Important Notes for

Entry Test
Mathematics

Saad Ur Rehman 6/1/20 FSC I&II

 Conic Section
Conic section, or simply conics are the curves obtained by cutting a right circular cone by a plane.
If cone is cut by plane perpendicular to section of cone, then conic is a circle.
If the cutting plane is slightly tilted and cuts only one nape of the cone, the resulting section is an ellipse.
If the intersecting plane is parallel to a generator of the cone, but intersects its one nape only, the curve
of intersection is a parabola.
If the intersecting plane is parallel to a generator of the cone, and intersects it’s both napes, then the
curve of intersection is hyperbola
The Greek mathematicians Apollonius and Pappus discovered many intersecting properties of conic
section
Circle
The set notation of the circle is
𝑆(𝐶; 𝑟) = {𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦): |𝐶𝑃| = 𝑟}
C and r are called elements of the circle.
x = r cos 𝜃 ; 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒.
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 2 √𝑔2 − 𝑐 ; 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 2 √𝑓 2 − 𝑐

Parabola
Let the parabola
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 4 = 0 … (𝑖)
Variable with power 2 will get fixed, here x will get fixed in axis, focus and vertex.
The coefficient of variable with power 1 (here y) will be the length of latusrectrum and is equal to 4a, since
it is length, so it is always taken positive, so we get length of latusrectrum equal to 8.

Equation of axis
Differentiate equation 1 with respect to the variable who got fixed (consider other variable as constant)
to get the equation of axis. So we get 𝑥 = 2

Vertex
X component is fixed, use it in given equation to get y component of vertex. So focus of given parabola is
(2, 0) = (h,k)

Focus
Focus in standard form is at (0, a), otherwise x component is same as that of vertex (in this case), Y
component of focus is obtained by adding a in y component of vertex. Here a=2 so focus is at (2, 2).
Equation of Directrix
Equation of Directrix will be in variable with power 1, put it equal to negative value of focus and add value
of k in it.

Equation of latusrectrum
Equation of latusrectrum is same as that of Directrix with opposite sign.

Ellipse
Let the ellipse
9𝑥 2 − 18𝑥 + 4𝑦 2 + 8𝑦 − 23 = 0 … … … . (𝑖)
If the coefficients of square terms are same in sign then it is ellipse, otherwise the conic is hyperbola.
Variable with greater coefficient will get fixed in foci, vertex and center. Here x will get fixed. And the
variable which isn’t fixed is called major axis

Eccentricity
𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 9 − 4 √5 𝑐
𝑒=√ =√ = =
𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 9 3 𝑎

Equation of Axis
Differentiate given equation with respect to the variable with greater coefficient. And consider other
variable as constant. So by differentiating given equation with respect to x, we get 𝑥 = 1

Center
Centre is obtained by derivative method, here we’ll get (1, -1).
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (1, −1)

Foci
𝑓𝑜𝑐𝑖 = (𝑥 , 𝑦 + 𝑐)

Vertices
𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = (𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑎)

Equation of Directrices
Jis component me variation hoti hy, direcrices ki equation us component me hoti hy.
𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 9
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠: 𝑦 = 𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 ± = −1 ±
√𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 √5

Length of Latusrectrum
Length of latusrectrum is 2b2/a
Example
Consider the ellipse
(2𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑦 + 2)2
+ =1
4 16
It is to be noted that coefficient of x and y should be 1, so by making the coefficient 1, we get
1 2
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑦 + 2)2
+ = 1 … (𝑖)
1 16
Here the major axis is y axis, so the component x will get fixed.

Eccentricity
16 − 1 √15 𝑐
𝑒=√ = =
16 4 𝑎

Equation of axis
1
𝑥=
2

Center
1
Center is at (2 , −2)

Foci
1 1
( , −2 ± √𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡) = ( , −2 ± √15)
2 2

Vertices
1 1
The vertices are (2 , −2 ± √𝑏𝑖𝑔 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡) = (2 , −2 ± 4)

Equation of Directrices
16
𝑦 = −2 ±
√15

Relation between a b and c

Note that for ellipse 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑎 > 𝑏
 Hyperbola
Consider the hyperbola 9𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 36𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 18 = 0 … (𝑖)
The square power term with negative sign will get fixed, here y will get fixed, so the axis is x axis

Eccentricity
𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 9 − (−1)
𝑒=√ =√ = √10
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 +1

Center
By using derivative method, we get center (2, -3)
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑙𝑒𝑡 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (2, −3)

Equation of axis
𝑦 = −3

Foci
The foci are (𝑥 ± √𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡, 𝑦) = (2 ± √10, −3)

Vertices
The vertices are (𝑥 ± √𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 , 𝑦) = (2 ± 1, −3)

Equation of Directrices
𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑒 ±
√𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟
 Introduction to analytical geometry
To find the ratio in which a line divides two points
𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = −
𝑢𝑠𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒

Example
Find the ratio in which x axis divides the points (5, -4), (2, 3)
𝐴𝑠 𝑤𝑒 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 0
4
So the ratio is – = 4: 3
3
If the answer is positive then (internally) otherwise (externally)

Example 2
Let the line is 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 4 = 0
5−4−4
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = − = 3: 1
2+3−4

To find the ratio in which a 3rd parallel line divides two parallel lines
The line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐2 =
0 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 = |𝑐2 − 𝑐|: |𝑐1 − 𝑐|

Relation between coefficients of parallel, perpendicular and coincident

lines
𝑎1 𝑏
If 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 ||𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎2
= 𝑏1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎1 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 = 0
2
If lines are perpendicular then, 𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2 = 0
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
If lines are coincident then, 𝑎1 = 𝑏1 = 𝑐1
2 2 2
𝑎1 𝑏1
If ≠ then lines are intersecting, perpendicular lines are also intersecting but they are also orthogonal.
𝑎2 𝑏2
The line perpendicular to 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0
A line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑏

Angle between two lines

Let the lines 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑏1 𝑦 + 𝑐1 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑏2 𝑦 + 𝑐2 = 0
𝑎1 𝑎2 + 𝑏1 𝑏2
cos 𝜃 =
√𝑎1 2 + 𝑏1 2 √𝑎2 2 + 𝑏2 2
To find the fourth vertex of a ||gm.
Let A(a, b), B(c, d), C(e, f) be the three given vertices of a ||gm. And we have to find D(x, y) =?
𝑥 = 𝑎 +𝑒 −𝑐 ;𝑦 = 𝑏 +𝑓 −𝑑
 Functions and Limits
Standard forms of central conics are symmetric about origin.
𝑥2 𝑦2
Let the equation − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
→ If x is replaced by –x and no effect on equation, then it is symmetric about y axis.
→ If y is replaced by –y and no effect on equation, then it is symmetric about x axis
→ If both variables are replaced and no effect on equation, then it is symmetric about origin.

Representation of function
The only equation that represents a function has odd power of y variable.

In case of a figure
If a figure is given and you are asked to show that whether it represents a function or not, then draw
vertical lines on it, if all the vertical lines cut it at just a single point, then it represents a function, otherwise
not. For further explanation, see the figure given below

Finding inverse of a function

To find inverse of a function f(x), replace x with 𝑓 −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥

Example
Find the inverse of the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 + 7
By replacing as stated above, we get
𝑥 = 3𝑓 −1 (𝑥) + 7
𝑥 − 7 = 3𝑓 −1 (𝑥)
𝑥−7
⇒ 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) =
3

Exponential functions
1
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = 𝑎 log 𝑒 x = ln 𝑥
 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑘𝑥 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑎
∞
If putting direct limit gives form
∞
Let
𝑎𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + 𝑎2 𝑥 𝑚−2 …
lim =?
𝑥→±∞ 𝑏𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑏1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑏2 𝑥 𝑛−2 …
Take highest degree term from both numerator and denominator
𝑎
𝑎𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 = 𝑛
lim { = 0 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 > 𝑚
𝑥→±∞ 𝑏𝑥 𝑛
= ∞ 𝑖𝑓 𝑚 > 𝑛

The statement form of questions of limits

3𝑛2
The formula to calculate Covid-19 patients is given by , if n is very large, then calculate patient’s
𝑛2 +1000𝑛
quantity.
∞
By putting direct limit, we get form, so use above formula
∞
It means that 𝑛 → ∞
3𝑛2
lim 2 = 3
𝑛→∞ 𝑛

Important formula
𝑥+𝑎 𝑥
lim ( ) = 𝑒 𝑎−𝑏
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 𝑏
Note that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
3𝑥+4 3
Range of 2𝑥−1 𝑖𝑠 𝑅 − {2}

Entry test question

1 − |𝑥|
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) = √
2 − |𝑥|
1 − |𝑥|
>0
2 − |𝑥|
𝑊𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 2 − |𝑥| 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, 𝑠𝑜 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑦 2 − |𝑥|
(1 − |𝑥|)(2 − |𝑥|)
>0
(2 − |𝑥|)2
(1 − |𝑥|)(2 − |𝑥|) > 0 … … … (2 − |𝑥|)2 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
Now use the intervals given in the options, the interval that satisfies it, will be the answer
 Differentiation
𝑑 √𝑥 − 1
=?
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 + 1
𝑑 (𝑥 2 + 1)2
=?
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 − 1

Formula for questions like that

𝑑 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑚
= 𝑚
[𝑛 −𝑚 ]
𝑑𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)] [𝑔(𝑥)] 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

Another form
𝑑 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 [𝑓(𝑥)]𝑛 1(1) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 = 𝑥 [ + 𝑛 − 𝑚 ]
𝑑𝑥 [𝑔(𝑥)]𝑚 [𝑔(𝑥)]𝑚 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥)

Derivative of exponential function when base and exponent both are

variable
𝑑 𝑦 𝑦
𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑦 [ (𝑥)′ + (𝑦)′ ln 𝑥]
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
This equation is applicable to differentiate any kind of exponential function

Chain rule
𝑑
𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) =?
𝑑𝑥
Hint: Apply derivative to first function and all other terms as those are, then apply derivative to 2nd function
and repeat the above process and so on
𝑑
𝑓𝑜𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥). 𝑔′ (𝑥). 1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7 = 0, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
𝑑𝑥
As we know that 1st derivative is called slope of tangent, so slope of above line gives 1st derivative.

2nd method
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑥 (𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑦 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑦 ( 𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑥 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)

Another form
Let us suppose an example
 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = √tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + ⋯ ∞ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑥

Formula

If 𝑦 = √𝑓(𝑥) + √𝑓(𝑥) + √𝑓(𝑥) + ⋯ ∞ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛

𝑑𝑦 𝑓′(𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 − 1
So the answer of above example would be
𝑑𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦 − 1

To find nth derivative from a given polynomial

If 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 𝑥 𝑛−2 + ⋯ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 (𝑛) (𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒) =?
𝑦 (𝑛) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑛!
Here 𝑦 (𝑛+1) = 0 ; 𝑦 (𝑛−1) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑛! 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑛 − 1)!

Important trigonometric equations

𝜋
sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥 =
2
−1 −1
𝜋
tan 𝑥 + cot 𝑥 =
2
−1 −1
𝜋
sec 𝑥 + csc 𝑥 =
2

Minimum or maximum value

If 𝑓(𝑥) = a sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 cos 𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑓𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑓𝑚𝑖𝑛 = −√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Now let the function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
Minimum or maximum value = − 4𝑎
𝑏
Which occurs at 𝑥 = − 2𝑎

Increasing or decreasing functions

If 𝑓(𝑥) is given, then it is increasing if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 and vice versa

Example
Find the interval in which 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1 is increasing
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 − 3
Since f is increasing so 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0
3
4𝑥 − 3 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥 >
4
3
So the interval would be (4 , ∞)

Opening of a parabola using quadratic equation

Let the equation 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Above function represents a parabola which opens upward if 𝑎 > 0 and vice versa

Critical point
The point at which first derivative is 0 or ∞, and the function should also be defined on that value, is called
critical point.

Example
Find the critical point of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1 (𝑎)2 (𝑏)1 (𝑐) − 1 (𝑑)0
By using 1 in 1st derivative of function, we get 𝑓 ′ (1) = ∞. Also 𝑓(𝑥) is defined at x=1, so the right answer
is 1
 Integration (The Indefinite Integrals)
Integral of radical expressions
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =?
√𝑎𝑥 2+ 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
If 𝑎 > 𝑜, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln | + √𝑓(𝑥)| + 𝑐
√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 2𝑎
Where 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
If 𝑎 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
1 −𝑓(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = sin−1 ( )+𝑐
2
√𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 √𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 𝑐 𝑓 ′ (√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐)
∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 + ln | + √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐| + 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 0
2 2√𝑎 2𝑎

𝑥 𝑐 𝑎𝑥 2
∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑐 + sin−1 √ + 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 < 0
2 2√𝑎 𝑐

Integral of exponential functions

∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) . 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =?
Let ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Using I LATE concept, 𝑥 3 will be the first term and cos 𝑥 will be the 2nd term. Differentiate 1st term till
possible as given below
+ − + −
𝑥 3 3𝑥 2 6𝑥 6
Now integrate 2nd term, and its first term should be integrated
sin 𝑥, − cos 𝑥, −sin 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥
Now combine respective terms to get the answer
⇒ ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 − 6𝑥 sin 𝑥 − 6 cos 𝑥

∫[𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)𝑓 ′ (𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑐

Example
∫(2𝑥 ln 𝑥 + 𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 + 𝑐
Integrals of Partial fractions
1 1 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln | | + 𝑐 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 > 𝑏
(𝑥 + 𝑎)(𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑎−𝑏 𝑏𝑖𝑔𝑔𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
If there are 3 factors like
2𝑥 − 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3)
Put 1st factor equal to zero, and use value of x in expression except that factor and multiply natural log of
that factor, and repeat same process with 2nd and 3rd factor
By putting 1st factor equal to zero, we get𝑥 = 0, from 2nd, we get 𝑥 = 1, from 3rd, we get 𝑥 = 3
2𝑥 − 1 2(0) − 1 2(1) − 1 2(3) − 1
⇒∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + ln|𝑥 − 1| + ln|𝑥 − 3| + 𝑐
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 3) (0 − 1)(0 − 3) (1)(1 − 3) 3(3 − 1)

Power rule
If denominator is quadratic and power rule is not applicable. Then check tan−1 𝑥
Exercise 3.1
3
Give the approximate value of √86
Formula
𝑛
√𝑎 2 + 𝑏 2
Where a is a number whose nth root is possible
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 √𝑎 𝑏
Then √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 = √𝑎 +
𝑛𝑎
It there is negative sign between a and b, then use negative sign in the formula
Question
If Circumference of a circle changes from 16𝜋 to16.5𝜋, then calculate area change
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 , 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑤𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟
𝑑𝐴
= 2𝜋𝑟
𝑑𝑟
𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟, 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑟
𝑑𝑐
= 2𝜋
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐴 𝑑𝑐
⇒ =𝑟
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝑟
𝑐 16𝜋
𝑟= = =8
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑑𝑐 = 0.5𝜋 ⇒ 𝑑𝐴 = 8(0.5𝜋) = 4𝜋
 The Definite Integrals
Integrals of expressions involving Mod
Let us take an example
5
∫ |𝑥 − 3| 𝑑𝑥
−1
1st use upper limit in given expression, so we get 2.
Then use lower limit in the expression, so we get -4.
The answer will be
5
1 1
∫ |𝑥 − 3| 𝑑𝑥 = (2 × 2) + (−4 × −4)
−1 2 2
Now take another example
2 2 2 2
𝑥2 1 1
∫ (𝑥 + |𝑥|) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ |𝑥| 𝑑𝑥 = [ ] + (2 × 2) + (−1 × −1) = 4
−1 −1 −1 2 −1 2 2

The differential equations

𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝐼𝑓 = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 = 𝑐𝑒 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
⇒ 𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑦 2 = 2 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑑𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
⇒ 𝐼𝑓 . + = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑓(𝑦)𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐
𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑦) 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓(𝑦)
⇒ 𝐼𝑓 . = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 =𝑐
𝑓(𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥)
 Vector Algebra
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡)𝑜𝑓 𝑢 = 𝑎𝑖 + 𝑏𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘
𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑖;
𝐴𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑗; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑧 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑘

Direction cosines
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑠 |𝑢|, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
cos 𝛼 = … (𝑖); cos 𝛽 = … (𝑖𝑖); 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 = … (𝑖𝑖𝑖)
|𝑢| |𝑢| |𝑢|

Relation between direction cosines

cos2 𝛼 + cos2 𝛽 + cos2 𝛾 = 1
In entry test, this equation can be changed
1 − sin2 𝛼 + 1 − sin2 𝛽 + 1 − sin2 𝛾 = 1
So we can write
sin2 𝛼 + sin2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛾 = 2
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦, 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒
cos 2𝛼 + cos 2𝛽 + cos 2𝛾 = −1 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 cos 2𝑥 = 2 cos2 𝑥 − 1
𝐼𝑛 𝑒𝑞𝑠 (𝑖), (𝑖𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠, 0 ≤ 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 ≤ 𝜋
1
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 cos−1 (− ) = 135°
√2

Characteristics of parallel vectors

𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑨 = 𝑎1 𝑖 + 𝑏1 𝑗 + 𝑐1 𝑘; 𝑩 = 𝑎2 𝑖 + 𝑏2 𝑗 + 𝑐2 𝑘 𝑎𝑟𝑒 || 𝑖𝑓𝑓
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
= =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
Dot product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.
If two vectors are neither parallel nor perpendicular, then they are said to be oblique.
If three parallel vectors A, B and C are given,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝐶
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1
= =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

Example
Three vectors 𝑨 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗; 𝑩 = 8𝑖 + 𝑥𝑗; 𝑪 = 5𝑖 + 6𝑗 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 4𝑖 + (𝑥 − 3)𝑗; 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = −3𝑖 + (6 − 𝑥)𝑗
Terminate at a single point means they are parallel, by definition of parallel vectors,
4 𝑥−3
=
−3 6 − 𝑥
Now solve onward for x

Projection of a vector along other vector

𝑎.𝑏
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑏 = |𝑏|
= a cos 𝜃,
𝑎. 𝑏
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑏 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑎 = = 𝑏 cos 𝜃
|𝑎|
You must see the characteristics of dot and cross product from textbook

Area of a parallelogram
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 ||𝑔𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 = |𝑢 × 𝑣|
1
If two vectors 𝑢 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑜𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 ||𝑔𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = |𝑢 × 𝑣|
2

Entry test question

𝑖 × 𝑗 × 𝑘 =?
𝑖 × 𝑗 × 𝑘 = (𝑖 × 𝑗) × 𝑘 = 𝑘 × 𝑘 = 0

Scalar Triple Product

See the cycle given below

𝑢. 𝑣 × 𝑤 = 𝑣. 𝑤 × 𝑢 = 𝑤. 𝑢 × 𝑣
𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑢. 𝑣 × 𝑤 = 𝑢 × 𝑣. 𝑤 = [𝑢 𝑣 𝑤]
All the above relations represent scalar triple product and are equal to volume of parallelepiped.
Note that always cross is first operated, then dot is operated, i.e.
(𝑢. 𝑣) × 𝑢 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠
When scalar triple product is zero
When scalar triple product is zero, then there are three possibilities
⇒ Vectors u, v and w are coplanar
⇒ Any two vectors are equal
⇒ Any one vector is a null vector
Moment of Force
Let us understand with a question
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐹 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 3𝑘 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑃(1, −1, 2), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑄(3, 1, 2)

How to Solve?
Given options me se jis option k sath force ka dot product zero hoga, wo option correct hoga.
 Mathematical Induction and Binomial
Theorem
Validity of an Expansion
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥)𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛𝑡(𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 |𝑥| < 𝑂𝑅 − < 𝑥 < 𝑂𝑅 (− , )
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏 𝑏

Example
𝐸𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (3 − 2𝑥)−5 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ?
2 2 3 3
(𝑎) − < 𝑥 < (𝑏) − < 𝑥 < (𝑐) − 1 < 𝑥 < 1 (𝑑)𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐
3 3 2 2
3 3
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐, 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 − < 𝑥 < ,
2 2
3 3
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 − 1 < 𝑥 < 1 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − < 𝑥 < , 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡.
2 2

Number of Terms in an Expansion

⇒ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛 + 1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
⇒ 𝐼𝑓 𝑛 < 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒.
⇒ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 + (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑛 , 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑛
= ( + 1) 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛
2
𝑛+1
𝐼𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑑𝑑, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 − (𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒
𝑛 𝑛+1
= 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓𝑓, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
2 2

𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑚
𝑥𝑝 𝑏
𝑇𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑚𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 ( + ) 𝑖𝑠 𝑇𝑟+1
𝑎 𝑥𝑞
𝑛
𝑇𝑟+1 = ( ) (1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)𝑛−𝑟 (2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)𝑟
𝑟
𝑝𝑛 − 𝑚
𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑟 =
𝑝+𝑞
To find the term independent of x, use m=0

Mathematical Induction
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑤 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑠
1 + 5 + 9 + ⋯ (4𝑛 − 3) =?
(𝑎)𝑛2 (𝑏)𝑛(2𝑛 − 1) (𝑐)2𝑛 − 1 (𝑑)𝑛(𝑛 + 2)
How to Solve?
𝑈𝑠𝑒 𝑛 = 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑗𝑜 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑎
𝑗𝑎𝑒𝑛, 𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑜ℎ𝑖 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑜𝑔𝑎, 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑟 𝑎𝑔𝑎𝑟 2 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒ℎ𝑙𝑎𝑦 2 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑘 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑘 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑎 𝑟 −
𝑎ℎ𝑦 ℎ𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑛 = 3, 𝑎𝑢𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑖𝑟 𝑝𝑒ℎ𝑙𝑖 3 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑘𝑜 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑘𝑟𝑑𝑜, 𝑗𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑐ℎ 𝑘𝑟 𝑗𝑎𝑒, 𝑤𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 ℎ𝑜 𝑔𝑎
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛 = 2 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 6, 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 1 + 5 = 6, 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡.

2nd Type of Questions

𝑛! > 2𝑛 − 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟?
(𝑎)𝑛 < 3 (𝑏)𝑛 ≥ 3 (𝑐)𝑛 ≤ 2 (𝑑)𝑛 ≥ 4
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛 < 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≤ 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑛𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡, so (a) and (c)
are incorrect
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛 = 3 𝑖𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 6 > 7, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔, 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡.

Sum of Coefficients
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 1, 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑏 = 1, then remaining term
will give sum of all coefficients.
Also note that
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 2𝑛−1

Example
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (5𝑥 − 2𝑦)4 𝑖𝑠?
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 1, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 (5 − 2)4 = 34 = 81 = 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Greatest Coefficient
If n is even, then,
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝐶𝑛
2
If n is odd, then,
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝐶𝑛−1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝐶𝑛+1
2 2

Results of Some Binomial Expansions

If x is so small that it’s square and higher powers can be neglected, then
1 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑎+𝑏
√ ≈1+
1 − 𝑏𝑥 2

1 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑎+𝑏
√ ≈1−
1 + 𝑏𝑥 2

Next Example
3 3.5 3.5.7
1+ + + + ⋯ =?
4 4.8 4.8.12
Results of all expansions like that will be same, that is
1
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = [1 − 2(2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒)]−2
If the base become negative, then
1
−
1 2
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = [1 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠)]
2
So we try to find result of above expansion by using 1st formula.
1 1
3 −2 1 −2
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = [1 − 2 ( )] = (− )
4 2
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒, 𝑠𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎
By using 2nd formula
1 1
1 3 −2 1 −2
𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 = [1 − (1 + )] = ( ) = 2√2
2 4 8
Note:
All other questions like that of exercise 8.3 can be solved by 1st formula
 Trigonometric Identities
Complementary angles
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 90°, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑦
tan 𝑥 = cot 𝑦 → tan 𝑥 tan 𝑦 = 1 = cot 𝑥 cot 𝑦
sec 𝑥 = csc 𝑦 → cos 𝑥 csc 𝑦 = 1 = sin 𝑥 sec 𝑦
Here the angles x and y are called complementary angles

Example
sin 19 cos 11 + sin 71 sin 11 =?
𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 sin 71 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ cos 19 𝑎𝑠 71 + 19 = 90 (𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠)
1
sin 19 cos 11 + sin 71 sin 11 = sin 19 cos 11 + cos 19 sin 11 = sin(19 + 11) = sin 30 =
2

Example 2
sin 37 tan 18 sec 19
+ + =?
cos 53 cot 72 csc 71
𝑊𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 sin 37 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ cos 53 , tan 18 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ cot 72 , sec 19 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ csc 71, 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
sin 37 tan 18 sec 19 cos 53 cot 72 csc 71
+ + = + + =1+1+1=3
cos 53 cot 72 csc 71 cos 53 cot 72 csc 71

Example 3
cot 1 cot 2 cot 3 … cot 89 =?
𝐴𝑠 1 + 89 = 90, 2 + 88 = 90, 3 + 87 = 90, 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 1
𝑖. 𝑒. cot 1 cot 2 cot 3 … cot 89 = 1
𝜋
𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 tan 𝑥 tan ( − 𝑥) = 1
2

Supplementary angles
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 180° 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
sin 𝑥 csc 𝑥
= = −1 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒
sin 𝑦 csc 𝑦
cos 𝑥 tan 𝑥 sec 𝑥 cot 𝑥
= = = =1
cos 𝑦 tan 𝑦 sec 𝑦 cot 𝑦
Note that:
cos 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 90°, 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑒
sin 𝑓𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 90°

Reciprocal Rules (very important rules)

1
sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 = … … … (𝑖)
sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥
1
csc 𝑥 + cot 𝑥 = csc 𝑥−cot 𝑥 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
Example
𝐼𝑓 sec 𝑥 + tan 𝑥 = 2 … … … (𝑖𝑖𝑖), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sec 𝑥 =?
1 1
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞(𝑖), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 2 = 𝑂𝑅 sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 = … … … (𝑖𝑣)
sec 𝑥 − tan 𝑥 2
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑞(𝑖𝑖𝑖) + 𝑒𝑞(𝑖𝑣)𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
5 5
2 sec 𝑥 = 𝑂𝑅 sec 𝑥 =
2 4

Example 2
1 + cos 𝑥
𝐼𝑓 csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 = 𝑦, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 =?
sin 𝑥
1 + cos 𝑥 1 cos 𝑥 1 1
= + = csc 𝑥 + cot 𝑥 = =
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 csc 𝑥 − cot 𝑥 𝑦

Next Rule
𝐼𝑓 sin 𝑥 + csc 𝑥 = 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin𝑛 𝑥 + csc 𝑛 𝑥 = 2
𝐼𝑓 cos 𝑥 + sec 𝑥 = 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝑛 𝑥 + sec 𝑛 𝑥 = 2
𝐼𝑓 tan 𝑥 + cot 𝑥 = 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 tan𝑛 𝑥 + cot 𝑛 𝑥 = 2

Next Rule
cos 𝑥 cos(120 − 𝑥) cos(120 + 𝑥) = 0
For example
cos 20 cos 100 cos 140 = 0, ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 20

Next Rule
To solve the questions like that
(𝑖) cos 20 cos 40 cos 60 cos 80 =?
(𝑖𝑖) sin 20 sin 40 sin 60 sin 80 =?

1 2
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 = (2 × 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤)
2
1 1 1 2 1
𝑆𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 (𝑖) 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 = ( × cos 60) = ( × ) =
2 2 2 16
2 2
1 1 √3 3
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 (𝑖𝑖) 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 = ( × sin 60) = ( × ) =
2 2 2 16

Next Rule
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥
… … … (𝑖)
cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥
1 − tan 𝑥
= … … … (𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑏𝑦 cos 𝑥)
1 + tan 𝑥
tan 45 − tan 𝑥
= = tan(45 − 𝑥)
1 + tan 45 tan 𝑥
 cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 1 + tan 𝑥
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦 = tan(45 + 𝑥)
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 1 − tan 𝑥
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑖) 𝑏𝑦 sin 𝑥 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 cot 𝑥 − 1
=
cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cot 𝑥 + 1
𝑆𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑦
cos 𝑥 + sin 𝑥 cot 𝑥 + 1
=
cos 𝑥 − sin 𝑥 cot 𝑥 − 1

Entry test question

√3
𝐼𝑓 cos 𝛽 = … … … (𝑖), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 3𝛽 =?
2
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞(𝑖), 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝛽 = 30°
𝑁𝑜𝑤 cos 3𝛽 = cos 3(30) = cos 90 = 0

Some Important Values to Remind

𝜋 √3 + 1 5𝜋
cos 15° = cos = = sin 75° = sin
12 2√2 12
𝜋 √3 − 1 5𝜋
sin 15° = sin = = cos 75° = cos
12 2√2 12
𝜋 √3 − 1 5𝜋
tan 15° = tan = = cot 75° = cot
12 √3 + 1 12
𝜋 2√2 5𝜋
sec 15° = sec = = csc 75° = csc
12 √3 + 1 12
𝜋 2√2 5𝜋
csc 15° = csc = = sec 75° = sec
12 √3 − 1 12
𝜋 √3 + 1 5𝜋
cot 15° = cot = = tan 75° = tan
12 √3 − 1 12

Next question
In a unit circle, having centre at origin, what is the distance between x and y intercept?
You should know that the radius of unit circle is 1, and the distance xy is the distance between x and y
intercepts.
𝐼𝑛 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝑋𝑌, 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑦𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑠 ′ 𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥𝑦 = √2

Half angle formulas

𝛼 1 − 𝑐𝑜 𝑠 𝛼
sin = ±√
2 2

𝛼 1 + cos 𝛼
cos = ±√
2 2

𝛼 1 − cos 𝛼
tan = ±√
2 1 + cos 𝛼

Next Rule
tan 𝛼 + tan 𝛽 + tan 𝛾 = tan 𝛼 tan 𝛽 tan 𝛾
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑓 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 180°, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒

𝐼𝑓 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛾 = 90°, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
tan 𝛽 + tan 𝛽 tan 𝛾 + tan 𝛾 tan 𝛼 = 1
 Periods of Trigonometric Functions
In this chapter, 4 kinds of questions are asked
⇒Period of trigonometric functions
⇒Frequency
⇒Phase shift
⇒Amplitude
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑎 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑇(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐), ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎, 𝑏 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙 −
𝑒𝑠, 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
Period of 𝑎𝑇(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐)
𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
Period is only affected by coefficient of x.
Example
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒, 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓3 sin 3𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 sin 3𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑏𝑒 =
3 3
Frequency
The reciprocal of period is called frequency.
1 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = =
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑
Phase Shift
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡, 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥
1
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒, 𝑝ℎ𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑜𝑓 cos 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 sin(2𝑥 − 1) 𝑖𝑠
2
Amplitude
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑇(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑖𝑠 |𝑎|.
Example
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥
1
𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑦 = (2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥)
2
1
𝑦 = sin 2𝑥
2
1
𝑠𝑜, 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 𝑖𝑠
2
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Range
𝐼𝑛 𝑎𝑇(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐), 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑎,
𝑖𝑓 𝑎 ≠ 1, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟
Example
Find the range of 3 sin 3𝑥
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎 = 3 ≠ 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑.
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓3 sin 2𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 − 3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
𝑜𝑟 [−3, 3]
Must read the table of domains and ranges of trigonometric functions from textbook.
 Inverse trigonometric functions
Important equations
1
sin−1 𝑥 = csc −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎
𝑥
1
cos−1 𝑥 = sec −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎
𝑥
1
tan−1 𝑥 = cot −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎
𝑥
Also review that
𝜋
sin−1 𝑥 + cos−1 𝑥 =
2
−1 −1
𝜋
tan 𝑥 + cot 𝑥 =
2
−1 −1
𝜋
sec 𝑥 + csc 𝑥 =
2
Next type
sin−1(−𝑥) = − sin−1 𝑥
tan−1 (−𝑥) = − tan−1 𝑥
csc −1 (−𝑥) = − csc −1 𝑥
cos−1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cos −1 𝑥
cot −1 (−𝑥) = 𝜋 − cot −1 𝑥
sec −1(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − sec −1 𝑥

Next type
𝐴±𝐵
tan−1 𝐴 ± tan−1 𝐵 = tan−1 ( )
1 ∓ 𝐴𝐵
sin−1 𝐴 ± sin−1 𝐵 = sin−1 (𝐴√1 − 𝐵2 ± 𝐵√1 − 𝐴2 )
cos−1 𝐴 ± cos−1 𝐵 = cos −1(𝐴𝐵 ∓ √1 − 𝐴2 √1 − 𝐵2 )
Must read the table of domains and ranges of principle trigonometric functions from text book, page 395
 Fundamentals of Trigonometry
Units of angle
1 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 360°
1° = 60′
1′ = 60′′
1° = 3600′′
1 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 400 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 400𝐺 (𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 2019)
1 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑑 = 4 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑠 (𝑃𝐼𝐸𝐴𝑆)

Next concept
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡
𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 sin2 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 1. 𝑖. 𝑒.
0 ≤ sin2 𝑥 ≤ 1; −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜, 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 cos 2 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 cos 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 − 1. 𝑖. 𝑒.
0 ≤ cos 2 𝑥 ≤ −1; −1 ≤ sin 𝑥 ≤ 1

Back solve method

tan 𝑥
𝐼𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 =?
√1 + tan2 𝑥
(𝑖) sin 𝑥 (𝑖𝑖) cos 𝑥 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) tan 𝑥 (𝑖𝑣) 𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
And you’re not sure how to simplify it, then use any particular value of angle in question and in the given
options, the result of which option match with question’s result, will be the answer.
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒 0° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 90° 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 cos 𝑥 ; 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑠𝑒 30°, 45° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 60°
𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑥 = 60° 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.
tan 60 √3 √3
= =
2
√1 + tan 60 2 2
√1 + (√3)
√3
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑥 = 60° 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 sin 60 = , 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
2
𝑠𝑜 sin 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

Next concept
360°

∑ sin 𝑥 = 0
𝑥=0

How?
𝐽𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑎𝑑𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑖. 𝑒.
sin 0 + sin 90 + sin 180 + sin 270 + sin 360 = 0 + 1 + 0 − 1 + 0 = 0
Graphical method
This statement can also be justified by using graph of sin function whose values are positive in first two
quadrants(𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 0 𝑡𝑜 180°), and same values repeat with negative signs in next two quadrants. i.e.
from (180 to 360)
Similarly, we can write
360°

∑ cos 𝑥 = 1
𝑥=0
𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 cos 0 + cos 90 + cos 180 + cos 270 + cos 360 = 1 + 0 − 1 + 0 + 1 = 1
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin 𝑥 is
zero, then csc 𝑥 , cot 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ∞, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, sec 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 𝑎𝑟𝑒 ∞.
360° 360° 360° 360°

𝑖. 𝑒. ∑ sec 𝑥 = ∑ csc 𝑥 = ∑ tan 𝑥 = ∑ cot 𝑥 = ∞

𝑥=0 𝑥=0 𝑥=0 𝑥=0

To find the quadrant of angle which doesn’t lie in [0 2𝜋]

71𝜋
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 −
6
𝑇𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑒𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟. 𝐼𝑛 case
of negative angle, find greater multiple, and in case of positive angle, find smaller multiple. Then add or
subtract a value according to the condition to make the original value, so we will write.
71𝜋 −72𝜋 + 𝜋 72𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− = =− + = −12𝜋 +
6 6 6 6 6
𝜋
−12𝜋 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑗𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑒 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 quad-
6
71𝜋
rant. So − 𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 1st quadrant
6
Note that if any angle is given negative, then simply add 360 to it. In case of radians, add 2 pi to it.
𝑖. 𝑒. sin(−315)° = sin 45°

Next Concept

𝐼𝑓 √tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + ⋯ ∞ = 1 … … … (𝑖), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥 =?

𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠, 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡

tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + √tan 𝑥 + ⋯ ∞ = 1

tan 𝑥 + 1 = 1 … … … 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑒𝑞(𝑖)

tan 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 = tan−1 0 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑥 = 0

To find the measure of angle between hands of clock

11
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 30𝐻 − 𝑀
2
𝐻𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐻 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑠.
Let us take an example
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 𝑎𝑡 5: 10
11
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 30(5) − (10) = 150 − 55 = 95°
2
Note that this formula will give you the angle in degrees.

Next concept
cos 1° > cos 1,
𝑘𝑒𝑒𝑝 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒, 𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠

Reason
Since the value of cos function decreases from 0 to 180 degree, so greater the angle, smaller the value.
i.e. cos 57.296° < cos 1°
𝑜𝑟 cos 1 𝑟𝑎𝑑 < cos 1° (1 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 57.296°)

Next concept
1 1
cos 15° − sin 15° = √2 ( cos 15 ° − sin 15 °)
√2 √2
1 1
= √2(cos 45 ° cos 15° − sin 45 ° sin 15°) = √2 cos(45° + 15°) = √2 cos 60° = √2. =
2 √2
 Trigonometric Equations
Important points
Number of solutions of a trigonometric equation is infinite if no interval is given.
Reference angle always lie in 1st quadrant.
Reference angle is always positive.
The solution of a trigonometric equation contains solution +period.
If trigonometric term contains angle of the form 𝑚𝜃, then divide the period by m to get the result.
General solution of cos 𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑖𝑠 𝜋 + 2𝑛𝜋.
𝐺𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑠 0 + 𝑛𝜋.

Example
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = 2
𝐴𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 sin 𝑥 + 𝑏 cos 𝑥 = √𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
𝑆𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = √12 + 12 = √2
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.
 Applications of Trigonometry
Important points
We can solve a triangle when at least three elements including one side is given.
When two sides are given then their including angle must be given to solve the triangle.
𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝛾 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒.
The angle opposite to greatest side in a triangle is greatest.
In a right angle triangle, the perpendicular distance from vertex of right angle to the hypotenuse is equal
to the ratio of product of legs and length of hypotenuse.

Example

The sides a and b are called legs.

We have to find the perpendicular distance from the vertex of right angle to the hypotenuse.
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑒𝑔𝑠 5.12 60
ℎ= = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 13 13

Next Question
𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶,
𝑎 = 4; 𝑏 = √3; ∠𝐵 = 30° 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝐴.
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛. 𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑
∠𝐴, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝐴 𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ.
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑙𝑎𝑤𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑠
𝑎 𝑏
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝐵
4 √3
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛∠𝐴 sin 30 °
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 sin ∠𝐴.

Useful Information
∆
𝐼𝑛 − 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑟 =
𝑠
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑆= =
2 2
 𝑎𝑏𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐶𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑅 = = = =
4∆ 2 sin 𝛼 2 sin 𝛽 2 sin 𝛾
𝑟1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , 𝑟3
𝑟𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 = ∆2 ; 𝑟1 𝑟2 𝑟3 = 𝑟𝑆 2

Next Information
𝐼𝑛 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴: 𝐵: 𝐶 = 3: 5: 7, sin ∠𝐵 =?

Formula for the questions like that

𝐵 5
∠𝐵 = × 180 = × 180 = 60
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 3+5+7
√3
𝐻𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 sin ∠𝐵 = sin 60 ° =
2

Next Information
In an equilateral triangle ABC
𝑟: 𝑅: 𝑟1 = 1: 2: 3
Note that this ratio only holds for an equilateral triangle.
You must read the all the equations of areas, laws of sines, laws of cosines and laws of tangents.

Next Information
Mid-point of hypotenuse of a right angle triangle is the circumcentre, and half of the length of hypotenuse
is equal to circumradius which is equal to R.

Example
5
𝐼𝑛 ∠𝑟𝑡 ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 3, 4, 5, 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑚𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 = 𝑅 = = 2.5
2
 Number System
Introduction
Greatest set of numbers is the set of complex numbers.
𝐼𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝐼𝑓 𝑎 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 = 0, 𝑏 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙.
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙.
0 + 0𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟.
0 + 0𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
𝑄 ∪ 𝑄′ = 𝑅
𝑄 ∩ 𝑄′ = ∅
Note that
𝜋 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠.
22
𝑖𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙.
7
22
Note that 𝜋 ≠ 7
22
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝜋 ≈
7

Golden Rule of fractions

𝑎 𝑘𝑎
= , (𝑘 ≠ 0)
𝑏 𝑘𝑏

Multiplicative Inverse property

1 1
𝑎. = . 𝑎 = 1, 𝑎 ≠ 0, 𝑎∈𝑅
𝑎 𝑎

Properties of iota
You must know the following results
𝑖 0 = 1, 𝑖 1 = 𝑖, 𝑖 2 = −1, 𝑖 3 = −𝑖
4𝑛
𝐴𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖 = 1

Example
𝑖 123573 =?
To solve the questions like that, divide last two digits of power by 4, and make the reminder power of iota.
Here divide 73 by 4, so we’ll get 1 as reminder. So 𝑖 1 = 𝑖 will be the answer.

Example 2
If the power of iota is negative, then find the nearest greater multiple of 4 of power, then remaining power
will be the answer.
For example
𝑖 −27 = 𝑖 −28 . 𝑖 = 𝑖

Next Rule
Sum of iota with 4 consecutive powers is zero.
For example
𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 + ⋯ + 𝑖 100 = 0 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 100 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, 𝑖. 𝑒. 25 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 4 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠, 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 0)
𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 + ⋯ + 𝑖 99 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 + (𝑖 4 + 𝑖 5 + 𝑖 6 + ⋯ + 𝑖 99 )
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 96 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡, 𝑠𝑜 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 + ⋯ + 𝑖 99 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 2 + 𝑖 3 + 0 = 𝑖 − 1 − 𝑖 = −1

Next Rule
Product of iota with 4 consecutive powers is -1
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖 𝑛 𝑖 𝑛+1 𝑖 𝑛+2 𝑖 𝑛+3 = −1
For example
𝑖. 𝑖 2 . 𝑖 3 … 𝑖 97 = 𝑖(𝑖 2 . 𝑖 3 … 𝑖 97 ) = 𝑖(−1)24 = 𝑖

Square root of a complex number

The general formula of square root of complex number is
|𝑧| + 𝑎 |𝑧| − 𝑎
√𝑎 ± 𝑏𝑖 = √ ± 𝑖√
2 2

Next Rule
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
𝐼𝑓 𝑧 =
𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖
𝑅𝑒(𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧)
𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑
= 2 (𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑐 + 𝑑2
𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)
𝐼𝑚𝑔(𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧)
𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
= 2 (𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟)
𝑐 + 𝑑2
𝑐 + 𝑑𝑖
𝑧 −1 =
𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖
𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 −1 = 2
𝑎 + 𝑏2
𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐
𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑧 −1 = 2
𝑎 + 𝑏2

Next Rule
𝐼𝑓 |𝑧1 | = 6; |𝑧2 | = 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑖𝑠 |𝑧1 + 𝑧2 |

Next Rule
Let us see the figure below
𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑃(𝑟, 𝜃)

Example
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 (4, 155°)
The examiner will give you the 4 options, each option will lie in different quadrant. Here the angle is of 155
degrees which lies in 2nd quadrant, so don’t calculate anything, just see the option which lies in 2nd quadrant
and tick that option.

Next Concept
√−1 −√−1 − √−1 − ⋯ ∞ =?

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = √−1 −√−1 − √−1 − ⋯ ∞

𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒

𝑥 2 = −1 − √−1 −√−1 − √−1 − ⋯ ∞

𝑥 2 = −1 − 𝑥
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝜔, 𝜔2 , 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦.
 Sequence and Series
Domain and Range of a Sequence
Domain of a sequence is set natural numbers or a subset of set of natural numbers.
Range of a sequence is set of real numbers or complex numbers.

To Find nth term of an A.P.

𝐼𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝑜𝑢′ 𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑢𝑠𝑒
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 + (𝑛 − 𝑚)𝑑
For common difference
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚
𝑑=
𝑛−𝑚
For number of terms
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚
𝑛= +𝑚
𝑑

Example
𝑊ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐴. 𝑃. −2,4,10, … 𝑖𝑠 148?
𝑊𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑛
𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤, 𝐼 ′ 𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑎𝑛 = 148
𝑑 = 2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 − 1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 6
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚
𝑛= +𝑚
𝑑
148 − (−2)
𝑛= + 1 = 31
6

Arithmetic mean (middle term)

𝑎+𝑏
𝐴=
2
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚. 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝑎+𝑏
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑛 ( ) = 𝑛(𝑚𝑖𝑑𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚)
2

Example
Find the sum of 20 arithmetic means between 2 and 32
Using above equation
𝑎+𝑏 30 + 2
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + ⋯ + 𝐴20 = 20 ( ) = 20 ( ) = 320
2 2

Sum of n terms
𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = {𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑛 } 𝑂𝑅 𝑆𝑛 = {2𝑎1 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}
2 2
𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛 − 𝑆𝑛−1
Also remember that only quadratic expression represents A.P.

Example
𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(2𝑛 − 1), 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎4 =?
𝑌𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑎4 𝑏𝑦 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑎4 = 𝑆4 − 𝑆3

To find common difference if sum is given

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(2𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛2 − 𝑛
Take derivative of the term with square power. The coefficient of n will be the common difference.
Here the derivative of square power term is 4n. So common difference d=4

Next Rule
𝐼𝑓 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛2 + 𝑏𝑛
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎𝑛 = 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 + (𝑏 − 𝑎) = 2𝑎𝑛 + (𝑏 − 𝑎)

Geometric Progression
𝐼𝑓 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑎𝑚 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡𝑜 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑟 𝑛−𝑚
1
𝑎𝑛 𝑛−𝑚
𝑟=( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
𝑎𝑚
𝐺𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = 𝐺. 𝑀. = ±√𝑎𝑏
𝑎1 (𝑟 𝑛 − 1)
𝑆𝑛 = ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 > 1
𝑟−1
𝑎1 (1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑟 < 1
1−𝑟
𝑎1
𝑆∞ = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 = ; |𝑟| < 1
1−𝑟
𝑛
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐺3 … 𝐺𝑛 = (𝑎𝑏)2
𝐴 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝐺. 𝑃.
Note that no term of H.P. or G.P. can be zero.

Next Rule
𝐼𝑓 𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 12 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑀 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐺𝑀 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒?
Note that
𝑥 2 − 2𝐴𝑥 + 𝐺 2 = 0
So by comparing above two equations
2𝐴 = 8, 𝐴 = 4
𝐺 2 = 12, 𝐺 = ±√12 = ±2√3
Examples of infinite geometric series
∞
1 𝑛
∑ ( ) =?
𝑒
𝑛=0
By opening the above summation, and using n=0, 1, 2, 3, …
1 0 1 1 1 2
𝐺. 𝑃. = ( ) , ( ) , ( ) , …
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝐺. 𝑃. = 1, 𝑒 −1 , 𝑒 −2 , …
2𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑒 −1
|𝑟| = = = 𝑒 −1 < 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 (𝑒 = 2.7182)
1𝑠𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 1
𝑎1 1 𝑒
𝑆∞ = = −1
=
1−𝑟 1−𝑒 𝑒−1
Let us take another question
∞

∑ 𝑒 𝑛 =?
𝑛=0
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, … 𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠
𝐺. 𝑃. = 1, 𝑒, 𝑒 2 , …
𝑒
|𝑟| = = 𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒.
1

Next Concept
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 + ⋯ 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
To find x, take left side equal to first two terms of right side and attach y with 2nd term of right side.
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑦 = 1 + 2𝑥𝑦, 𝑛𝑜𝑤 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥
𝑦−1
𝑥=
2𝑦

Next Concept
𝑥 𝑥2
𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = 1 + + + ⋯ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑒?
2 2
(𝑖) − 2 < 𝑥 < 2 (𝑖𝑖)0 < 𝑥 < 2 (𝑖𝑖𝑖) − 1 < 𝑥 < 2 (𝑖𝑣)𝐴𝑙𝑙
𝑥
𝑥
𝑟=2=
1 2
𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠, |𝑟| < 1, 𝑠𝑜
𝑥
| |<1
2
𝑥
± <1
2
𝑥
< 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 < 2 … … … (𝑖)
2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑥
− < 1, 𝑠𝑜 𝑥 > −2 … … … (𝑖𝑖)
2
ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (𝑖) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 , 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒 − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
𝐵𝑢𝑡 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 − 2 < 𝑥 < 2, 𝑠𝑜 𝐴𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒
correct.
Next concept
𝑎𝑛+1 + 𝑏 𝑛+1
𝑖𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏, 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = 0
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛
1
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = −
2
𝐼𝑡 𝑖𝑠 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 𝑖𝑓 𝑛 = −1

Example
9𝑛+1 + 4𝑛+1
𝐼𝑓 = 6, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 =?
9𝑛 + 4𝑛
𝑎 + 𝑏 9 + 4 13
𝐴𝑀 = = = ≠ 6, 𝑠𝑜 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛
2 2 2
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑘 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐺𝑀
𝐺𝑀 = √9 × 4 = √36 = 6
1
𝑆𝑜 𝑖𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 9 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4, ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑛 = −
2
 Matrices and Determinants
Skew Harmition Matrices
If all the entries on main diagonal are zero or pure imaginary, and real parts of off diagonal entries are
opposite in signs, then matrix is said to be skew Harmition.

Example
0 1 + 3𝑖 2 + 5𝑖
[−1 + 3𝑖 0 4 + 5𝑖 ] 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑘𝑒𝑤 ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.
−2 + 5𝑖 −4 + 5𝑖 0

Harmition Matrices
If main diagonal contains real numbers and off diagonal entries are conjugate of each other, then matrix
is said to be Harmition.

Example
2 1 + 3𝑖 2 + 5𝑖
[1 − 3𝑖 1 4 + 5𝑖 ] 𝑖𝑠 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.
2 − 5𝑖 4 − 5𝑖 3

Next Rule
𝑖 0 𝑖𝑛 0
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑛 = [ ]
0 𝑖 0 𝑖𝑛
If a system of linear equations has no solution, then it is said to be inconsistent.
Must read trivial and non-trivial solutions from text book, page 131.

Next Rule
𝑘 −3
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 |𝐴4 | = 256, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑘 =?
2 𝑘
|𝐴4 | = 256
|𝐴|4 = 44
𝑖. 𝑒. |𝐴| = 4
𝑘 −3
𝑆𝑜 | |=4
2 𝑘
𝑁𝑜𝑤 𝑦𝑜𝑢 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑘, 𝑤𝑒 ′ 𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑘 = ±√2𝑖

Next Rule
Note that always the product of a matrix with its inverse is identity matrix of the same order.
1 0
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 2 × 2, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝐴−1 = [ ]
0 1

Example
−7 11 𝑥 𝑦
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ ] 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴𝐴−1 = [ ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧.
3 5 𝑧 1
 1 0
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝐴−1 = [ ] , 𝑠𝑜 𝑤𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑧 = 0
0 1
Note that identity matrix with respect to addition is null matrix.
The determinant of a singular matrix is zero.

Triangular matrix
If all the entries above main diagonal are zero, then matrix is said to be triangular, and the determinant of
such matrix is equal to the product of main diagonal entries.

Example
𝛼 0 0
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [ 2 4 0] 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝛼.
−1 3 1
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟, 𝑠𝑜 |𝐴| = 0
But also note that all the entries above main diagonal are zero, so the determinant will be equal to the
product of main diagonal entries.
𝑖. 𝑒. 4𝛼 = 0, 𝑠𝑜 𝛼 = 0

Some Important Laws of Matrices

(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵𝑡
(𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐵𝑡
(𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵𝑡 𝐴𝑡
(𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵−1 𝐴−1

Next Rule
Let us understand this rule with the help of an example
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓 ] , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝐴23
𝑔 ℎ 𝑖
To find 𝐴23 , leave 2nd row, and 3rd column, and the determinant of remaining matrix will give you 𝐴23 .
𝑎 𝑏
𝑆𝑜 𝐴23 = | |
𝑔 ℎ
For more explanation about this chapter, see figures given below from next page, these are extracted
from the note book of entry test of Prof. Nadeem. So these pages will help you in all kind of questions of
entry test from this chapter. I don’t like chapters 2, 3 and 7. So I’ve written very few concepts from these
chapters.
Combination, Permutation and Probability
Learn the fictorials from 0 to 10 to make calculations easy for you.

Fictorials
1 1 𝑥
𝐼𝑓 + = , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑥
8! 9! 10!
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 10! 𝑡𝑜 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑥 1
10! 10!
+ =𝑥
8! 9!
10.9.8! 10.9!
+ =𝑥
8! 9!
𝑆𝑜 𝑤𝑒 ′ 𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑥 = 10.9 + 10 = 90 + 10 = 100

Next Rule
(𝑛 − 1)! (𝑛 − 2)!
=?
(𝑛!)2
1 1
(𝑖) 3 2
(𝑖𝑖) 3 (𝑖𝑖𝑖)𝑛𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑛 −𝑛 𝑛 −𝑛
Recall the concept of mathematical induction, similarly, you can solve these questions by using 𝑛 = 2 in
question and in the options. Which option will match the result of question, will be the answer.

Permutation
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
An ordering arrangement of numbers or objects is called permutation.
𝑛𝑃0 = 1, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛!
𝑛𝑃1 = 𝑛
𝑛𝑃2 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)
𝑛𝑃3 = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)
𝐴𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑜 𝑜𝑛.

Next Rule
Note that
𝑛∁𝑟 . 𝑟! = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑛𝑝
𝑆𝑜 𝑛∁𝑟 = 𝑟
𝑟!

Example
𝑛
𝑛𝑃𝑟
∑ = 𝑛∁1 + 𝑛∁2 + 𝑛∁3 + ⋯ + 𝑛∁𝑛 = 𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 − 𝑛∁0 = 2𝑛 − 1
𝑟!
𝑟=1
Question
How many signals can be made by 4 flags when any number of flags are used at a time?
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 4𝑃1 + 4𝑃2 + 4𝑃3 + 4𝑝4 = 64

Next
How many other words can be formed from the word “EQUAL”?
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 5𝑃5 = 120
This is the total number of words, but he asked the words other than “Equal”, so they will be 119.

Next
𝑛. 𝑛 − 1𝑃𝑟−1 = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
For example see this question
𝐼𝑓 𝑛 − 1𝑝3 : 𝑛. 𝑛 − 1𝑃3 = 1: 9, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑛
𝑊𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑤𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑒
𝑛 − 1𝑃3 1
=
𝑛. 𝑛 − 1𝑃3 9
1 1
= , 𝑠𝑜 𝑛 = 9 (𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑚)
𝑛 9

Next
A place has 13 gates in north and 7 gates in south. In how many ways a person can enter the place?
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 13 + 7 = 20
If we have to enter from one side and depart from other side, then number of ways= 13 × 7 = 91
Note that
𝐼𝑓 𝑛∁𝑥 = 𝑛∁𝑦 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠(𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 − 3)
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑓𝑖𝑔𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
2
For more information, see the following pages
 Quadratic Equations
Introduction
𝐼𝑛 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑎 = 𝑐,
Then roots are reciprocal of each other.
𝐼𝑓 𝑎 = −𝑐 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑠.
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 > 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.
Complex roots of a quadratic equation are conjugate of each other.
𝐼𝑓 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then equation whose roots are 𝑛𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛𝛽, 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑛𝑏𝑥 + 𝑛2 𝑐 = 0

Properties of discriminant
𝐼𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 n, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 𝑛
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡.
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠𝑛′ 𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑡.
𝐼𝑓 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠.
𝐼𝑓 𝑝(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 , then,
𝑎𝑛−1
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = −
𝑎𝑛
𝑎0
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = (−1)𝑛
𝑎𝑛
In reciprocal equation, coefficients from both sides are same.

Next Rule

𝐼𝑓 𝑦 = √42 +√42 + √42 + ⋯ ∞ , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑦 =?

In questions like that, the number used in the square root will be the product of two consecutive numbers.
If there is positive sign between square roots, then answer will be the greater number, otherwise smaller
number will be the result.
As we know
42 = 6 × 7
There is positive sign between square roots, so our result will be 7.

Properties of complex cube roots of unity

𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝜔 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑖𝑠 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜, 𝑖. 𝑒.
𝜔𝑛 + 𝜔𝑛+1 + 𝜔𝑛+2 = 0

Example
1 1 1 1 2
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 ( + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 100 )
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 𝜔
 2
1 1
= ( + 0) = 2
𝜔 𝜔
𝜔123458 =?
𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 3, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑔𝑎.
𝑏𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒, 𝑤𝑒 ′ 𝑙𝑙 𝑔𝑒𝑡 41152 𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟.
𝑆𝑜 𝜔123458 = 𝜔2

Important Points
Product of cube roots of any number is equal to that number.
Product of fourth roots of any number is equal to (-1) number.
Sum of cube roots or fourth roots of any number is zero.
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠 = √𝑆 2 − 4𝑃
For more information, see following pages
 Sets, Functions and Groups
𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵
Learn the logics
A non-negative rational number is a group under multiplication.
Cube roots and fourth roots of unity are abelian-group under multiplication.
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑒𝑡 = 2𝑛 − 1
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 1 (𝑖𝑡𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓)
𝑆𝑜 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 2𝑛
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠 = 2𝑛 − 2
There is no set with empty power set.
P-N is finite.
20
𝑛[𝑃 (𝑃(𝑃(∅))))] = 22 =4
𝐴 − (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 − 𝐶) 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐷𝑒 𝑀𝑜𝑟𝑔𝑎𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑙𝑎𝑤.
𝐴−𝐵 ≠𝐵−𝐴
𝐼𝑓 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐵′ ⊂ 𝐴′
𝑈′ = ∅
𝐴′ ∪ 𝐴 = 𝑈
𝐴 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦.
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 ∅
𝐼𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑠 𝑈
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐴 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎.
𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑔.
𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛𝐴 + 𝑛𝐵 𝑖𝑓 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑠.
Now see the given pages
 Partial Fractions
There is nothing particular in this chapter, just see the following pages