchannel heat sink design based on bionic

structure [116].

FIGURE 40. Schematic of microchannels with different shapes:

Rectangular, trapezoidal, and triangular [110].

heat transfer. An efficient method using simulated annealing

for improving microchannel surface roughness was proposed
in [114]. The presented method can optimize the roughness
of the wall for improved heat transfer while maintaining a
specified constraint on the pressure drop. The effect of surface
roughness on the heat transfer performance was also reported
in [115]. Researchers have also explored the application
of bionic structure to enhance microchannel performance,
as shown in Figure 41 [116].
Bionic structures based on the wing arrangement of
dragon louse [117] and shark skin [116] have demonstrated FIGURE 42. Different types of manifold layout [120].
evidence of friction loss reduction. The inlet channel
geometry also plays a crucial role in temperature distribution
and hydraulic performance, according to studies conducted foam [126], porous structure [127], and lattice structure [128]
in [118] and [119]. The impact of manifold design on also showed desirable improvement in thermal performance.
the hydrothermal performance of microchannels has been
investigated in [120] and [121]. These studies have reported 3) EMPLOYING APPROPRIATE COOLANT
that optimizing manifold design facilitated uniform flow The use of nanofluids as coolant has garnered interest
distribution and thus provided better thermal performance. from researchers as well. Kumar et al. [132] used a
Figure 42 shows different types of arrangements of these hybrid nanofluid with 0.01 % concentration of Al2 O3
manifolds. and multi-walled carbon nanotube particles with various
Numerous studies [122], [123], [124], [125] have inves- mixing ratios for improving the hydrothermal performance
tigated the effect of geometrical design on the heat of mini channel heatsinks. The application of nanofluids
transfer performance of microchannels. Some commonly for the performance improvement of microchannels has
used microchannel structures for enhancing heat transfer been investigated in [133], [134], [135], and [136]. It is
are depicted in Figure 43. Moreover, the insertion of metal experimentally demonstrated in [137] that the HTC of

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FIGURE 44. Typical spray cooling curve [153].

[144], [145]. Numerous techniques, such as channel mod-

ification and coolant alteration, have been suggested by
researchers to improve the HTC while employing the
FIGURE 43. Commonly used structure in microchannel.
flow boiling process. Raj et al. [146] proposed a stepped
microchannel employing a flow boiling process, which
resulted in a 98% improvement in HTC and 77% reduction
a microchannel increased by 73% when carbon-acetone in pressure drop compared to a rectangular microchannel.
nanofluid is used. The performance of single-walled and It also mitigated instability due to flow boiling. A method for
multi-walled carbon nanotubes with water and kerosene as reducing flow boiling instability and improving hydrothermal
base fluid was investigated in [138]. This study concluded performance using inlet restrictors was presented in [147].
that using single-walled carbon nanotubes increased Nusselt Furthermore, Ren et al. [148] proposed fabricating parallel
(Nu) number, and water as base fluid provided better microgrooves on the bottom surface of microchannels to
hydrothermal performance. Researchers still need to find enhance the flow boiling process. The impact of nanofluid on
solutions for some challenges associated with nanofluids, the flow boiling process was presented in [149] and [150] and
such as erosion, corrosion, high cost, clogging, waste provided no evidence of HTC improvement. Hence, the use
management, thermal conductivity, pressure drop, pumping of nanofluid for microchannel flow boiling requires further
power, etc. [139]. Liquid metals such as Ga68 In20 Sn12 have research. Moreover, further research is needed to improve the
also generated interest from researchers due to high thermal fabrication methods of microchannels and reduce manufac-
conductivity [140]. The thermal performance of mini channel turing costs. Channel layout, microstructure positioning, and
heat sinks with four gallium alloys (EGaInSn, EGaIn, GaIn nanofluid application must be carefully studied to improve
and GaSn) was investigated in [141], and it was determined the heat transfer performance of microchannels.
that GaIn is the most suitable liquid metal coolant. Further
studies about the suitability of liquid metal for channel B. SPRAY COOLING
cooling have been reported in [142] and [105]. Although One of the highly efficient approaches for thermal manage-
compared to water and nanofluid, liquid metal provides better ment is spray cooling, which has excellent heat dissipation
thermal performance, it also requires higher pumping power. capacity, increased cooling area, and provides more uni-
Moreover it can be the source of corrosion, which necessitates formly distributed heat removal [151], [152]. The spray
further investigation regarding the choice of material and flow cooling mechanism can be split into three segments with
arrangement [82]. separate wall temperatures, as depicted in Figure 44.
The spray cooling curve is almost linear when the wall
4) TWO PHASE COOLING temperature is low, and the cooling fluid does not change its
Further improvement in thermal performance can be achieved phase. Moreover, sufficient fluid supply prevents nucleation,
by replacing single-phase cooling with processes such as flow and agitation of liquid due to droplet impact increases heat
boiling that undergoes phase change while cooling [143], transfer performance. With the increase in wall temperature,

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the process enters two phase segment, and the slope of the
curve increases. At this stage, the heater starts to dry out
beyond the impact area of droplets. With further increases
in wall temperature, the process enters the critical heat
flux (CHF) stage when the heat supplied just offsets the
heat removal capacity. Numerous performance-enhancing
concepts for spray cooling have been discussed in literature,
including the configuration and arrangement of nozzles, flow
behavior, coolant properties, heating surface characteristics,
and the effect of droplets on liquid film. Some characteristic
parameters for analyzing spray cooling performance are
CHF, surface and junction temperature, HTC, thermal
resistance, and spray angle droplet diameter and velocity.
Some well-known dimensionless parameters for determining
spray cooling performance are Reynolds number(Re ), Weber
number(We ), capillary number(Ca ), Ohnesorge number(Oh ), FIGURE 45. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of tested
Froude number(Fr ), Nusselt number (Nu ), and Prandtl surfaces [161].
number (Pr ) expressed as follows [154], [155]:
U0 D0
Re = (17)
v
ρD0 U0 2
We = (18)
σ
We
Ca = (19)
R
√e
We
Oh = (20)
Re
ρgD0
Fr = (21)
σ
hfilm q̇
Nu = (22)
λ1T
v FIGURE 46. Spray cooling setup [162].
Pr = (23)
a
Here, U0 and D0 are the impact velocity and drop
diameter, respectively. ρ, σ , and v are the liquid’s density, improved heat transfer performance. However, the CHF was
surface tension, and kinematic viscosity, respectively. hf ilm, lower than microstructures. Another experimental study by
q̇, λ, 1T , and a represent the convective HTC, heat flux, Bostanci et al. [162] reported that a multi-scale frame-
thermal conductivity, and temperature difference between work combining macro-scale protrusions and indentations
substrate and liquid, and thermal diffusivity, respectively. with micro-scale structures with different pin fin shapes
Several concepts for implementing spray cooling systems are achieved high HTC. The experiments were carried out in
reviewed in the next section. a closed-loop system employing ammonia as the coolant,
as shown in Figure 46. An experimental study carried
1) HEATING SURFACE AUGMENTATION out by Zhao et al. [163] reported that surface alignment
The attributes of the heating surface play a crucial role in (vertical, upward, and downward) has no significant impact
the performance of spray cooling-based concepts. Several on heat transfer effectiveness in single and two-phase regions.
researchers have studied the influence of surface roughness Additional investigation into the effects of surface structure
on spray cooling performance improvement [156], [157], on spray cooling was conducted in [164], [165], and [166].
[158], [159], [160]. Zhou et al. [161] studied the impact of
surface modification on heat transfer enhancement of R410A 2) ADJUSTING NOZZLE CHARACTERISTIC
based spray cooled scheme. The assessed surfaces included Nozzle characteristics such as placement and structure,
pyramid/square macrostructures and nano-porous surfaces subcooling, surface heat flux, injection pressure, and nozzle-
with various pore structures, as depicted in Figure 45. It was to-surface height, are important parameters that affect spray
concluded that even though pyramid fins showed a smaller cooling performance [167]. Liu et al. [168] reported that as
rise in the wetted area, they provided superior CHF and inlet pressure increases, the HTC rises gradually due to the
HTC compared to square fins. Moreover, due to increased accelerated atomization effect. However, power consumption
nucleation sites and wettability, nano-porous surfaces showed also rises at an increased rate. Moreover, HTC has a

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FIGURE 48. Proposed spray cooling module [172].

that with an increase in nozzle diameter, droplet velocity

and outlet pressure decreased, which resulted in uniformly
distributed droplet velocity and high HTC.

3) MODIFYING WORKING FLUID CHARACTERISTIC

Thermal characteristics of working fluid also affect the
performance of spray cooling. Performance-enhancing
ideas for spray cooling utilizing cooling fluids such
as nanofluid [176], [177], alcoholic liquid [170], [178],
and surfactants solution [179] have been investigated by
FIGURE 47. Schematic of multi nozzle spray chamber [171]. researchers. Liu et al. [180] examined the cooling efficiency
of alcohol-water mixtures and pure water and concluded
that the addition of alcohols (n-propanol, iso-propanol, and
pressure-dependent ideal spray height at which it can be ethanol) to water significantly improves heat dissipation due
optimized. Similar studies were conducted in [169] and [170], to increased wettability. Moreover, Chapman et al. [181]
which reported that higher injection pressure improves heat investigated electrospray (ES) phase change cooling for
transfer effectiveness. Xie et al. [171] presented a closed-loop enhancing heat transfer from the target surface with methanol
spray cooling system with 54 nozzles and R134a as the as the working fluid. Spray cooling is an exciting option
coolant to investigate cooling performance on high-power for thermal management, but more research needs to be
electronic devices with a big area. The arrangement of conducted to overcome the challenges and improve efficiency
the designed spray chamber is depicted in Figure 47. The and reliability.
obtained results showed that increased nozzle pressure drop
and flow rate improved the HTC and provided excellent C. JET IMPINGEMENT COOLING
uniformity in surface temperature. A compact spray cooling Jet impingement is a widely used cooling method for PEC,
module with a micro nozzle applicable to high heat flux gen- similar to the spray cooling process, excluding droplet
erating multi-heat source was presented in [172] and depicted atomization. The favorable features of the jet impingement
in Figure 48. The experimental results showed that the heat method include improved temperature uniformity, lower
flux could reach a maximum value of 304.7 W /m2 , and thermal resistance, convenience for reducing hot spots,
the maximum temperature difference was less than 6.5◦ C, and higher local thermal absorption [82], [182]. Important
which implied the suitability of this method in multi-heat characteristic parameters for analyzing the performance of
source applications. A similar study was conducted in [173] jet impingement cooling are CHF, HTC, jet dimension, jet-
that demonstrated increasing the nozzle number resulted in to-wall distance, Reynolds number, Nusselt number, pressure
greater heat flux. However, an optimum number of nozzles drop, pressure coefficient, steady state temperature, outlet
must be selected considering manufacturing complexity temperature, coolant flow rate, and pumping power. The
and cost. Another study conducted by Zhang et al. [174] equation for the pressure coefficient is as follows [183].
investigated the effect of spray flow rate, pressure, and inlet 2Px − Patm
temperature on the performance of flash spray cooling. The Cp = (24)
ρf uin,ave 2
obtained experimental results demonstrated that increased
inlet temperature resulted in high HTC. Particle Image Here, Px , Patm , ρf , and uin,ave 2 are the local pressure on
Velocimetry (PIV) was used in [175] to study the arrangement the target surface, atmospheric pressure, cooling fluid density,
of flow patterns for various nozzle sprays. It was determined and jet inlet velocity, respectively.

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FIGURE 51. Normal and inclined impact of spray cooling [186].

FIGURE 49. Proposed injection chamber for direct impingement that decreasing the nozzle space to jet diameter ratio resulted
cooling [184].
in improved HTC on the target surface. Gao et al. [186]
examined the effects of varying nozzle positions (changing
spray height and/or tilting the nozzle ) on a sputter-coated
1) ADJUSTING NOZZLE ARRANGEMENT
thin-film heater situated on a silicon wafer. Figure 51 shows
Nozzle configurations such as nozzle diameter to surface ratio different spray nozzle positioning. The authors reported that
and single or multi-jet arrangement play an important role in the height that provided the greatest rise in cooling was
jet impingement cooling. A method of liquid impingement not the same as the height required to cover the target
cooling of a MOSFET module with a single micro water surface fully. Furthermore, increasing the flow rate led
jet was proposed in [184]. This method was successful to a decrease in optimum nozzle height. Further studies
in removing hot spots and minimizing thermal resistance. conducted by Sabato et al. [187] and Wu et al. [188] reported
Moreover, HTC increased with the increase in Reynolds that decreasing the nozzle diameter led to increased HTC.
number in the high flow regime (1000 < Re < 4000) and Many researchers have also studied the impact of arrays
low flow regime (Re < 1000). The investigated injection of two or more jet nozzles on the cooling performance.
chamber for the proposed method is depicted in Figure 49. The introduction of multiple jets allows sprayed liquid to
An additively manufactured (AM) jet nozzle for cooling cover a bigger surface, improving heat transfer capacity.
GaN transistors, with comparable cooling performance to Nadda et al. [189] and Wei et al. [190] reported that
jet nozzles manufactured from alternative materials, was increasing the number of jet nozzles provided better thermal
presented in [185]. AM provides design flexibility and performance than a single jet system. The image of the jet
facilitates complex designs. Moreover, multiple components, cooler and the cross-sectional view presented in [190] is
such as the nozzle, flow distributor, and fluid delivery depicted in Figure 52.
structure, can be combined in a single compact part. The San et al. [191] investigated the Nusselt number variation
schematic of AM nozzles working on a PCB is illustrated in for an array of five circular air jets with one jet in the center
Figure 50. and the other four arranged in a square around the middle
one. They reported that the proportion of jet-to-jet distance
to jet diameter influences the non-uniformity of heat transfer.
Singh et al. [192] reported that the thermal performance of a
square channel with aluminum metal foam can be increased
by 6 - 10% using an array (5 × 5) of impingement jets.
Godi et al. [193] investigated the heat transfer performance of
three-dimensional wall jets coming from a series of circular
nozzle outlets over a flat surface. They reported that a reduced
number of jets provided better performance for a specific
diameter compared to closely situated jets when the mass
flow rate was fixed.

2) MODIFYING WORKING FLUID CHARACTERISTICS

FIGURE 50. Additively manufactured jet nozzle working on GaN The nature of working fluid plays a crucial role in jet
devices [185]. impingement cooling performance. The use of molten salt
as the cooling fluid was investigated by Gao et al. [194].
Tepe et al. [84] reported that prolonged jet holes improved This study reported favorable thermal behavior of molten
the thermal performance of jet impingement systems with salt comparable to water at stagnation area, but the Nusselt
in-line array configuration. The obtained result demonstrated number decreased more quickly compared to water at radial

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material for jet impingement cooling and reported significant

improvement in heat transfer compared to water.

3) SURFACE CHARACTERISTIC AUGMENTATION

Recently, researchers have also studied the impact of surface
material and characteristics on jet impingement technique.
Bhansali et al. [206] investigated the effect of pin-fin structure
on a rotating surface and reported that the average Nusselt
number considerably improved compared to a surface with
no pin-fins. The maximum improvement was determined to
be 3.9 times more than a plain surface with a Reynolds
number of 5000. Wiriyasart et al. [207] studied heat spreading
of heat sinks with circular, rectangular, and conical fin
shapes while applying jet impingement cooling. The results
indicated circular fins provide better thermal performance by
reducing the thermal resistance by 25% and 12% compared
to conical and rectangular fins, respectively. Another study
on pin fin shape conducted by Ravanji et al. [208] reported
favorable thermal performance of elliptical pin-fins on a
concave surface. Further analysis of the impact of pin-fin
structure on impingement cooling was conducted in [190]
and [209]. Zhang et al. [210] conducted an experiment
on the performance of an impingement jet on a protruded
surface and reported heat transfer enhancement compared to
FIGURE 52. Proposed jet cooler [190]. a smooth surface. Moreover, the Nusselt number increased
with an increase in protrusion depth. Investigation of air
impingement system on a curved surface [211] and rough
surface [212] reported the impact of surface curvature and
flow. The addition of paraffin in particulate form (nano PCM) roughness on the cooling performance. Further information
to water was suggested by Wu et al. [195] to improve the on impingement cooling can be found in review articles
HTC of jet impingement. Moreover, Rehman et al. [196] published by Plant et al. [213] and Ekkad et al. [214]. So, jet
showed that adding PCM slurry and nanofluid improves impingement is also an exciting option for power electronics
heat transfer capacity but increases the pressure drop. cooling due to its great heat transfer performance and ease of
Employing PCM exclusively resulted in reduced pressure application.
drop compared to employing nanofluid only. The impact
of the shape of nanoparticles on jet cooling was reported D. IMMERSION COOLING
by Selimefendigil et al. [197] and Ekiciler et al. [198]. Immersion cooling is a promising thermal management
Naphon et al. [199] reported that the addition of Ti O2 technique that requires dielectric fluid or coolant with
nanofluids (at 15% concentration) with water in a jet excellent heat conduction and poor electrical conductivity.
impingement system enhanced the convective heat transfer In this approach, the heated device is submerged in coolant.
by 18.56%. Moreover, the HTC increased when the nozzle- Some commonly used coolants for this cooling approach are
to-surface ratio decreased. Amjadian et al. [200] conducted ethanol, water-ethylene glycol, mineral oil, novec 649 and
experiments investigating the effect of Cu2 O nanofluid-based 7000, FC 3283, 43, and 72. Data centers [215], servers [216],
jet impingement intended for cooling an aluminum disk. EV battery thermal management [217], power transform-
Obtained results show that compared to base fluid, there is a ers [296], and solar PV [218] are some common application
45% increase in heat transfer while using nanofluid 0.07 wt% areas for immersion cooling.
concentration. Further studies on nanofluids include inves- A modified cooling method blending spray cooling and
tigating the effect of Ag/ZnO hybrid nanofluid on heated immersed cooling is proposed by Wang et al. [83], which
copper surface [201], achieving maximum heat transfer using resulted in a maximum 65.6% increase in heat flux compared
Al2 O3 /water nanofluid [202], cooling a flat plate using a to regular spray cooling with a surface temperature of
combination of Al2 O3 and MgO nanoparticles [203], and 205◦ C. The enhanced performance is attributed to vapor layer
investigating a numerical model of impingement jet with removal and the chaotic effect surrounding the surface. The
boehmite alumina nanofluid in water and ethylene glycol experimental setup for this study is depicted in Figure 53.
mixture [204]. Moreover, Wu et al. [205] investigated the This setup contains an ejector for controlling the fluid level
effect of HFE7100 dielectric liquid used with a PCM in the cooling compartment.

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process within a particular temperature setting [226], [227].

Solid-to-liquid and liquid-to-gas are the commonly employed
phase-changing processes. One major advantage of PCM
is that when there is cyclic fluctuation in heating power,
it can absorb and release heat when the power is at peak and
minimum, respectively. Moreover, it provides a high density
of heat storage due to the high latent heat of fusion. The
major shortcoming of PCM is very low thermal conductivity.
FIGURE 53. Proposed immersed spray cooling system [83]. PCM is usually combined with another cooling mechanism,
such as a pin-fin heat sink, heat pipe, and TE module. A sig-
nificant number of studies have been conducted to enhance
It was reported by Patil et al. [219] that immersion cooling PCM performance. Typical parameters for evaluating the
with dielectric coolant improved cooling performance with performance of PCM-based cooling include melting fraction,
a 46.3% reduction in temperature compared to conventional phase change time, heat source temperature, operation
natural cooling. Approaches for using immersion cooling time, input power, solid insert efficiency, filling ratio, total
with water have also been proposed in literature [220]. thermal resistance, condenser/evaporator temperature and
Figure 54 depicts an immersion cooling system from [220] stored energy. The thermal resistances are calculated using
where the PCB is insulated from water by Parylene C the following equations [179].
coatings. This cooling system was effectively tested on a Te − ta
2 kW PEC with 97.2% efficiency. Rth,e = (25)
ph
Ta − Tc
Rth,c = (26)
Ph
Rth,t = Rth,e + Rth,c (27)
Here, Ph is the heat load, and Ta , Te , and Tc represent
the temperature at the adiabatic section, evaporator, and
condenser. The heat transfer capacity can be calculated using
the following equation [182].
Qtransferred
Qcapacity = (28)
Qinput
The following section reviews several thermal manage-
ment techniques using PCM.

FIGURE 54. Schematic diagram of power electronics cooling with 1) IMPROVING PCM THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS
immersion technique [220]. Yang et al. [228] investigated a new PCM named low
melting point metal (LMPM), which was applied to a
Kuncoro et al. [221] applied the Taguchi method to finned heat sink. The obtained results show LMPM has high
determine the factors influencing cooling performance with thermal conductivity and good latent heat properties. Another
mineral oil. It was reported that the decrease in CPU study conducted by Krishna et al. [229] compared Water,
temperature and electric power was significantly affected Tricosane, and nano-enhanced Tricosane and reported that
by the cooling fan arrangement, with contribution reach- nano-enhanced PCM can improve thermal conductivity by
ing over 70%. Further performance-enhancing ideas using 32% compared to pure Triscosane. Farzanehnia et al. [230]
heat spreaders [222], ethanol phase-change coolant [223], conducted experiments on the thermal performance of nano
and nanofluid [224] have been reported in literature. PCM on an electronic chipset. Paraffin wax was used as PCM
Hsu et al. [225] applied three array structures (Si nanowire in this study and was combined with multiwall carbon nan-
(SiNW), Si micropillar (SiMP), and Si nanowires on a Si otubes (MWCNT) for improved performance. Experimental
micropillar (SiNW/MP)) to improve the cooling performance results showed that nano-PCM reduces the cooling time by
of Novec 649. They reported SiNW/MP is the most 6% compared to regular PCM. Some common materials
effective surface for immersion cooling with CHF and HTC employed for improving PCM performance are shown in
enhancement of 30% and 455%, respectively, compared to Figure 55.
plain SiO2 surface.
2) COMBINING PCM WITH HEAT SINKS
E. PCM BASED COOLING PCM can be combined with pin-fin heat sinks for perfor-
Thermal management involving PCM includes materials mance improvement. Some commonly used pin-fin structure
that can absorb or release heat via the phase transition found in literature is depicted in Figure 56.

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performance, reliability, efficiency and THD of PECs. Some

of the Traditional MLC configurations discussed in literature
are neutral point clamped (NPC), active neutral point
clamped (ANPC), flying capacitor converter (FCC), cascaded
H-bridge (CHB), and modular multilevel converters (MMC).
3-level NPC converters have widespread application in high
power and high voltage applications such as motor drives
and renewable energy conversion. However, increasing the
number of levels in NPC configuration results in many clamp-
ing diodes and increased unbalanced loss distribution. The
authors in [41], [52], and [242] have presented approaches
for thermal management of 3-level NPC converters in EV
and wind power applications. A four-level ANPC converter
with switching cell arrays is presented in [243] that achieves
thermal management utilizing the available redundancies in
FIGURE 55. Microstructural features of different PCM materials. the converter configuration. However, the control algorithm
becomes more complex, and the overall cost increases due
to the increased number of PSDs. FCCs are suitable for
high-level applications, although system reliability might be
decreased due to the presence of many flying capacitors.
The thermal design of a Sic-based FCC is presented
in [244] that achieves optimal thermal performance. CHBs
and MMCs have modular structures and good fault-tolerant
capabilities. However, they require numerous capacitors and
have reduced power density. The authors in [74], [76],
and [77] have discussed thermal management techniques for
CHB-based smart transformers. Moreover, references [63],
[64], and [65] have presented thermal management tech-
FIGURE 56. Commonly used pin-fin structure. niques for MMCs. Recently, hybrid MLC topologies such as
T-type NPC [245], stacked multicell (SM) converter [246],
Desai et al. [96] developed multiple pin fin shapes (circular,
hybrid CHB (HCHB) [247], switched series/parallel sources
rectangular, pyramid, and triangular) for PCM and reported
(SSPS) based MLC [248], nest NPC (NNPC) [249] have
that the triangular structure provided optimum cooling.
been developed for industrial applications. A summary
Another study by Bondareva et al. [238] reported that the
of commonly used MLC configurations along with their
heat transfer rate decreases when the width of the PCM-
advantages, disadvantages and applications are summarized
based pin-fin is increased. However, increasing the pin-fin
in Table 2.
length beyond the limit would decrease the energy storage
capacity of the heat sink. So, the pin-fin parameter must
be designed appropriately. Other studies also reported that B. THERMAL MANAGEMENT DURING FAULT CONDITION
pin-fin parameters might affect the PCM-based heat sinks Methods for employing thermal management under fault
performance both positively (improved thermal conductivity) conditions must also be investigated to enhance the reliability
and negatively (reduced phase change enthalpy) [239], [240]. of PECs. The influence of various grid faults such as single-
phase, two-phase connected and three-phase grounded faults
3) COMBINING PCM WITH OTHER COOLING METHODS on the thermal behavior of a 3-level NPC converter is
PCM can also be combined with a TE cooler, heat investigated in [251]. The authors reported that single-phase
pipe, and vapor chamber for performance improvement. and two-phase connected faults lead to uneven thermal
Krishna et al. [229] observed a 25.75% decrease in the loading in the three phases. However, for three-phase
temperature of the heat pipe evaporator when PCM is added. grounded faults, the thermal loading pattern in the three
Another favorable result was presented in [241] where it was phases is the same. Furthermore, during fault conditions, the
reported that 86.7% contribution of the cooling performance junction temperature of some specific power devices will be
can be expected from PCM in a PCM-heat pipe arrangement. higher than the junction temperature of the power device
with the highest thermal stress during regular operation.
IV. DISCUSSION, CHALLENGES AND FUTURE WORK The thermal performance of an MMC with ATC during
A. MULTILEVEL INVERTER FRAMEWORK single line to ground fault is presented in [252]. A foster-
Several multilevel converters (MLC) topologies have been based thermal model of the MMC has been developed in
presented in literature to improve the power rating, thermal this study to establish a proportional relationship between

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TABLE 2. Summary of multilevel converter performance [31], [247], [250].

MMC DC current and thermal imbalance in the submodules.

Afterward, an ATC technique based on the neutral-point-
shift (NPS) method is proposed to reshape the MMC AC
voltage to balance the MMC DC current. This causes a
balanced thermal stress distribution among the three phases.
Another NPS-based approach for thermal management of a
half-bridge-based MMC during unbalanced grid conditions is
investigated in [253]. The MMC under consideration in this
study is depicted in Figure 57. Here, every phase of the MMC
has two arms, each consisting of an arm inductor, S number of
active submodules, and R number of redundant submodules.
The surplus submodules and the NPS are employed to achieve
thermal management.
Deng et al. [254] proposed a variable frequency (VF)
based control strategy for balancing the temperature among FIGURE 57. MMC circuit configuration [253].
the three phases of an MMC during unbalanced grid
voltages. Each phase of an MMC experiences unbalanced arm
currents due to unbalanced voltages, which result in unequal a is depicted in Figure 58. Here, the PI controller regulates
temperature distribution and power losses. The VF strategy the carrier frequency fw_a by generating a compensating
adjusts the carrier frequency of each phase to regulate the frequency fa . If the average temperature is greater than the
temperature distribution. The proposed VF control for phase reference temperature, then the PI controller reduces the

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FIGURE 58. Proposed VF control for a single phase [254].

compensating component fa , and the opposite happens if the

average temperature becomes lesser than the reference value.
A space vector modulation (SVM) based ATC approach
is presented in [242] that optimizes the thermal performance
of a 3-level Neutral point clamped (NPC) connected wind
turbine under low voltage ride through (LVRT) conditions. FIGURE 60. Junction temperature reduction of 3-level NPC [242].
The space vector diagram for the converter is shown in
Figure 59. There is switching redundancy for all state vectors
at the inner part of sector 1, which is exploited to generate
a suitable modulation sequence for reducing conduction
losses in the semiconductor device. This reduces the junction
temperature of the devices under thermal stress, as shown in
Figure 60.

FIGURE 61. PV central inverter TMS [256].

inverter in a PV system. The investigated TMS is based on

FIGURE 59. Space vector diagram for 3-level NPC converter. liquid cooling and includes cold plates (CP), internal and
external heat exchangers (HE), recirculating pump (P), and
Another thermal management technique focusing on water collectors (WC), as shown in Figure 61. Fault tree
the fault-resilient design of an integrated gate-commutated analysis (FTA) was applied to identify the faults occurring
thyristor (IGCT) based 3-level NPC converter is discussed in any of the components of the TMS. Faults in the heat
in [255]. The results showed that through the optimized exchanger were identified as the most impactful as they
design of busbars and temperature regulation, the IGCTs resulted in a 7.5% rise in the junction temperature of the
could withstand converter shoot-through situations even if investigated IGBTs.
there is a failure in the circuit breakers. This is achieved by
adding extra resilience impedance to the NPC’s clamping C. IMPACT OF AMBIENT ENVIRONMENT ON PEC
diodes that ensures the diodes will reach the thermal limit THERMAL MANAGEMENT
before the IGCTs. The ambient environment significantly influences the thermal
The authors in [256] presented a model-based technique management of PECs, and overlooking certain considerations
for fault detection and diagnosis of the TMS of the central related to environmental adaptability can lead to severe

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performance issues and reduced reliability. Some key factors and ensure the system accounts for potential condensation.
to consider are temperature variations, humidity and mois- Hazardous condensation may occur in offshore wind power
ture, dust and contaminants, corrosive atmospheres and solar converters equipped with water cooling due to a rapid drop
radiation. in active power production. Zhang et al. [259] addressed
Temperature variations in the ambient environment affect this issue by proposing an ATC-based anti-condensation
the cooling efficiency of TMSs employed in PECs. High technique that keeps the temperature of potential cold
temperatures can reduce the converter’s overall efficiency spots in a 3-MW real-scale wind power converter above
and lifespan. So, the PECs must be designed in a way that the dew point. The proposed method employs the reactive
operates within specified temperature ranges, and advanced circulating current control strategy inherent in parallel
thermal management techniques, such as liquid cooling or PECs to develop the anti-condensation technique. Moreover,
heat sinks, must be applied to dissipate heat effectively. Yu et al. [260] investigated the influence of relative humidity
Wang et al. [257] proposed an innovative thermal modeling on the reliability of wind power converters and proposed
method for power electronic components, addressing the a reliability evaluation framework to identify the effect
shortcomings of existing analytical methods that depend of relative humidity on the reliability evaluation of these
on steady ambient temperatures. This method takes into converters.
account the thermal dynamics caused by variations in Accumulation of dust and contaminants on the converter
ambient temperature and self-heating before calculating the surfaces can also hinder heat dissipation and reduce the
thermal coefficients based on frequency-domain modeling. efficiency of the TMS. Regular maintenance and cleaning
The accuracy of the model was validated by experimental protocols should be implemented to address this issue. Fur-
results obtained after considering a 10◦ C variation in local thermore, the thermal design of enclosures for outdoor power
ambient temperature caused by both the environment and electronics becomes challenging due to the need to isolate
loading profile. Figure 62 shows the obtained results from the system from moisture, dust, and other environmental
this study, demonstrating the proposed method’s accuracy. contaminants. Owens et al. [261] proposed the design of
a breathable enclosure using computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) for the thermal management of outdoor power
electronics. The study revealed that certain water-resistant
textiles used in sportswear possess sufficient air permeability
to offer major cooling benefits when combined with internal
fans. Also, typically used membrane materials such as
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) do not provide substantial
cooling advantage due to being too air-impermeable.
Altitude also affects TMS performance as higher altitude
leads to lower air density, which influences the cooling
efficiency and thermal performance of the converter. The
cooling mechanism must be adaptable to compensate for
reduced heat dissipation efficiency. In [262] an investigation
on the impact of altitude on forced air convective cooling
in high-power electronics used in MEA was conducted.
FIGURE 62. Comparison of hot-spot temperature between the proposed To investigate this, the convective HTC at altitudes ranging
and existing thermal model [257]. from 0 to 52,000 feet above sea level, with a constant
room temperature of 24◦ C, was measured and the test
Wei et al. [258] proposed another thermal modeling results indicated that the Nusselt number and pressure loss
approach considering convection thermal coupling for accu- coefficient remain independent of altitude. This finding
rately estimating the junction temperature under varying would facilitate the optimization of thermal management
ambient temperatures. This study developed a FEM-based solutions for flight control systems. Chang et al. [263]
model for establishing a relationship between junction proposed a TMS for a 200-kW high-density inverter used
temperature and variation in ambient temperature. This in MEA which is designed for an altitude of 25,000 feet.
relationship can be utilized to gain a better understanding In high altitudes, it is challenging to cool power devices
of the influence of the environment on junction temperature with high heat flux using air cooling methods. So, a liquid
variations and assist in developing improved TMS for cooling method using a microchannel was proposed, which
converters. has a high cooling capacity in addition to low cost and
Another key environmental parameter that influences the weight. Moreover, this study also addressed the issue of
PECs is humidity, which can lead to electrical leakage, localized hotspot generation in areas such as busbars, gate-
corrosion and insulation breakdown in power electronic driver boards, and terminals of the drive system when
components. Therefore, TMSs must include sufficient pro- operating in high altitudes. The proposed solution to this
tective measures to safeguard the converter against moisture issue involved adding a localized forced cooling air duct

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with optimized internal and external airflow that reduced environment, forced liquid cooling continues to be the
the hotspot temperature by 37%. The air ducts minimized preferred choice in PECs designed for electrified trans-
the effect of hotspots without adding extra weight to the portation [267]. In high altitude applications, convective
system. Moreover, it was demonstrated that the hotspot thermal resistance (Rth,conv ) between a heat sink and its
temperature of the inverter inside a sealed enclosure can be enclosure decreases due to decreased air density caused by
maintained below 130◦ C with an ambient temperature of a harsh environment [263]. So, the thermal model for such
75◦ C and at an altitude of 7620 m. Another study conducted applications needs to be adjusted accordingly.
by Elsayed et al. [264] assessed the thermal performance of The high voltage high-power PECs used in EVs face
an air-cooling-based TMS operating across various altitudes a harsh environment due to the strict operating condi-
ranging from sea level to 12,000m. The cooling mechanism tions [268]. The onboard cooling systems face significant
included a parallel plate-fin heat sink (PPFHS) with a challenges due to increased power density, high ambient
guide plate for optimizing performance at high altitudes. temperature under the hood and high humidity. Moreover,
Performance analysis carried out using ANSYS indicated that sudden acceleration and deceleration lead to significant
heat sink configuration without any guide plate is not suitable power cycling. To address these issues, advanced cooling
for high altitude operation. Figure 63 shows the heat sink techniques for EV converters have been presented in [41],
design with the guide plate. [48], and [269].
Moreover, considering power converters in PV and wind
systems are consistently subjected to harsh environments, it is
essential to address this issue in TMSs to improve reliabil-
ity [270]. Several thermal management techniques have been
discussed for PV inverter thermal management [36], [256],
[271] and wind converter thermal management [49], [259],
[272].
Peng et al. [273] proposed a thermal management method
to ensure the safe operation of high-power electronics in
logging tools that are employed in high-temperature down-
hole environments for detecting underground oil and gas
resources. This method integrates a heat sink, a heat storage
module, and heat pipes within Phase Change Materials
(PCMs). It was shown experimentally that the temperature of
the electronic component can be maintained below 125◦ C,
FIGURE 63. Heat sink with guide plate [264]. which significantly reduces thermal failures of high-power
downhole electronic equipment.
Li et al. [265] addressed the challenges of electronic
cooling at high altitudes, revealing that solar radiation
can cause a temperature deviation of 4.1◦ C for electronic E. THERMAL MANAGEMENT INTERACTION WITH
devices operating at 20 km altitude. To mitigate this issue, CRITICAL CONVERTER FEATURE
an optimized heat sink design validated by a 3D model ATC methods affect the power quality and harmonic
was proposed. The consideration of solar radiation in heat performance of the PECs. Ozkan et al. [51] proposed an
sink design led to a change in the heat transfer area ratio MPC-based ATC method for the PECs of a ship power system
that ultimately resulted in a 5.7% increase in heat sink and discussed the tradeoff between thermal and electrical
weight. Considering these environmental factors, incorpo- performance. Improving the thermal performance resulted
rating robust design strategies for thermal management is in high THD, which can be mitigated by assigning an
crucial for ensuring the long-term reliability and performance appropriate weighting factor to the MPC cost function. The
of PECs in diverse operating conditions. It is essential to impact of power routing-based ATC on the THD performance
conduct thorough environmental testing and analysis during was discussed in [30]. The operation of modular converters
the design phase to identify and address potential issues becomes unbalanced due to the application of power routing,
proactively. which results in high harmonic distortion. The harmonic per-
formance can be improved by employing novel modulation
D. IMPACT OF HARSH ENVIRONMENT ON PEC techniques such as variable angle phase-shifted pulse-width
THERMAL MANAGEMENT modulation (PS-PWM). An ATC method for wind converters
Operating converters in harsh conditions, especially under was presented in [272] that maintained the THD below 5%.
extreme temperatures and high humidity, presents several Moreover, this study reported that a 1% increase in THD
challenges. PECs in electric aircraft function within chal- resulted in a 0.144-year increase in the lifetime of the IGBT
lenging conditions with temperature fluctuations ranging modules in a wind power converter. Another ATC technique
from -55◦ C to -70◦ C [266]. Considering this challenging employing hybrid switching frequency is proposed in [274]

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TABLE 3. Suggested cooling methods for thermal management of PECs.

that improves the THD of line current in a 3-level NPC Air-cooled systems are cost-effective but constrained by
converter. Further ATC strategies that ensure optimum THD ambient temperature and low cooling capacity. On the
performance are presented in [242], [275], and [276]. other hand, liquid cooling, although more efficient, requires
increased maintenance efforts and higher initial costs.
F. SELECTION OF COOLING METHOD A thorough investigation comparing air and liquid-cooled
The suggested area of application of some of the discussed systems for automotive inverters was presented in [284]. The
thermal management methods is summarized in Table 3. study concluded that liquid cooling is more suitable for auto-
motive applications and justified the cost of implementation.
G. ECONOMIC ANALYSIS Moreover, the cost analysis must also consider the associated
The application of ATC gives rise to notable concern manufacturing costs for the design procedure of heat sinks
regarding the reliability of the PECs and their corresponding and cold plates. An optimized design of a cost-effective and
maintenance costs. These costs can be reduced through mon- environmentally friendly heat sink for PCM-based cooling
itoring and controlling the lifespan of PSDs. Tackling these was presented in [285]. The authors in [286] investigated a
challenges requires a deep understanding of semiconductor PCM-based heat sink with partially filled copper foam that
physics, efficient management of electrical variables, and had cost and weight benefits over fully filled copper foam.
the creation of optimal maintenance plans and schedules. The design of a novel biporous spiral woven mesh wick for
An optimized ATC method offers notable advantages. Firstly, enhancing the thermal performance of an ultra-thin flattened
it permits narrower safety margins, resulting in improved heat pipe was presented in [287]. The optimal biporous wick
reliability, availability, and generally cooler systems. Sec- had a 22% reduction in copper wires, leading to minimized
ondly, it minimizes expenses occurring from unscheduled production costs. An approach for optimizing pin fin heat sink
maintenance, which is a critical consideration as operational design for semi-active configuration with an existing cooling
demands rise and financial resources become constrained. fan was presented in [288]. This approach led to a 53% vol-
Hence, developing a cost-effective ATC method that incor- ume reduction compared to commercial heat sinks, which led
porates the state of health (SOH) and degradation of power to reduced production costs. From the perspective of coolant,
converters is beneficial for optimizing maintenance costs. hybrid nanofluids containing Al2 O3 and multi-walled Carbon
Several literature have emphasized the cost reduction associ- nanotube (MWCNT) were suggested for taking advantage
ated with ATC methods [30], [283] and power routing-based of lost costs of Al2 O3 nanoparticles in [132]. A comparison
ATC was suggested for minimizing maintenance costs with between jet impingement and microchannel-based design
minimal additional initial expenses [66], [67], [69]. was conducted in [289] and concluded that jet impingement

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design would be more cost-effective as the simplicity of Spray cooling is extremely suitable for high flux cooling,
drilling holes led to reduced manufacturing costs. Further but several challenges are associated with this technique [82],
approaches for cost-effective thermal management design [182]. The most significant of those is the considerable
were presented in [290] and [291]. pumping power required for providing high-pressure drops
to the nozzles. Moreover, there is an increased chance of
H. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE SCOPE clogging due to the narrow passages inside the nozzle.
1) ATC CHALLENGES Furthermore, slight deviations in the fabrication process can
A major challenge associated with thermal controllers is the lead to a significant alteration in the impact pattern of the
accurate estimation of junction temperature with regard to the nozzle.
accuracy, bandwidth, and phase lag. Recent advancements Several challenging issues are associated with jet
in junction temperature sensing have seen the development impingement cooling, such as considerable surface tem-
of various technologies that provide higher accuracy and perature fluctuation in single-phase cooling, large coolant
bandwidth [292], [293], [294]. Still, there are persistent delivery systems, complexity of pumping equipment,
challenges as many sensing approaches are costly, exhibit low and flow obstruction between adjacent jets. Suggested
signal-to-noise ratios and are sensitive to external influences performance-enhancing ideas for jet impingement cooling
and degradation. include nozzle configuration improvement, impingement
Another challenge for thermal control lies in the assess- surface modification, and improving cooling fluid properties.
ment of health status and degradation prediction, as these Immersion cooling is an efficient technique for thermal
factors are crucial for maintenance scheduling [26]. Effective management, but more research is needed to overcome
thermal control cannot be applied without access to the RUL issues such as floating fluff in the cooling fluid and aging
of power electronic components. of electronic devices with coolant. Establishing a balance
Minimizing the impact of thermal control methods on between the electrical and thermal sides is also an exciting
the operation of PECs is also a significant challenge. ATC area of research for immersion cooling.
methods involve changing the current or the PWM pattern by PCM has been commonly used for thermal management,
manipulating the switching frequency and losses to protect although more detailed study is needed to enhance thermal
the PECs from thermal stress. These methods exert negligible performance. Nanofluid has been considered as a possible
impact on regular system operation but have a considerable solution, but further studies are needed to optimize the
impact when the converters are operating at their thermal concentration of nanofluid in PCM.
limit [44]. So, all prevailing conditions must be considered
for reducing the impact of these methods during operation at 3) FUTURE SCOPE
thermal limits. Based on the investigated studies, the following suggestions
The introduction of new semiconductor technologies and are proposed as recommendations for future research.
packaging also creates new challenges. The lifespan of WBG • ATC methods need further research for enhancing
semiconductors is significantly more affected by thermal junction temperature sensing by improving the accuracy
cycles compared to Si devices [26]. Another challenge in and bandwidth of temperature monitoring systems.
applying ATC with WBG devices is obtaining accurate Additionally, research efforts should be directed to
and high-bandwidth junction temperature estimation. This minimize the impact of ATC on PEC operations. Future
difficulty arises due to the faster switching processes of WBG research must explore scenarios where minor control
devices compared to Si devices and requires a more complex actions are sufficient during transients, reserving more
circuit for extracting temperature-related information [295]. invasive actions only for worst-case situations.
• ATC methods focusing on increasing overload capacity
2) TRADITIONAL COOLING TECHNIQUE CHALLENGES need further improvement to guarantee the availability
Some of the challenges associated with channel cooling are of rated power and ensure dynamic active thermal
pressure drop/pumping power penalty, limited heat transfer management.
owing to the boundary layer, and uneven cooling due • More research needs to be done to develop novel
to unwanted temperature increases in the coolant [182]. ATC methods acknowledging the trade-off between
To mitigate these problems, several researchers have carried reliability, availability and lifetime of PSDs.
out studies to decrease the thermal boundary layer and • ATC application in paralleled converters needs further
attain uniform cooling, considering minimum pressure loss. research for improving PEC health status estimation and
Modifying the channel configuration, changing the material regulation of thermal loading across the PECs.
type, attaching solid structures such as pin fin, using vortex • Recently developed thermal management systems are
generators, agitating the liquid flow, and improving the vulnerable to cyber-physical threats, which must be
coolant type are some of the concepts applied to enhance addressed in future research. Major cybersecurity threats
the heat transfer process. Additionally, boiling fluid can include unauthorized access, manipulation of data, and
provide improved heat transfer performance compared to alteration of commands controlling critical thermal
single-phase cooling due to its superior cooling capacity. management features such as fan speed, pump speed,

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S. M. I. Rahman et al.: Emerging Trends and Challenges in Thermal Management of PEC

valve position, coolant flow rate and pressure. Future advancement in surface design, and enhancement of cooling
research should look into measures such as encrypting fluid.
data and commands transferred between TMS and the This work has comprehensively reviewed typical methods
control unit or cloud to enhance resilience against cyber- for power electronics cooling. ATC implementation at
attacks. Moreover, designing diverse TMSs capable of different levels with applied control strategies has been
independent operation or easy transition to a backup thoroughly investigated. This study will serve as a reference
mode in case of a cyberattack needs more attention. for future research on thermal management systems.
• The integration of AI methods such as expert systems,
fuzzy logic, metaheuristic methods, and machine learn- ACKNOWLEDGMENT
ing into the TMS is also an exciting area for future This work was supported by Clemson University’s Virtual
research. Prototyping of Autonomy Enabled Ground Systems (VIPR-
• Research related to spray cooling and impingement GS), under Cooperative Agreement W56HZV-21-2-0001
cooling needs further investigation for developing with the US Army DEVCOM Ground Vehicle Systems
ultra-compact design while preserving thermal perfor- Center (GVSC).
mance. Moreover, heat pipe integrated cooling mecha- DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A. Approved for public
nism needs further improvement of the inner structure release; distribution is unlimited. (OPSEC 7839)
of the pipes. Attaining a compact heat sink design The authors would like to acknowledge the Warren
while preserving optimum thermal performance is also H. Owen Distinguished Professorship Endowment for its
a recommended area for future work. support of the research effort.
• Combining multiple cooling techniques considering
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ALI MOGHASSEMI (Graduate Student Member, BEHNAZ PAPARI (Senior Member, IEEE)
IEEE) received the B.S. and M.S. degrees received the B.S. degree in electrical engineering
in electrical engineering from Islamic Azad from the University of Bushehr, Iran, in 2008, the
University, South Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran, M.Sc. degree in electrical engineering from the
in 2012 and 2015, respectively. He is cur- K. N. Toosi University of Technology, Iran,
rently pursuing the Ph.D. degree with the in 2011, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and
Real-Time COntrol and Optimization Laboratory computer engineering from Florida State Uni-
(RT-COOL), Holcombe Department of Electrical versity, USA, in 2018. Prior to joining the
and Computer Engineering, Clemson University, Department of Automotive Engineering and
Clemson, SC, USA, under the supervision of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Clemson
Dr. Christopher S. Edrington and Dr. Gokhan Ozkan. He is a Graduate University, in Spring 2022, she was an Assistant Professor with the
Research Assistant. He is working on electro-thermal modeling, simulation, Department of Marine Engineering Technology, Texas A&M University,
and control of power electronics building blocks (PEBBs) in all-electric ships and an Assistant Professor of practice with the Energy Production and
(AESs). His research interests include modeling, simulation, and real-time Infrastructure Center (EPIC), UNC Charlotte, for three years, where she
modeling of power electronics and renewable energy systems. taught at undergraduate and graduate levels. Her background is in power
systems controls with an emphasis on modeling, analysis, planning, and
AI-based optimization. Her current research interests include distributed
controls and secure control frameworks under uncertainty, applications on
energy system modeling, and stochastic optimization, electric vehicles,
ALI ARSALAN (Graduate Student Member, including electric and hybrid-electric, and ESSs.
IEEE) received the bachelor’s degree in elec-
tronics engineering from UCET, IUB, Pakistan,
in 2015, and the master’s degree in electrical
engineering from UET, Lahore, Pakistan, in 2019.
He is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in
automotive engineering with Clemson University, GOKHAN OZKAN (Senior Member, IEEE)
SC, USA. After the bachelor’s studies, he was received the first B.S. degree in teacher train-
a Laboratory Engineer with the Khwaja Fareed ing (electrical field) from Marmara University,
University of Engineering and Information Tech- in 2006, the second B.S. and M.S. degrees in
nology (KFUEIT), Pakistan, for five and a half years. He is a Graduate energy system engineering from Erciyes Uni-
Research Assistant with the Secure Energy and Automation Laboratory versity, Turkey, in 2014 and 2015, respectively,
(SEAL), International Center for Automotive Research (ICAR), Greenville, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical and computer
SC, USA. His research interests include optimization, microgrids, energy engineering from the FAMU-FSU College of
management, EV technologies, cyber security, and power system resiliency Engineering. He was a Lecturer with Bozok Uni-
toward cyber threats. versity, Turkey. He was also a Graduate Research
Assistant with the Center for Advanced Power Systems, FSU. He joined
as a Postdoctoral Research Associate with the RT-COOL Group, Clemson
University, where he is currently a Research Assistant Professor. His
research interests include renewable energy sources, power and energy
LAXMAN TIMILSINA (Graduate Student Mem- management, real-time modeling and simulation, power electronics, and
ber, IEEE) received the B.E. degree in electrical control, distributed energy resources, and electrical vehicles.
engineering and the M.Sc. degree in distributed
generation in electrical engineering from the
Institute of Engineering, Tribhuvan University,
Nepal, in 2016 and 2019, respectively. He is
currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in electrical
engineering with Clemson University, under the CHRISTOPHER S. EDRINGTON (Senior
supervision of Dr. Christopher S. Edrington. He is Member, IEEE) received the B.S. degree in
a Graduate Research Assistant with the Real-Time engineering from Arkansas State University,
Control and Optimization Laboratory (RT-COOL), Holcombe Department in 1999, and the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in
of Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE), Clemson University. His electrical engineering from Missouri University
research interests include electric vehicles, the integration of renewable of Science and Technology, in 2001 and 2004,
energy, and smart grids. respectively. He was a DoE GAANN Fellow,
NSF IGERT Fellow, and a Grainger Foundation
Fellow with Missouri University of Science and
Technology. He is currently the Warren H. Owen
Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering with
PHANI KUMAR CHAMARTHI (Member, IEEE) Clemson University; the Lead of the Real-Time COntrol and Optimization
received the joint M.Tech. and Ph.D. degrees with Laboratory (RT-COOL), Clemson University; and the Co-Director of the
a specialization in power electronics and power Smart Energy and Propulsion Focus Area in the new VIrtual PRototyping
systems from the Department of Electrical and for Ground Vehicle Systems (VIPR-GS) Center. He has published more than
Electronics Engineering, Indian Institute of Tech- 170 papers (including two IEEE Prize Awards and multiple conference paper
nology Bombay, Mumbai, India, in 2018. He is awards). He has graduated 23 M.S. students and 16 Ph.D. students (with
currently a Postdoctoral Fellow with Clemson three in the process), and eight patents (in real-time stability and complexity
University, USA. His research interests include metrics, insulation breakdown, and linear machines). His research interests
new single-stage transformerless inverter topolo- include modeling, simulation, and control of electromechanical drive
gies, multilevel converter topologies, space vector systems; applied power electronics; distributed control; and integration of
control of multilevel converters, and new modulation and control strategies renewable energy, storage, and pulse power loads.
of multilevel converters with a focus on renewable energy applications.

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