FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Chapter 1
Algebra
CONTENT AND LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.1 The Modulus Function

• understand the meaning of |𝑥𝑥|.

• sketch the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| (graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥)| and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓(|𝑥𝑥|) for non-linear functions
𝑓𝑓 are not included).

• use relations such as

– |𝑎𝑎| = |𝑏𝑏| ⇔ 𝑎𝑎2 = 𝑏𝑏2 , e.g., |3𝑥𝑥 − 2| = |2𝑥𝑥 + 7| and
– |𝑥𝑥– 𝑎𝑎| < 𝑏𝑏 ⇔ 𝑎𝑎– 𝑏𝑏 < 𝑥𝑥 < 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏, e.g., 2𝑥𝑥 + 5 < |𝑥𝑥 + 1|
when solving equations and inequalities.

1.2 Polynomials

• divide a polynomial, of degree not exceeding 4, by a linear or quadratic polynomial, and

identify the quotient and remainder (which may be zero).

• use the factor theorem and the remainder theorem, e.g., to

– find factors and remainders,
– solve polynomial equations, or
– evaluate unknown coefficients.
(including factors of the form (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) in which the coefficient of 𝑥𝑥 is not unity, and
including calculation of remainders.)

• recall an appropriate form for expressing rational functions in partial fractions, and carry out
the decomposition, in cases where the denominator is no more complicated than
– (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑)(𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑓𝑓)
– (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑)2
– (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑑)
(Excluding cases where the degree of the numerator exceeds that of the denominator)

1.3 The Binomial Expansion

• use the expansion of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 , where 𝑛𝑛 is a rational number and |𝑥𝑥| < 1.
(Finding the general term in an expansion is not included. Adapting the standard series to
1
expand e.g. (2 − 𝑥𝑥)−1 is included, and determining the set of values of 𝑥𝑥 for which the
2
expansion is valid in such cases is also included.)

REFERENCES

1 Hugh Neill and Douglas Quadling. Advanced Level Mathematics: Pure Mathematics 2 & 3.
Cambridge University Press. Cambridge, 2002.
2 Sophie Goldie. Pure Mathematics 2 and 3. Hodder Education. London, 2012.

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

1.1 THE MODULUS FUNCTION

(a) The modulus function and some properties

The modulus of a real number 𝑥𝑥, also called the absolute value, is its magnitude without a sign attached,
i.e., the modulus of any number (positive or negative) is always a positive number.

The modulus of 𝑥𝑥, written as |𝑥𝑥|, is defined as

𝑥𝑥 if 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥𝑥| = �
−𝑥𝑥 if 𝑥𝑥 < 0

For all 𝑥𝑥 ϵ ℝ

For example, the modulus of 3, i.e., |3|, is still 3 but the modulus of −5, i.e., | − 5| is 5.

The following are some properties involving the modulus function.

For all 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦, 𝑎𝑎 ϵ ℝ

|𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥| = |𝑥𝑥||𝑦𝑦| (1)

𝑥𝑥 |𝑥𝑥|
� �= (2)
𝑦𝑦 |𝑦𝑦|

|𝑥𝑥| = 𝑎𝑎 ⇔ 𝑥𝑥 = ±𝑎𝑎 (3)

|𝑥𝑥 2 | = |𝑥𝑥|2 = 𝑥𝑥 2 (4)

√𝑥𝑥 2 = |𝑥𝑥| (5)

(b) Graphs of functions involving modulus

Suppose that you want to draw a graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓 (𝑥𝑥) = |𝑥𝑥 − 2|. You can do this directly from the definition
of modulus, considering two scenarios:

① when 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 2,
𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0, so |𝑥𝑥 − 2| = 𝑥𝑥 − 2
For these values of 𝑥𝑥, the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 − 2|
and 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 are the same.

② when 𝑥𝑥 < 2,
𝑥𝑥 − 2 < 0, so |𝑥𝑥 − 2| = −(𝑥𝑥 − 2) = 2 − 𝑥𝑥
For these values of 𝑥𝑥, the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 − 2| is
the same as 𝑦𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥𝑥.

Another way of approaching ② is to note that the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = −(𝑥𝑥 − 2) is the reflection of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 in
the x-axis. You can draw the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 and then reflecting in the x-axis that part of the line that
is below the x-axis.

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.1.1

Sketch the graph of (a) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = |2𝑥𝑥 + 3| and (b) 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = |3𝑥𝑥 − 5|.

Solution:

(a)

The graph of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 is first plotted (drawn

dotted). The part below the x-axis is then reflected
in the x-axis to give the graph required (drawn
solid).

(b)

The graph of 𝑔𝑔(𝑥𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑥 − 5 is first plotted (drawn

dotted). The part below the x-axis is then reflected
in the x-axis to give the graph required (drawn
solid).

Example 1.1.2

Sketch the graph of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 − 2| + |1 − 𝑥𝑥|.

With two moduli involved it is usually best to go

back to the definition of modulus. For |𝑥𝑥 − 2| you
have to consider 𝑥𝑥 − 2 ≥ 0 and 𝑥𝑥 − 2 < 0
separately, and for |1 − 𝑥𝑥| you have to consider
1 − 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0 and 1 − 𝑥𝑥 < 0. So altogether there are
three intervals to investigate: ① 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1, ② 1 < 𝑥𝑥 <
2 and ③ 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 2.

① When 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 1, |𝑥𝑥 − 2| = −(𝑥𝑥 − 2) and 1 − 𝑥𝑥| = 1 − 𝑥𝑥, so 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 + 2 + 1 − 𝑥𝑥 = 3 − 2𝑥𝑥.

② When 1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 2, |𝑥𝑥 − 2| = −(𝑥𝑥 − 2) and |1 − 𝑥𝑥| = −(1 − 𝑥𝑥), so 𝑦𝑦 = −𝑥𝑥 + 2 − 1 + 𝑥𝑥 = 1.
③ When 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 2, |𝑥𝑥 − 2| = 𝑥𝑥 − 2 and |1 − 𝑥𝑥| = −(1 − 𝑥𝑥), so 𝑦𝑦 − 2 − 1 + 𝑥𝑥 = 2𝑥𝑥 − 3.

The graph is therefore in three parts.

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

(c) Solving equations involving modulus

The solutions to equations involving modulus can be obtained either (i) algebraically or (ii) graphical.

To solve equations of the form |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| = 𝑐𝑐 or |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑, we can apply the definition of the
modulus and split the equations into two parts.

For |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| = 𝑐𝑐, we have

① 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐
② 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = −𝑐𝑐 or −(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑐𝑐

Similarly, for |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑, we have

① 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑
② 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 = −(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) or −(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑

Worked Example 1.1.3

Solve
(a) |2𝑥𝑥 − 1| = 3 (b) |𝑥𝑥 − 4| = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1

Solution
(a) Method 1

From the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 − 2| and 𝑦𝑦 = 3, the

solution is 𝑥𝑥 = −1 or 𝑥𝑥 = 2.

Method 2
Using definition of modulus, CHECK:
(2𝑥𝑥 − 1) = 3 or 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 = −3 |2 × 2 − 1| = 3✔ and
2𝑥𝑥 = 4 2𝑥𝑥 = −2 |2 × (−1) − 1| = 3✔
𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑥𝑥 = −1

The solution is 𝑥𝑥 = 2 or 𝑥𝑥 = −1.

(b) Method 1

From the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = |𝑥𝑥 − 4| and 𝑦𝑦 = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1,

the solution is 𝑥𝑥 = 1.

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Method 2 CHECK:
Using definition of modulus, |−5 − 4| = 2(−5) + 1 ⇒ 9 = −9❌ and
(𝑥𝑥 − 4) = 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 or (𝑥𝑥 − 4) = −(2𝑥𝑥 + 1) |1 − 4| = 2(1) + 1 ⇒ 3 = 3 ✔
𝑥𝑥 = −4 − 1 or 3𝑥𝑥 = 4 − 1
𝑥𝑥 = −5 (reject) or 𝑥𝑥 = 1

The solution is 𝑥𝑥 = 1.

To solve equations of the form |𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| = |𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑|, we then make use of the following relation:

|𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏| = |𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑| ⇔ (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)2 = (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑)2 (6)

For all 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ϵ ℝ

Worked Example 1.1.4

Solve |2𝑥𝑥 + 1| = |3𝑥𝑥 − 2|

Solution
|2𝑥𝑥 + 1| = |3𝑥𝑥 − 2|
(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 = (3𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 Apply relation (6).
(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)2 − (3𝑥𝑥 − 2)2 = 0
[(2𝑥𝑥 + 1) + (3𝑥𝑥 − 2)][(2𝑥𝑥 + 1) − (3𝑥𝑥 − 2)] = 0 Avoid expanding.
(5𝑥𝑥 − 1)(3 − 𝑥𝑥) = 0
1
𝑥𝑥 = or 𝑥𝑥 = −3
5
1
The solution is 𝑥𝑥 = 5 or 𝑥𝑥 = −3.

In general, more complicated equations involving modulus can be solved using the definition of the
modulus and split the equations into two parts.

Worked Example 1.1.5

Solve |𝑥𝑥 + 3| + |𝑥𝑥 + 5| = 10

Solution
|𝑥𝑥 + 3| + |𝑥𝑥 + 5| = 10 Subtract |x + 5| from both side
|𝑥𝑥 + 3| = 10 − |𝑥𝑥 + 5| Split the equation into two parts
𝑥𝑥 + 3 = 10 − |𝑥𝑥 + 5| (1)
𝑥𝑥 + 3 = |𝑥𝑥 + 5| − 10 (2)

Using equation (1):

−7 + 𝑥𝑥 + |𝑥𝑥 + 5| = 0
|𝑥𝑥 + 5| = 7 − 𝑥𝑥 Split the equation into two parts
𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 7 − 𝑥𝑥 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 + 5 = −(7 − 𝑥𝑥)
2𝑥𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 0 = −12 0 = −12 is false.
𝑥𝑥 = 1

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Using equation (2)

|𝑥𝑥 + 5| = 𝑥𝑥 + 13 Split this equation into two parts.
𝑥𝑥 + 5 = 𝑥𝑥 + 13 or 𝑥𝑥 + 5 = −(𝑥𝑥 + 13)
0 = 8 or 2𝑥𝑥 = −18 0 = 8 is false.
𝑥𝑥 = −9

The solution is 𝑥𝑥 = 1 or 𝑥𝑥 = −9

(d) Solving modulus inequalities

Useful properties that can be used when solving modulus inequalities are

If 𝑎𝑎 ≥ 0,
|𝑥𝑥| ≤ 𝑎𝑎 ⟺ −𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑎𝑎 (7)

|𝑥𝑥| ≥ 𝑎𝑎 ⟺ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ −𝑎𝑎 or 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑎𝑎 (8)

Extending,
|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑘𝑘| ≤ 𝑎𝑎 ⟺ 𝑘𝑘 − 𝑎𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎 (9)

|𝑥𝑥 − 𝑘𝑘| ≥ 𝑎𝑎 ⟺ 𝑥𝑥 ≤ 𝑘𝑘 − 𝑎𝑎 or 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑎𝑎 (10)

for all 𝑥𝑥, 𝑦𝑦 ϵ ℝ

Worked Example 1.1.6

Solve
(a) |2𝑥𝑥 − 5| < 3 (b) |3𝑥𝑥 + 2| ≥ 2

Solution
(a) |2𝑥𝑥 − 5| < 3 Apply relation (9)
2 < 2𝑥𝑥 < 8
1 < 𝑥𝑥 < 4

(b) |3𝑥𝑥 + 2| ≥ 2 Apply relation (10)

3𝑥𝑥 ≤ −2 − 2 or 3𝑥𝑥 ≥ −2 + 2
4
𝑥𝑥 ≤ − or 𝑥𝑥 ≥ 0
3

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

1.2 Polynomials

(a) Polynomials
Polynomials, e.g., √2𝑥𝑥 2 − 1, 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 2, 8, 𝑥𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 9 and 𝑥𝑥 are collection of expressions.

A (non-zero) polynomial, p ( x) , is an expression in 𝑥𝑥 of the form

𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘

where 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, … , 𝑘𝑘 are real numbers,𝑎𝑎 ≠ 0, and 𝑛𝑛 is a positive integer.

Some terminology:

The degree of the polynomial is the highest power in the polynomial, i.e., the number 𝑛𝑛.
The terms of the polynomial are the expressions 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 , 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 , …, 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 and 𝑘𝑘.
The coefficients are the numbers 𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏, 𝑐𝑐, …𝑗𝑗 and 𝑘𝑘.
The leading coefficient is the coefficient of the term with the highest power, i.e., the number 𝑎𝑎.
The constant term is the coefficient of the term containing 𝑥𝑥 0 , i.e., the number 𝑘𝑘.

Polynomials with low degree have special names: if the polynomial has
• degree 0 it is called a constant polynomial, or a constant, e.g., 8
• degree 1 it is called a linear polynomial, e.g., 𝑥𝑥
• degree 2 it is called a quadratic polynomial, or a quadratic, e.g., √2𝑥𝑥 2 − 1
• degree 3 it is called a cubic polynomial or a cubic, e.g., 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 5𝑥𝑥 + 2
• degree 4 it is called a quartic polynomial, or a quartic, e.g., 𝑥𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 9

Note that a polynomial has no degree when it is zero, i.e., 0, and it is called a zero polynomial, which is
not a polynomial according to definition.

Worked Example 1.2.1

State the degree of each of the following polynomials.

(a) 𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 7 (b) 𝑥𝑥 5
(c) 3 (d) 𝑥𝑥 0

Solution
(a) 3 (b) 5
(c) 0 (d) 0

When a polynomial is written as 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑗𝑗𝑗𝑗 + 𝑘𝑘, with the term of highest degree first and the
other terms in descending degree order finishing with the constant term, the terms are said to be in
descending order (of 𝑥𝑥). If the terms are written in the reverse order, they are said to be in ascending
order (of 𝑥𝑥). For example, 2𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 5s in descending order; in ascending order it is 5 − 7𝑥𝑥 +
2𝑥𝑥 2 + 2𝑥𝑥 4 . It is the same polynomial whatever order the terms are written in.
1
1
The functions 𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 −1 and √𝑥𝑥 = 𝑥𝑥 2 are not polynomials, because the powers of 𝑥𝑥 are nor positive integers
or zero. Apart from the zero and constant terms, all the others are multiples of 𝑥𝑥 raised to a positive integer
power.

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 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

(b) Addition, subtraction, and multiplication of polynomials

Polynomials have much in common with integers. You can add them, subtract them and multiply them
together and the result is another polynomial. For example:

Addition of two polynomials:

(2𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4) + (𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2) = (2 + 0)𝑥𝑥 3 + (1 + 3)𝑥𝑥 2 + �0 + (−1)�𝑥𝑥 + �(−4) + (−2)�

= 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 6

Subtraction of two polynomials:

(2𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4) − (𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2) = (2 − 0)𝑥𝑥 3 + (1 − 3)𝑥𝑥 2 + �0 − (−1)�𝑥𝑥 + �(−4) − (−2)�

= 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 2

Multiplying two polynomials:

(2𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4)(𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2)

= (2𝑥𝑥 3 )(𝑥𝑥 2 ) + (2𝑥𝑥 3 )(−𝑥𝑥) + (2𝑥𝑥 3 )(−2) + (3𝑥𝑥 2 )(𝑥𝑥 2 ) + (3𝑥𝑥 2 )(−𝑥𝑥) + (3𝑥𝑥 2 )(2) + (−4)(𝑥𝑥 2 )
+ (−4)(−𝑥𝑥) + (−4)(−2) = 2𝑥𝑥 5 − 2𝑥𝑥 4 − 4𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 4 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 8
= 2𝑥𝑥 5 + 𝑥𝑥 4 − 6𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 + 8

Polynomials are added by adding like terms, for example, you add the coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 3 together, the
coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 2 together, the coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 together and the numbers together. This is done similarly
for subtraction.

When you multiply two polynomials, you multiply each term of the one by each term of the other, and all
the resulting terms are added. Remember that when you multiply powers of 𝑥𝑥, you add the indices:
𝑥𝑥 5 × 𝑥𝑥 7 = 𝑥𝑥12 . Note that when you multiply two polynomials, the degree of the product polynomial is the
sum of the degrees of the two polynomials.

(c) Equations and identities

In the example of adding two polynomials above, we can write:

(2𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 4) + (𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 2) =

𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 ≡ (2 + 0)𝑥𝑥 3 + (1 + 3)𝑥𝑥 2 + �0 + (−1)�𝑥𝑥 + �(−4) + (−2)�

In the second line, the expressions take the same values for every value of the variable. They are said to
be identically equal. Such statement is called an identity, and we use the symbol ≡ to emphasize the
equation is an identity. We therefore can say that 𝐴𝐴 = (2 + 0) = 2, 𝐵𝐵 = (1 + 3) = 4, 𝐶𝐶 = �0 + (−1)� = −1
and 𝐷𝐷 = �(−4) + (−2)� = −6. This is an example of equating coefficients. The full result is

If 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝑏𝑏𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑘𝑘 = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 𝑛𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝐾𝐾,

then 𝑎𝑎 = 𝐴𝐴, 𝑏𝑏 = 𝐵𝐵, … , 𝑘𝑘 = 𝐾𝐾.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 8 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

(d) Division of polynomials

1
When we divide 109 by 9, we get an answer of 12 and 1 over and can write 109 = 12 + 9. We call the
number 109 the dividend, 9 the divisor, 12 the quotient and 1 the remainder. We can express division of
polynomials in a similar fashion.

When a polynomial, 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥), is divided by a non-constant divisor, 𝑏𝑏(𝑥𝑥), the quotient 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥)
and the remainder 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) are defined by the identity

𝑎𝑎 (𝑥𝑥) ≡ 𝑏𝑏(𝑥𝑥)𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥) + 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥)

where the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the divisor.

𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥) is then known as the dividend.

The degree of the quotient is equal to the degree of 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥) minus the degree of 𝑏𝑏(𝑥𝑥).

If 𝑟𝑟(𝑥𝑥) = 0, we say that 𝑏𝑏(𝑥𝑥) is a factor of 𝑎𝑎(𝑥𝑥).

Example 1.2.2

Find the quotient and remainder when 𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2 is divided by 𝑥𝑥 + 1.

Solution

Method 1: Long division

1𝑥𝑥 3 − 1𝑥𝑥 2 + 1𝑥𝑥 + 0
�����������������������������������
𝑥𝑥 + 1 )1𝑥𝑥 4 + 0𝑥𝑥 3 + 0𝑥𝑥 2 + 1𝑥𝑥 + 2

1𝑥𝑥 + 1𝑥𝑥 3
4

−1𝑥𝑥 3 + 0𝑥𝑥 2 + 1𝑥𝑥 + 2

−1𝑥𝑥 3 − 1𝑥𝑥 2
1𝑥𝑥 2 + 1𝑥𝑥 + 2
1𝑥𝑥 2 + 1𝑥𝑥
2
Method 2: Equating coefficients

Since the degrees of the dividend and the divisor are 4 and 1 respectively, the degree of the quotient is
4 − 1 = 3. As the degree of the remainder is less than 1, the remainder is a constant.

Let the quotient be 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷, and the remainder be 𝑅𝑅. Then

𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2 ≡ (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷) + 𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2

≡ 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 4 + (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)𝑥𝑥 3 + (𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 )𝑥𝑥 2 + (𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷)𝑥𝑥 + 𝐷𝐷 + 𝑅𝑅

Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 4 : 1 = 𝐴𝐴.

Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 3 : 0 = 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵𝐵 = −𝐴𝐴 = −1.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 2 : 0 = 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶𝐶 = −𝐵𝐵 = 1.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥1 : 1 = 𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷 ⇒ 𝐷𝐷 = 1 − 𝐶𝐶 = 0.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 0 : 2 = 𝐷𝐷 + 𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅 = 2 − 𝐷𝐷 = 2.

The quotient is 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 and the remainder is 2.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 9 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.2.3

Find the quotient and remainder when 𝑥𝑥 4 + 3𝑥𝑥 3 − 2 is divided by 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 2.

Solution

Method 1: Long division

1𝑥𝑥 2 + 02𝑥𝑥 + 5
2 ��������������������������������������
𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 2 )1𝑥𝑥 4 + 0𝑥𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 00𝑥𝑥 − 2

1𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 2𝑥𝑥 2

4

2𝑥𝑥 3 + 1𝑥𝑥 2 + 00𝑥𝑥 − 2

2𝑥𝑥 3 − 4𝑥𝑥 2 + 04𝑥𝑥
5𝑥𝑥 2 − 04𝑥𝑥 − 2
5𝑥𝑥 2 − 10𝑥𝑥 − 10
6𝑥𝑥 − 12

Method 2: Equating coefficients

Since the degrees of the dividend and the divisor are 4 and 2 respectively, the degree of the quotient is
4 − 1 = 2. As the degree of the remainder is less than 2, the remainder is assumed to be a linear.

Let the quotient be 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶, and the remainder be 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑆𝑆. Then

𝑥𝑥 4 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2 ≡ (𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 ) + 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑆𝑆

⇒ 𝑥𝑥 4 + 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 2 ≡ 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 4 + (−2𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)𝑥𝑥 3 + (2𝐴𝐴 − 2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 )𝑥𝑥 2 + (2𝐵𝐵 − 2𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅)𝑥𝑥 + 2𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅

Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 4 : 1 = 𝐴𝐴.

Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 3 : 0 = −2𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 ⇒ 𝐵𝐵 = 2𝐴𝐴 = 2.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 2 : 3 = 2𝐴𝐴 − 2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶𝐶 = 3 − 2𝐴𝐴 + 2𝐵𝐵 = 5.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥1 : 0 = 2𝐶𝐶 − 2𝐶𝐶 + 𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅 = −2𝐵𝐵 + 2𝐶𝐶 = 6.
Equating coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 0 : −2 = 2𝐶𝐶 + 𝑆𝑆 ⇒ 𝑆𝑆 = −2 − 2𝐶𝐶 = −12.

The quotient is 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 and the remainder is 2.

(e) Remainder theorem

When you are dividing by a linear polynomial, there is a quick way of finding the remainder. For
example, in Example 3, when 𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2 was divided by 𝑥𝑥 + 1 , the first line of the solution was:

𝑥𝑥4 + 𝑥𝑥 + 2 ≡ (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝐵𝐵𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 + 𝐷𝐷) + 𝑅𝑅

To get 𝑅𝑅, we set 𝑥𝑥 = −1 such that the first term in the RHS is zero. Then

(−1)4 + (−1) + 2 = 0(𝐴𝐴(−1)3 + 𝐵𝐵 (−1)2 + 𝐶𝐶 (−1) + 𝐷𝐷) + 𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅 = 2

Similar reasoning leads to the remainder theorem.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 10 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Remainder theorem

When a polynomial 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is divided by (𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑡𝑡) , the

𝑡𝑡
remainder is the constant 𝑝𝑝 � �.
𝑠𝑠

Example 1.2.4

Find the remainder when 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 is divided by

(a) 𝑥𝑥 + 3 (b) 2𝑥𝑥 + 3

Solution
(a) (b) Let 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4
Let 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) = 𝑥𝑥 3 − 3𝑥𝑥 + 4 By remainder theorem,
By remainder theorem,
3 3 3 3 1
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑝𝑝(−3) = (−3)3 − 3(−3) + 4 = −14 𝑅𝑅 = 𝑝𝑝 �− � = �− � − 3 �− � + 4 = 5
2 2 2 8

(f) Factor theorem

A special case of the remainder theorem is that when 𝑅𝑅 = 0. Then we say that the divisor is a factor of
the dividend, and this leads to the factor theorem.

Factor theorem

𝑡𝑡
(𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − 𝑡𝑡) is a factor of a polynomial 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) if 𝑝𝑝 � � = 0.
𝑠𝑠

Example 1.2.5

Given that 𝑓𝑓(𝑥𝑥) = 2𝑥𝑥 3 − 5𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 6, show that (2𝑥𝑥 − 3) is a factor.

Solution
3
To show that (2𝑥𝑥 − 3) is a factor, it is necessary to show that 𝑓𝑓 �2� = 0.

3 3 3 3 2 3
𝑓𝑓 � � = 2 � � − 5 � � − � � + 6 = 0
2 2 2 2

Therefore (2𝑥𝑥 − 3) is a factor.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 11 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

(g) Rational functions

We have seen that polynomials behave like integers in many ways, in which addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division can be performed. Now, we look at rational functions, also called ‘algebraic
fractions’, which are fractions in which the numerator and the denominator are both polynomials. So
rational functions can be simplified, added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided.

Example 1.2.6

Simplify
2𝑥𝑥 − 3 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 4
(a) 2
(b)
6𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 12 6𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 2

Solution
2𝑥𝑥 − 3 (2𝑥𝑥 − 3) 3𝑥𝑥 2 − 8𝑥𝑥 + 4 (𝑥𝑥 − 2)(3𝑥𝑥 − 2) 𝑥𝑥 − 2
(a) 2
= (b) = =
6𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 12 (2𝑥𝑥 − 3)(3𝑥𝑥 + 4) 2
6𝑥𝑥 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 2 (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)(3𝑥𝑥 − 2) 2𝑥𝑥 − 1

Example 1.2.7

Express as single fractions in their simplest forms

3 6 31𝑥𝑥 − 8 14
(a) + (b) 2
−
𝑥𝑥 + 2 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 + 2

Solution
(a) The first step is to find the LCM. The LCM (b) The first step is to find the LCM. The LCM of
of (𝑥𝑥 + 2) and (2𝑥𝑥 − 1) is (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥𝑥 − 1). (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2) and (𝑥𝑥 + 2) is (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 +
2).
Adding the usual way,
3 6 3(2𝑥𝑥 − 1) + 6(𝑥𝑥 + 2) Subtracting the usual way,
+ = 31𝑥𝑥 − 8 14
𝑥𝑥 + 2 2𝑥𝑥 − 1 (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥𝑥 − 1) −
12𝑥𝑥 + 15 2
2𝑥𝑥 + 3𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 + 2
= (31𝑥𝑥 − 8) − (28𝑥𝑥 − 14)
(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥𝑥 − 1) =
3(4𝑥𝑥 + 5) (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
= 3𝑥𝑥 + 6
(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥𝑥 − 1) =
(2𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
3(𝑥𝑥 + 2) 3
= =
(2𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 + 2) 2𝑥𝑥 − 1

Normal arithmetic methods also apply to multiplication and division of rational functions.

Division is defined as the reverse of multiplication in the sense that

𝑎𝑎 × 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑏𝑏 ⇔ 𝑏𝑏 ÷ 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑎𝑎 (𝑘𝑘 ≠ 0)

So in general,

𝑎𝑎 𝑐𝑐 𝑎𝑎 𝑑𝑑
𝑥𝑥 = ÷ = ×
𝑏𝑏 𝑑𝑑 𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 12 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.2.8

Simplify the rational functions

2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥
(a) × (b) ÷ 2
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 2𝑥𝑥 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 3

Solution
(a) 2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 2) (b) 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥
× = × =2 ÷
𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 − 2 𝑥𝑥 2 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 3 2𝑥𝑥 2 − 7𝑥𝑥 + 3
𝑥𝑥 − 2 (2𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 3)
= ×
(𝑥𝑥 − 1)(𝑥𝑥 − 3) 𝑥𝑥
(𝑥𝑥 − 2)(2𝑥𝑥 − 1)
=
𝑥𝑥(𝑥𝑥 − 1)

(h) Decomposition to partial fraction

Sometimes you need to reverse the process of adding or subtracting rational functions. This process is
𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥)
called decomposition into partial fractions. Before we do for a rational function 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥), we need to check if
the fraction is proper or not.

𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥)
For any rational function 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥), a proper fraction is one in
which the degree of the numerator 𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥) is smaller than
that of the denominator 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥).

𝑝𝑝(𝑥𝑥)
We can follow the steps below to perform the decomposition for a rational function 𝑞𝑞(𝑥𝑥).

Step 1: Ensure that the fraction is proper.

Step 2: Ensure that the denominator is completely factorised.
Step 3: Express the proper fraction in partial fractions according to the cases below.
Step 4: Solve for unknown constants by substituting values of 𝑥𝑥 and/or comparing coefficients of like
terms.

Case Rational function Expression used

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
Linear factors + +
(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑)(𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑓𝑓) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) (𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 + 𝑓𝑓)

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
Repeated linear factors + +
(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑)2 (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑) (𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 + 𝑑𝑑)2

𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 + 𝑞𝑞 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
Irreducible quadratic factor +
(𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)(𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑑2 ) (𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) (𝑐𝑐𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑑𝑑2 )

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 13 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.2.9
12𝑥𝑥
Split (𝑥𝑥+1)(2𝑥𝑥+3)(𝑥𝑥−3) into partial fractions.

Solution

Since the fraction is proper and denominator involves three linear factors, we write
12𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
≡ + +
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 3) 𝑥𝑥 + 1 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

Use the substitution method: multiplying by 𝑥𝑥 + 1 gives

12𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 + 1
≡ 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
(2𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 3) 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

Putting 𝑥𝑥 = −1,
12 × (−1) −12
𝐴𝐴 = = =3
( ) ( )
(2 × −1 + 3)( −1 − 3) 1 × (−4)
3
Similarly, after multiplying by 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 and putting 𝑥𝑥 = − 2, you get 𝐵𝐵 = −8; multiplying by 𝑥𝑥 − 3 and putting
𝑥𝑥 = 3 gives 𝐶𝐶 = 1.

Therefore
12𝑥𝑥 3 8 1
≡ − +
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 + 3)(𝑥𝑥 − 3) 𝑥𝑥 + 1 2𝑥𝑥 + 3 𝑥𝑥 − 3

If you try to use the equating coefficients method in this example, you get three simultaneous equations,
with three unknowns, to solve. In this case, the substitution method is easier.

Example 1.2.10

9+4𝑥𝑥 2
Split (1−2𝑥𝑥)2(2+𝑥𝑥) into partial fractions.

Solution

The denominator involves a repeated linear factor, so we write

9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 𝐶𝐶
≡ + +
(1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 (2 + 𝑥𝑥) (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 1 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥

Method 1: Substitution and algebra

Multiplying both sides by (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 gives

9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 𝐶𝐶 (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2
≡ 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵(1 − 2𝑥𝑥) +
2 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥
1
Putting 𝑥𝑥 = 2 leads to 𝐴𝐴 = 4.

Multiplying both sides by 2 + 𝑥𝑥 gives

9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 𝐴𝐴(2 + 𝑥𝑥) 𝐵𝐵(2 + 𝑥𝑥)
≡ + + 𝐶𝐶
(1 − 2𝑥𝑥 ) 2 (1 − 2𝑥𝑥 )2 1 − 2𝑥𝑥
Putting 𝑥𝑥 = −2 leads to 𝐶𝐶 = 1.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 14 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Therefore
9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 4 𝐵𝐵 1
≡ + +
(1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 (2 + 𝑥𝑥) (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 1 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥

Then
𝐵𝐵 9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 4 1 9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 − 4(2 + 𝑥𝑥) − (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 0
≡ − − ≡ ≡
1 − 2𝑥𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥𝑥) (2 + 𝑥𝑥) (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)
2 2 2 + 𝑥𝑥 (1 − 2𝑥𝑥 ) (2 + 𝑥𝑥)
2 (1 − 2𝑥𝑥 )2 (2 + 𝑥𝑥)

Thus
9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 4 1
≡ +
(1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 (2 + 𝑥𝑥) (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 2 + 𝑥𝑥

1
*Note that multiplying both sides by 1 − 2𝑥𝑥 then putting 𝑥𝑥 = 2 to solve for 𝐵𝐵 will not work because there
will be a factor of 1 − 2𝑥𝑥 remaining in the denominator.

Method 2: Equating coefficients

Multiplying both sides by (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 (2 + 𝑥𝑥) gives

9 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 ≡ 𝐴𝐴(2 + 𝑥𝑥) + 𝐵𝐵(1 − 2𝑥𝑥)(2 + 𝑥𝑥) + 𝐶𝐶 (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2
≡ 𝐴𝐴(2 + 𝑥𝑥) + 𝐵𝐵(2 + 𝑥𝑥 − 4𝑥𝑥 − 2𝑥𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶𝐶 (1 − 4𝑥𝑥 + 4𝑥𝑥 2 )
≡ 4𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 2 + (𝐴𝐴 − 3𝐵𝐵 − 4𝐶𝐶 )𝑥𝑥 + (2𝐴𝐴 + 2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶)

By comparing the coefficients, we get

4𝐶𝐶 = 4
𝐴𝐴 − 3𝐵𝐵 − 4𝐶𝐶 = 0
2𝐴𝐴 + 2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = 9

When the first equation we get 𝐶𝐶 = 1. Then we put 𝐶𝐶 = −4 in the second and third equations to get 𝐴𝐴 −
3𝐵𝐵 = 4 and 𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 4. Solving these equations give 𝐴𝐴 = 4 and 𝐵𝐵 = 0.

So we arrive at the same answer.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 15 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.2.11
5𝑥𝑥−6
Split (𝑥𝑥+2)(𝑥𝑥 2+4) into partial fractions.

Solution

This is a case of having an irreducible quadratic factor, so we can write the proper fraction directly as
5𝑥𝑥 − 6 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
≡ +
(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4) 𝑥𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4

Method 1: Substitution and algebra

Multiply by (𝑥𝑥 + 2) to get

5𝑥𝑥 − 6 (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)
2
≡ 𝐴𝐴 +
𝑥𝑥 + 4 𝑥𝑥 2 + 4

And put 𝑥𝑥 = −2, then

5 × (−2) − 6
𝐴𝐴 = = −2
(−2)2 + 4

Then
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 5𝑥𝑥 − 6 −2 5𝑥𝑥 − 6 − (−2)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4) 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 5𝑥𝑥 + 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)
= − ≡ ≡ ≡
𝑥𝑥 + 4 (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 4) 𝑥𝑥 + 2
2 2 (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 4)
2 (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 4) (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4)
2
(2𝑥𝑥 + 1)
≡ 2
(𝑥𝑥 + 4)

So
5𝑥𝑥 − 6 −2 2𝑥𝑥 + 1
2
≡ + 2
(𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 + 4) 𝑥𝑥 + 2 𝑥𝑥 + 4

Method 2: Equating coefficients

We first multiply (𝑥𝑥 + 2)(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4) on both sides of the equation to get

5𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≡ 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4) + (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 )(𝑥𝑥 + 2) ≡ 𝐴𝐴(𝑥𝑥 2 + 4 ) + (𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶)(𝑥𝑥 + 2)

5𝑥𝑥 − 6 ≡ (𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵)𝑥𝑥 2 + (2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 )𝑥𝑥 + 4𝐴𝐴 + 2𝐶𝐶

By comparing the coefficients, we get

4𝐴𝐴 + 2𝐶𝐶 = −6
2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = 5
𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0

To solve these equations, put 𝐴𝐴 = −𝐵𝐵 in the first equation to get −4𝐵𝐵 + 2𝐶𝐶 = −6, −2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = −3. Solving
this and 2𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶 = 5 gives 𝐵𝐵 = 2, 𝐶𝐶 = 1, so 𝐴𝐴 = −2.

So we arrive at the same answer.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 16 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.2.12

2𝑥𝑥 2+4𝑥𝑥−3
Split 2𝑥𝑥 2−𝑥𝑥−3
into partial fractions.

Solution

We are now dealing with an improper fraction. Since the degree of the polynomial in the numerator and
in the denominator is two, the quotient would be a constant. We can first factorise the denominator and
divide out and start with the form

2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 3 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑄𝑄 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 + 𝑄𝑄

2
≡ 𝐴𝐴 + 2 ≡ 𝐴𝐴 +
2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 3 2𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 3 (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3)

Equating the coefficients of 𝑥𝑥 2 gives 𝐴𝐴 = 1.

Then
2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 3 (2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 3) − (2𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 − 3) 5𝑥𝑥
≡ 1+ ≡1+
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3) (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3) (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3)

This is a case of having two linear factors in the denominator and we perform partial fraction decomposition
of the proper fraction using any standard method

5𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵 2𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 − 3𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐵𝐵

≡ + ≡
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3) (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥𝑥 − 3) (𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3)

By comparing the coefficients, we get

2𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 5
−3𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 = 0

Solving these equations, we get 𝐴𝐴 = 1 and 𝐵𝐵 = 3 with the final answer as

2𝑥𝑥 2 + 4𝑥𝑥 − 3 1 3
≡1+ +
(𝑥𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥𝑥 − 3) (𝑥𝑥 + 1) (2𝑥𝑥 − 3)

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 17 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.2.13

6𝑥𝑥 4
Split 2𝑥𝑥 3+𝑥𝑥 into partial fractions.

Solution

Similarly, we have to first perform division on the improper fraction. We note that the degree of the
polynomial in the numerator is one more than the denominator. Therefore, the quotient would be a linear
function. We then start with the form

6𝑥𝑥 4 + 1 𝑃𝑃𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑄𝑄 + 𝑅𝑅
≡ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 + 𝐵𝐵 +
2𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥

By inspection, 𝐵𝐵 = 0 because there are no 𝑥𝑥 3 terms and 𝐴𝐴 = 3𝑥𝑥. We then get

6𝑥𝑥 4 + 1 6𝑥𝑥 4 + 1 − (3𝑥𝑥)(2𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥) 3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1

≡ 3𝑥𝑥 + = 3𝑥𝑥 −
2𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥(2𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)

This is a case of having an irreducible quadratic factor in the denominator and we perform partial fraction
decomposition of the proper fraction using any standard method

3𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 + 𝑁𝑁 2𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐿𝐿 + 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁

≡ + ≡
𝑥𝑥(2𝑥𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥𝑥(2𝑥𝑥 2 + 1)

By comparing the coefficients, we get

2𝐿𝐿 + 𝑀𝑀 = 3
𝑁𝑁 = 0
𝐿𝐿 = 1

Therefore, we get 𝐿𝐿 = 1, 𝑀𝑀 = 1, 𝑁𝑁 = 0 with the final answer as

6𝑥𝑥 4 1 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥
3
≡ 3𝑥𝑥 − � + 2 � ≡ 3𝑥𝑥 − − 2
2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 + 1 𝑥𝑥 2𝑥𝑥 + 1

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 18 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

1.3 THE BINOMIAL EXPANSION

(a) The general binomial theorem

Previously you should have learnt in P1 how to expand (𝑥𝑥 + 𝑦𝑦)𝑛𝑛 by the binomial theorem, when 𝑛𝑛 is a
positive integer. We now generalise the binomial theorem by including non-positive integers of 𝑛𝑛.

The general binomial theorem

It states that for any value of 𝑛𝑛:

𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1) 2 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) 3 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟 + 1) 𝑟𝑟
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥
2! 3! 𝑟𝑟!
+⋯
where
• if 𝑛𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑥𝑥 may take any value;
• if 𝑛𝑛 ∉ ℕ, |𝑥𝑥| < 1.

Note that:
• For 𝑛𝑛 ∈ 𝕀𝕀+ , the coefficients can be written as

𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛!
� � = 𝑛𝑛𝐶𝐶𝑟𝑟 =
𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟! (𝑛𝑛 − 𝑟𝑟)!

where 𝑛𝑛, 𝑟𝑟 ∈ 𝕀𝕀, > 0 and 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 𝑛𝑛, 𝑛𝑛! = 𝑛𝑛(𝑛𝑛 − 1)(𝑛𝑛 − 2) ⋯ 3 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1.

You cannot use this notation when 𝑛𝑛 is not a positive integer, since 𝑛𝑛! is only defined when is a
positive integer or zero.

• The expansion is an infinite series (known as the binomial series).

• The expansion is only valid for (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 and NOT for (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 .

• To expand (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 as ascending power of 𝑥𝑥, it must first be written as

𝑏𝑏 𝑛𝑛
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎𝑛𝑛 �1 + 𝑥𝑥�
𝑎𝑎

• To expand (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 as descending power of 𝑥𝑥, it must first be written as

𝑎𝑎 𝑛𝑛
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 = (𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏)𝑛𝑛 �1 + �
𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 19 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.3.1
3
Find the expansion of (1 + 3𝑥𝑥)2 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥𝑥 3 . For what values of 𝑥𝑥 is the
expansion valid?

Solution
3
Putting 𝑛𝑛 = 2 in the formula for (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 , and writing 3𝑥𝑥 in place of 𝑥𝑥,
3 3 1 3 1 1
� � � �� � � � � � �− �
3
(1 + 3𝑥𝑥)2 = 1 + 2 (3𝑥𝑥) + 2 2 (3𝑥𝑥)2 + 2 2 2 (3𝑥𝑥)3 + ⋯ = 1 + 9 𝑥𝑥 + 27 𝑥𝑥 2 − 27 𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯
1 1×2 1×2×3 2 8 16
9 27 27
The required expansion is 1 + 2 𝑥𝑥 + 8
𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 𝑥𝑥 3 .

1
The expansion (1 + 3𝑥𝑥 )𝑛𝑛 is valid for |3𝑥𝑥| < 1, i.e., |𝑥𝑥| < 3.

Example 1.3.2
1
Find the expansion of (3 − 2𝑥𝑥)−2 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥𝑥 3 . For what values of 𝑥𝑥 is
the expansion valid?

Solution

2
(3 − 2𝑥𝑥) is not of the required form, but you can write it as 3 �1 − 𝑥𝑥�. So, using factor rule for indices,
3

1
−
1 1 2 −2
(3 − 2𝑥𝑥) 2 = 3−2 �1 − 𝑥𝑥�
3

Then
1 1 1 3 1 3 5
2 −2 �− � 2 �− � �− � 2 2 �− 2� �− 2� �− 2� 2 3
�1 − 𝑥𝑥� = 1 + 2 �− 𝑥𝑥� + 2 2 �− 𝑥𝑥� + �− 𝑥𝑥� + ⋯
3 1 3 1×2 3 1×2×3 3
1 1 2 5 3
= 1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
3 6 54

Therefore
1
−
1 √3 2 −2 √3 √3 √3 2 5√3 3
(3 − 2𝑥𝑥) 2 = �1 − 𝑥𝑥� = + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
3 3 3 9 18 162
2 𝑛𝑛 2 3
The expansion �1 + 3 𝑥𝑥� is valid for �3 𝑥𝑥� < 1, i.e., |𝑥𝑥| < 2.

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 20 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

(b) Approximations

One use of binomial expansions is to find numerical approximations to square roots, cube roots and other
calculations. If |𝑥𝑥| is much smaller than 1, the power |𝑥𝑥 2 | is very small, |𝑥𝑥 3 | is smaller still, and you soon
reach a power which, for all intents and purposes can be neglected. So, the sum of the first few terms of
the expansion is a very close approximation to (1 + 𝑥𝑥)𝑛𝑛 .

Consider
1 1 1 1 5 4
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 = 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ , |𝑥𝑥| < 1
2 8 16 128
For small values of 𝑥𝑥,
1
1
1 + 2 𝑥𝑥 is a linear approximation to (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 ,
1
1 1
1 + 2 𝑥𝑥 − 8 𝑥𝑥 2 is a quadratic approximation of (1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 , etc.

1 1 1
Graphically, we see that the graphs of 𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 2 𝑥𝑥 and 𝑦𝑦 = 1 + 2 𝑥𝑥 − 8 𝑥𝑥 2 are close to the graph of 𝑦𝑦 =
1
(1 + 𝑥𝑥)2 for values of 𝑥𝑥 which are close to zero.

Example 1.3.3
1
Find the expansion of (1 − 2𝑥𝑥)2 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 up to and including the term 𝑥𝑥 3 . By choosing a
suitable value of 𝑥𝑥, find an approximation for √0.98 up to five decimal places.

Solution
1 1 1 1 1 3
1 � � � � �− � � � �− � �− �
(1 −2𝑥𝑥)2 2 (−2𝑥𝑥) + 2 2 (−2𝑥𝑥)2 + 2 2 2 (−2𝑥𝑥)3 + ⋯
= 1+
1 1×2 1×2×3
1 1
= 1 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯
2 2

Putting 𝑥𝑥 = 0.01 in the expansion. This gives

1 1
0.982 = 1 − 0.01 − × 0.012 − × 0.013 + ⋯ ≈ 0.98995
2 2
Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 21 Updated: Jan 2024
 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

(c) Expanding other expressions

We can also use the binomial series to expand powers of expressions more complex than 1 + 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎. If we
have an expression that can be written in the form as 𝑌𝑌(1 + 𝑍𝑍)𝑛𝑛 where 𝑌𝑌 and 𝑍𝑍 where 𝑌𝑌 and 𝑍𝑍 are
expressions involving 𝑥𝑥, then (1 + 𝑍𝑍)𝑛𝑛 can be first expanded, substitute the appropriate expression for 𝑍𝑍
in the result and then multiply through by the expression for 𝑌𝑌.

Example 1.3.4
1
Find the binomial expansion of (4 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 )2 up to and including the term in 𝑥𝑥 4 .

Solution

3
4 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 is not the required form, but you can write it as 4 �1 − 4 𝑥𝑥 2 �. So, using the factor rule for indices,
we obtain
1 1
1 1 3 2 3 2
(4 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 )2 = 42 �1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 � = 2 �1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 �
4 4
Then
1 1 1 1
3 2 2 � � 3 2 � � �− � 3 2 2
2 2 2
�1 − 𝑥𝑥 � = 1 + �− 𝑥𝑥 � + �− 𝑥𝑥 � + ⋯
4 1 4 1×2 4
1
Therefore, the required expansion of (4 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 )2 is
1 3 9
(4 − 3𝑥𝑥 2 )2 = 2 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 4
4 64

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 22 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.3.5
5+𝑥𝑥
Expand 2−𝑥𝑥+𝑥𝑥 2 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 up to the term in 𝑥𝑥 3 .

Solution

We first rewrite the given expression in the required form

−1
5 + 𝑥𝑥 2 −1
1 1 2
= (5 + 𝑥𝑥)(2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 ) = (5 + 𝑥𝑥) �1 − (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 )�
2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 2 2

1
We then make the substitution 𝑢𝑢 = 2 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) and expand (1 − 𝑢𝑢)−1 out

−1 (−1)(−2) (−1)(−2)(−3)
(1 − 𝑢𝑢)−1 = 1 + (−𝑢𝑢) + (−𝑢𝑢)2 + (−𝑢𝑢)3 + ⋯ = 1 + 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑢𝑢3 + ⋯
1 1×2 1×2×3
1
Then substitute 𝑢𝑢 = 2 (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) into the expression gives
2 3
1 1 1 1
(𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )−1 = 1 + � (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )� + � (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )� + � (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 )� + ⋯
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 3
= 1 + (𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 ) + (𝑥𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + � (𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯ )� + ⋯ = 1 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯
2 4 8 2 4 8

1
Therefore, multiplying by 2 (5 + 𝑥𝑥) gives
5 + 𝑥𝑥 1 1 1 2 3 3
= (5 + 𝑥𝑥 ) �1 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ �
2 − 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 2 2 4 8
1 5 5 2 15 3 1 1 1 7 3 17
= �5 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯ � = �5 + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑥 3 + ⋯ �
2 2 4 8 2 4 2 2 4 8
5 7 3 2 17 3
= + 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 + ⋯
2 4 8 16
5 7 3 17
The required expansion is 2 + 4 𝑥𝑥 − 8 𝑥𝑥 2 − 16 𝑥𝑥 3 .

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 23 Updated: Jan 2024

 FIS A Level Mathematics Algebra

Example 1.3.6
1+𝑥𝑥
Expand (1−𝑥𝑥)(1+𝑥𝑥 2 in ascending powers of 𝑥𝑥 as far as the term 𝑥𝑥 5 .
)

Solution

To make the expansion simpler, the expression can be first split into partial fractions. With an irreducible
quadratic factor in the denominator, we can write
1 + 𝑥𝑥 𝐴𝐴 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 + 𝐶𝐶
≡ +
(1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) 1 − 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2
2

Multiplying by 1 − 𝑥𝑥 and putting 𝑥𝑥 = 1 gives 𝐴𝐴 = 1.

1+𝑥𝑥 1
Simplifying (1−𝑥𝑥)(1+𝑥𝑥 2) − 1−𝑥𝑥 to find other fraction on the right gives
1 + 𝑥𝑥 1 1 + 𝑥𝑥 − (1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 ) 𝑥𝑥 − 𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 (1 − 𝑥𝑥) 𝑥𝑥
− ≡ ≡ = =
(1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) 1 − 𝑥𝑥 (1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) (1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) (1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) (1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )
2 2 2 2

Therefore
1 + 𝑥𝑥 1 𝑥𝑥
≡ +
(1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 ) 1 − 𝑥𝑥 1 + 𝑥𝑥 2
2

Using binomial theorem to expand, we get

1 + 𝑥𝑥
≡ (1 − 𝑥𝑥)−1 + 𝑥𝑥 (1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )−1
(1 − 𝑥𝑥)(1 + 𝑥𝑥 2 )
−1 (−1)(−2) (−1)(−2)(−3) (−1)(−2)(−3)(−4)
= �1 + (−𝑥𝑥) + (−𝑥𝑥)2 + (−𝑥𝑥)3 + (−𝑥𝑥)4
1 1×2 1×2×3 1×2×3×4
(−1)(−2)(−3)(−4)(−5) (−1) 2 (−1)(−2) 2 2
+ (−𝑥𝑥)5 + ⋯ � + 𝑥𝑥 �1 + 𝑥𝑥 + (𝑥𝑥 ) + ⋯ �
1×2×3×4×5 1 1×2
= (1 + 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 3 + 𝑥𝑥 4 + 𝑥𝑥 5 + ⋯ ) + 𝑥𝑥(1 − 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 4 + ⋯ ) = 1 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 5

The required expansion is 1 + 2𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑥𝑥 4 + 2𝑥𝑥 5 .

Prepared by: Dr Kah-Meng, Yam 24 Updated: Jan 2024