A Tentative National Infrastructure Policy for Canada

by
Adriana Giannini

Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics

McGill University
Montreal, Canada

June 2008

A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the

degree of Master of Engineering

© Adriana Giannini 2008

 A TENTATIVE NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE POLICY
FOR CANADA

ABSTRACT
Throughout history, a well maintained and functioning infrastructure has
successfully contributed to Canada’s international competitiveness and high
standards of living, however, this infrastructure has deteriorated significantly and
it poses a threat to Canada’s productivity, international competitiveness, economic
development and the quality of life of all Canadians. Neglect of Canada’s
infrastructure over the past several decades has resulted in accelerated
deterioration and has caused many assets to become obsolete, unsafe or no longer
serviceable long before the end of their service life. The recent, tragic
infrastructure failures and distresses reflect these years of neglect and reveal the
urgency of bringing infrastructure back to acceptable levels of safety and
serviceability. This thesis proposes that a National Infrastructure Policy be
developed as a first step towards this improvement. The need for a policy is
highlighted by reviewing some of the main findings of the 2007 FCM-McGill
Infrastructure Survey and the current trends in infrastructure management. The
policy will address the current trends and shortfalls and provide long-term,
sustainable solutions to dealing with the infrastructure crisis in a standardized
manner nation-wide.

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 UNE PROPOSITION POUR UNE POLITIQUE NATIONALE
D’INFRASTRUCTURE POUR LE CANADA

RÉSUMÉ
Tout au long de l’histoire, une infrastructure efficace et bien entretenue a
contribué à la compétitivité internationale du Canada ainsi qu’à l’élévation de son
niveau de vie. Cependant, cette infrastructure s’est sensiblement détériorée et est
devenue une menace pour la productivité du Canada, pour sa compétitivité
internationale, son développement économique et la qualité de vie de tous les
Canadiens. La négligence à ce sujet durant ces dernières décennies a provoqué
une détérioration rapide et rendu de nombreuses structures obsolètes, dangereuses
voir même inutilisables bien avant la fin supposée de leur durée de vie. Les
récents sinistres et tragiques défaillances dénoncent ces années de négligence et
révèlent un besoin urgent de remettre l’infrastructure canadienne à des niveaux de
sécurité et de service acceptables. Cette thèse propose qu’une Politique Nationale
d’Infrastructure soit mise en place comme première étape vers cette amélioration.
Le besoin d’une telle politique est mis en évidence par certains des principaux
résultats de l’Enquête FCM-McGill sur les Infrastructures Municipales - 2007 et
par la tendance actuelle de gestion des infrastructures. Cette politique abordera les
tendances et insuffisances actuelles et fournira des solutions durables afin de
traiter la crise de l’infrastructure d’une manière standardisée à l’échelle nationale.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would first and foremost like to extend my deepest gratitude to Professor
Mirza for his time, patience and guidance not only in preparation for this thesis,
but throughout my undergraduate and graduate studies at McGill. It was truly an
honor and privilege to have worked with a Professor who bestows so much
dedication to his students and who wants them to know so much of what he
knows and has learned in this field. His advice and encouragement will not be
forgotten, and the knowledge-sharing of not only technical aspects but of the
many other socio-economic, environmental, and other truly important
considerations that should be considered in practice have broadened my scope as
an engineer.
I would specially like to thank Cristian Sipos for his help in compiling
information on water supply infrastructure-related tragedies. I thank him for his
help and for being such a great and cooperative co-worker and friend.
I would also like to thank the outstanding professors and the staff in the
department of Civil Engineering at McGill. I learnt a lot from them as an
undergraduate and graduate student.
In direct relation to this thesis, I must acknowledge the contribution of a
few other people, especially James Francis of McMaster University, who worked
as a Research Assistant with Professor Mirza during the summer of 2007 on
issues related to rail infrastructure and climate change. Some of his research
findings and summaries have been incorporated directly or indirectly in Chapters
1 and 9. I am also grateful to Mr. Robert Charette for sharing his knowledge and
literature of life-cycle costing with me.
On behalf of the “2007 McGill Survey Team”, I would like to thank the
FCM for enabling us to collaborate with them on such an important and much
needed venture; I am especially grateful to Gabriel Miller and Massimo
Bergamini for the detailed discussions and sharing of opinions related to Canada’s
municipal infrastructure. I would also like to sincerely thank Natural Resources
Canada and Joanne Laplante for sponsorship of my internship at McGill.

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 Lastly, I would like to thank my family, friends and Nick for their
continual understanding, words of encouragement, and support throughout my
studies.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT i
RÉSUMÉ ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
LIST OF TABLES xi
LIST OF FIGURES xiv

1.0 THE INFRASTRUCTURE CRISIS

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Age of Canada’s Infrastructure 2
1.3 The Infrastructure Deficit 7
1.4 Infrastructure Tragedies 9
1.4.1 Bridge Failures 9
1.4.2 Transit System Accidents 13
1.4.3 Water Supply Contaminations 14
1.4.4 Rail Accidents 16

2.0 INFRASTRUCTURE IN CANADA: A HISTORICAL

OVERVIEW
2.1 Introduction 18
2.2 Transportation 19
2.2.1 Rail 21
2.2.1.1 The Beginning of the Railway Era: Far From 22
Perfect
2.2.1.2 The Second Phase of Railway Construction 23
2.2.1.3 Influence of the Two World Wars 24
2.2.1.4 Modern Day Systems 24
2.2.2 Roads, Bridges and Highway Networks 25
2.2.3 Airfields 31
2.3 Transit Systems 34
2.3.1 The Beginning of Transit in Canada 34
2.3.2 The Post-War Period 35

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 2.3.3 Modern Systems 36
2.3.4 Improved Passenger Options 37
2.4 Ports 38
2.4.1 Canada’s Waterways and the Beginnings of Trade 38
2.4.2 Increased Environmental Concerns 40
2.4.3 The Canadian Port Authorities 41
2.5 Water Supply and Sewage Disposal Systems 42
2.5.1 Water Distribution 42
2.5.2 Sanitary Sewers 44
2.5.3 Stormwater Collection 45
2.5.4 Treatment Plants 46

3.0 INFRASTRUCTURE: THE PRESENT SITUATION

3.1 Infrastructure Surveys 49
3.1.1 The 2007 FCM-McGill Municipal Infrastructure Survey 50
3.1.2 Other Infrastructure Surveys 51
3.2 The Present State of Canada’s Infrastructure 52
3.2.1 Water and Wastewater Systems 54
3.2.2 Transportation 61
3.2.2.1 Dealing With Aging and Deteriorating Systems 62
3.2.2.2 Where Does the Transportation Network Stand? 71
3.2.3 Transit 72
3.2.3.1 Transit in the Twenty-First Century 74
3.2.4 Cultural, Social and Recreational Facilities 76
3.2.5 Waste Management 77
3.3 Waterfront Infrastructure 78
3.4 Factors Influencing the Infrastructure Deficit 79
3.5 Canada’ Position Among Other Nations 80

4.0 CURRENT TRENDS

4.1 Introduction 83

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 4.2 Public Point of View 83
4.2.1 The 2008 Municipal Infrastructure Public Questionnaire 86
4.2.1.1 General Information 86
4.2.1.2 Public Perceptions of the Crisis 87
4.2.1.3 The State of Specific Infrastructure Types 87
4.2.1.4 User Pay Models 89
4.2.1.5 Primary Concerns 91
4.2.1.6 The Infrastructure Deficit 93
4.3 Government 93
4.4 Industry 95
4.4.1 Deferred Maintenance 95
4.4.2 Asset Condition and Worth 99
4.5 Academia 101

5.0 FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS

5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Learning From Past Mistakes 106
5.2.1 Finding New Motivations 107
5.2.2 Funding Allocations 108
5.2.3 Long-Term Objectives 110
5.2.4 Future Needs 112
5.3 The $33 Billion Building Canada Plan 113

6.0 SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE-ASSET

MANAGEMENT
6.1 Introduction 119
6.2 Why Asset Management? 120
6.3 Present Challenges 121
6.4 Asset Management on an International Scale 123
6.5 Existing AM Systems 125
6.6 A Proposed AM System 126

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 6.6.1 Software 131
6.6.1.1 Web-Based 131
6.6.1.2 GIS Functionality 131
6.6.1.3 Application Integration 131
6.6.1.4 Search Engine 132
6.6.1.5 Pre-Formatted Reports 132
6.6.2 Management 132
6.6.2.1 Instructions 132
6.6.2.2 Definitions 132
6.6.2.3 Manual of Best Practices 132
6.6.2.4 Protocols 133
6.6.3 Technical 134
6.6.4 Decision-Making Tools 137
6.7 Summary and Recommendations 138

7.0 FINANCING OF INFRASTRUCTURE

7.1 Common Funding Mechanisms 139
7.2 Innovative Financing Alternatives 144
7.2.1 Public-Private Partnerships 144
7.2.1.1 Shadow-Tolling 146
7.2.1.2 Concessions or Franchising 146
7.2.2 Sponsorship 148
7.2.3 Infrastructure Banks 150
7.2.3.1 A Canadian Infrastructure Bank 153
7.3 Assessing Financing Methods 154

8.0 SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 Introduction 156
8.2 Sustainability: Considerations in Infrastructure Planning 156
8.3 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis 158
8.3.1 Transportation Infrastructure 160

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 8.3.1.1 Heavy Lift Rapid Replacement Technology 160
8.3.1.2 Life-Cycle Management Model 161
8.4 Waste Reduction 162
8.4.1 Waste Management 163
8.4.1.1 Materials Recycling 163
8.4.1.2 Water Conservation 164
8.5 Quality Control 166
8.5.1 Water Treatment 166
8.6 Environmental Considerations 167
8.6.1 Transit 167
8.6.1.1 Marketing: The Direct Mail Campaign 168
8.6.1.2 Employer-Based Transit Pass Programs 169
8.7 Greening Construction 170
8.7.1 Buildings 171

9.0 CLIMATE CHANGE

9.1 Introduction 173
9.2 Engineering Considerations 174
9.3 Climate Change in Different Canadian Regions 176
9.4 The Impacts of Climate Change on Infrastructure 180
9.5 Impact of the Infrastructure Crisis on Climate Change 191
9.6 Case Study: Arctic Canada 192
9.6.1 Climate Change and its Effect on Permafrost 192
195
9.6.2 The Impact of Melting Permafrost on Infrastructure:
Primary Problems and Engineering Considerations

10.0 A NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE POLICY FOR

CANADA
10.1 Introduction 201
10.2 Present State of Infrastructure 202
10.2.1 Infrastructure Deficit 203

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 10.2.2 Needs of the Municipalities 204
10.3 Existing Recommendations for an NIP 204
10.4 Developing a Policy Framework 206
10.5 Basic Issues 207
10.6 National Infrastructure Policy 214
10.7 National Benefits 216
10.8 The Role of Infrastructure Canada 217
10.9 Infrastructure Australia 218
10.10 Implementing an NIP in Canada 220
10.11 Implementation Needs: Where Do We Go From Here? 225
10.11.1 Best Practices 225
10.11.2 Resources 225
10.11.3 Education and Awareness 226
10.11.3.1 Public Awareness 226
10.11.3.2 Academia 228

11.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 230

REFERENCES 232

APPENDIX A 253
APPENDIX B 288
APPENDIX C 294
APPENDIX D 308

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 The elapsed useful life of four infrastructure categories in 4
2003
Table 1.2 Average investment by each level of government for new 6
construction and upgrading of existing infrastructure, from
1992 1997
Table 1.3 The escalating municipal infrastructure deficit obtained from 8
various studies
Table 2.1 Length of paved, unpaved and total length and percentage 27
distribution of public roads per province and territories in
2006
Table 2.2 Breakdown of the National Highway System by province 29
and route type (core, feeder, northern and remote routes)
Table 2.3 Length and percentage of pipe materials in use today 43
Table 3.1 Main infrastructure categories and sub-categories 53
Table 3.2 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for water and 54
wastewater systems, in 1996 and 2007
Table 3.3 Average condition ratings for water supply, and wastewater 56
and stormwater systems in municipalities with populations
between 100,000 and 400,000
Table 3.4 National Water Report Card II 59
Table 3.5 National Sewage Report Card III 60
Table 3.6 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for transportation 61
infrastructure, in 1996 and 2007
Table 3.7 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for transit system 76
infrastructure, in 1996 and 2007
Table 3.8 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for cultural, social 77
and recreational facilities, in 1996 and 2007
Table 3.9 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for waste 77
management, in 1996 and 2007

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Table 3.10 International infrastructure deficits 81
Table 4.1 Partial list of North American infrastructure organizations 103
and their primary objectives.
Table 5.1 Breakdown of the $33B Building Canada Plan 114
Table 6.1 Main highlights of common North American IAMSs 127
Table 7.1 Review of traditional infrastructure funding mechanisms 140
Table 7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of common funding 142
techniques
Table 7.3 Forms of public-private partnerships 145
Table 7.4 Main criteria for evaluating financing alternatives 154
Table 8.1 Example of a LCCA adopted in NYC for a bridge 162
undergoing recommended maintenance levels
Table 9.1 Expected climate change events in Canada’s main climatic 178
regions
Table 9.2 The 2001 drought records of four Canadian regions 181
Table 10.1 Issues for consideration in a proposed National Infrastructure 208
Policy
Table 10.2 The main branches of Infrastructure Canada 218

Appendices

Table A.1 Transportation infrastructure-related tragedies: Canada 253

Table A.2 Transportation infrastructure-related tragedies: International 255
Table A.3 Transit infrastructure-related tragedies: Canada 264
Table A.4 Major outbreaks of pathogenic bacteria due to water 266
contamination: Canada
Table A.5 Major outbreaks of pathogenic bacteria due to water 269
contamination around the World
Table A.6 The World’s deadliest rail accidents 271
Table A.7 Summary of rail accidents in Canada since 1991 272
Table B.1 Canadian infrastructure surveys – 1985 – 2007 288

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Table B.2 Other Canadian infrastructure surveys – 2004 – 2006 290
Table D.1 Canadian Infrastructure Programs – 1919 to 2007 308

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 The onset of deterioration and its impact on the costs for 2
maintenance, repair and rehabilitation
Figure 1.2 The age of Canada’s municipal infrastructure 3
Figure 1.3 The average age of four infrastructure categories from 1963 5
to 2003 (wastewater treatment facilities, roads and
highways, sewer systems and bridges)
Figure 2.1 Facilities at Montreal’s Pierre Elliott Trudeau International 33
Airport
Figure 3.1 Canada’s infrastructure deficits devised from studies 50
between 1985 and 2003
Figure 3.2 Steps in the formation of potholes in asphalt pavements 63
(a) Initial stages of pavement deterioration: formation of 63
fatigue cracks
(b) Cracking due to differential settlement 63
(c) Ingress of water and snowmelt 64
(d) Freezing 64
(e) Thawing 64
(f) Pavement break-up 65
(g) Pothole formation 65
Figure 3.3 Differences in the timing of the freezing layers within the 67
concrete
Figure 3.4 A typical pothole patch repair 68
(a) Patch repair without pothole preparation 68
(b) Failure of the patch repair 68
Figure 3.5 Effective pothole repair 70
Figure 3.6 Number of urban transit passengers between 1974 and 1998 73
Figure 3.7 Transit infrastructure needs in Canada, for the 2000-2008 74
period

xiv
Figure 3.8 Transit system rehabilitation and replacement needs 2008- 75
2012
Figure 3.9 World competitiveness report: infrastructure debt rankings 82
by country
Figure 4.1 Public opinions on the state of infrastructure assets from 84
the IPSOS/REID Municipal World Survey
Figure 4.2 Qualitative performance curves showing the impact of 97
different levels of maintenance on the infrastructure’s
useful life and quality level
Figure 4.3 Actual versus desired maintenance funding levels of 66 99
Canadian municipalities
Figure 4.4 Municipalities’ confidence levels for responses provided to 101
the 2004 NRC Survey on Municipal Infrastructure Assets
Figure 6.1 Proposed IAMS framework 130
Figure 7.1 Structure of the Sofia Water and Wastewater Concession 148
Project
Figure 7.2 Structure of state infrastructure banks 151
Figure 7.3 Main structure of the Pennsylvania Infrastructure Bank 152
Figure 8.1 Average water consumption (litres/day) in different 164
continents
Figure 9.1 Climatic regions of Canada 177
Figure 9.2 Canadian flood risk areas 183
Figure 9.3 The sensitivity of Canada’s coastal regions to sea level rise 185
Figure 9.4 The Atlantic Provinces’ sensitivity to sea level rise 186
Figure 9.5 The Western Arctic’s sensitivity to sea level rise 187
Figure 9.6 An illustration of the different states of permafrost 193
Figure 9.7 Permafrost distribution in Canada 194
Figure 9.8 Thermokarst terrain 194
Figure 9.9 Differential settlement of a roadway and longitudinal 196
cracking of roads and airfields
Figure 9.10 Use of piles as a structural foundation 198

xv
Figure 9.11 Examples of buildings destroyed by melting permafrost. 198
Apparent uplift of the right side of building due to frost
heaving and differential settlement followed by extreme
cracking of buildings
Figure 9.12 Water and sewage distribution pipes placed in surface 199
utilidors
Figure 9.13 Pipe uplift due to frost heaving 200
Figure 10.1 Sub-deficits for each main infrastructure category in 1996 204
and 2007
Figure 10.2 A proposed hierarchy for successful NIP implementation 223
under Infrastructure Canada
Figure 10.3 Proposed structure breakdown of the NIP Implementation 224
Office and its affiliation to other proposed branches

Appendices

Figure B.1 Factors influencing the municipal infrastructure deficit 291

Figure C.1 Island of Montreal boroughs 296
Figure C.2 Laval municipal structure (2002) 297
Figure C.3 Map of the Island of Montreal, Laval and surrounding 297
Quebec municipalities

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 CHAPTER 1

THE INFRASTRUCTURE CRISIS

1.1 Introduction

History of Canada’s infrastructure dates back to the early days of the

confederation. Over the past years, these infrastructure facilities have successfully
enhanced Canada’s productivity, international competitiveness, economic growth
and high standards of living. However, despite its crucial role, Canada’s
infrastructure has been neglected in the past few decades and the resulting
accelerated deterioration has caused many facilities to become unsafe or no longer
serviceable long before the end of the expected service life. The recent, tragic
infrastructure failures and distresses reflect these years of neglect and reveal the
urgency of bringing infrastructure back to acceptable levels of safety and
serviceability. The de la Concorde Overpass collapse occurred on September 30,
2006 in Laval, Quebec, north of Montreal, killing five people and injuring six
others. The latter is one of many bridge failures in Canada’s history that occurred
prior to the midpoint of the bridge’s intended service life; it failed after 36 years
in service. The Minnesota Bridge collapse, which occurred on August 1st, 2007
after 40 years of service, is a similar example proving that our North American
neighbours are experiencing a similar crisis.
Canada saw a boom in infrastructure construction in the post-war period.
This infrastructure has reached the end of its useful service life, but the backlog of
deterioration that has accumulated over the years has also led to the rapid aging of
our “younger” assets. Therefore, the poor state of the older and newer facilities,
combined, have lead to greater needs and have amplified the projected costs of
bringing the infrastructure back to acceptable levels. This backlog of deterioration
is primarily due to lack of funding in the area of municipal works over the years,
which has consequently led to years of deferred maintenance. Figure 1.1 shows
that if a routine maintenance program is not implemented throughout a facility’s
service life, then deterioration initiates at an early stage (Phase B), the asset will

1
then continue to deteriorate at rapid rates (Phase C). This will not only lead to
rapid aging of the asset, but to exorbitant costs for the needed repairs and
rehabilitation (Phases C and D). If needed maintenance, repair or rehabilitation is
deferred, the asset will typically reach the point where rehabilitation will no
longer be possible, and the facility will need to be replaced at much higher costs
(end of Phase D).

Deterioration Critical loss

Costs

Time

A B C D

Figure 1.1 The onset of deterioration and its impact on the costs for
maintenance, repair and rehabilitation (CEB, 1989).

1.2 The Age of Canada’s Infrastructure

The service life of an infrastructure asset is defined as the period of time

over which the asset is able to provide an acceptable level of performance with
regular, routine maintenance. The service life attained by the infrastructure would
depend on the quality of design, construction, operation, maintenance practices,
misuse and abuse, and environmental factors. According to the Technology Road
Map (TRM), more than half (59%) of the infrastructure in Canada had already
reached or exceeded half of its service life in 2003: about 31% of the
infrastructure was between 40 and 80 years old, 28% between 80 and 100 years

2
old, and only 41% less than 40 years old (Figure 1.2) (TRM, 2003). The TRM
was established by four national groups - the Canadian Society for Civil
Engineering (CSCE), the National Research Council (NRC), the Canadian
Council of Professional Engineers (CCPE), now Engineers Canada, and the
Canadian Public Works Association (CPWA) – who are working together to
identify the challenges and associated technological needs of Canada’s
infrastructure systems over a ten year period.

Figure 1.2 The age of Canada’s municipal infrastructure (TRM, 2003).

A 2006 Statistics Canada report reveals that since 2003 the average age of
infrastructure has actually decreased due to increased government spending.
While this last statement would suggest that actions are being taken to restore
existing infrastructure to acceptable levels, it must be noted that it is the
investment in constructing new infrastructure that has helped lower the average
age. The average age was calculated based on several factors: investment, the
survival function, the year the investment was made, and the year-end gross
capital stock (Gaudreault and Lemire, 2006). The report suggests that in 2003,
more than half of the useful service life of four infrastructure categories had been
reached. The elapsed useful life, in 2003, of each of the main infrastructure
categories are as follows (Table 1.1).

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 Table 1.1 The elapsed useful life of four infrastructure categories in 2003
(Gaudreault and Lemire, 2006).

Infrastructure Category Elapsed useful life in 2003

Wastewater treatment facilities 63%
Roads and highways 59%
Sewer systems 52%
Bridges 49%

The authors only considered four infrastructure categories because “combined,

they comprised 80% of all engineering infrastructure owned and operated by
federal, provincial, territorial and municipal governments in 2002” (Gaudreault
and Lemire, 2006). Wastewater treatment facilities have undergone the most
aging, not having been subjected to any major investments since the late 1970s.
Yet, the overall average age of the four infrastructure categories combined has
increased at the national level. Figure 1.3 shows the trend in average age over a
forty year span, since 1963.
Most of the infrastructure was built in the post-World War II period, thus
investments in new infrastructure decreased in the 1970s and 1980s, and
investment in the maintenance of assets was minimal. As a result, the most aging
took place during the 1970s and 1980s. Aging slowed after this period, due to
increased investment in infrastructure to meet new needs resulting from suburban
sprawl, urbanization, population growth, etc. The 1990s also saw an increase in
the infrastructure’s average age, but at a considerably lower rate. Increased
investment for new construction in the past decade has maintained the average
age at stable rates.

4
 Figure 1.3 The average age of four infrastructure categories from 1963 to
2003 (wastewater treatment facilities, roads and highways,
sewer systems and bridges) (Gaudreault and Lemire, 2006).

Table 1.2 gives the investment breakdown by different jurisdictions

(federal, provincial, territorial and municipal) from 1992 to 1997, for both new
construction and upgrading of existing infrastructure. Approximately 80% to 90%
of infrastructure investments by all levels of government were for the construction
of new infrastructure. Investments towards repair and rehabilitation have been the
greatest for roads, highways and bridges, which based on past infrastructure
surveys have been in the greatest need for repair. The greatest investments for
new construction have been for the construction of wastewater treatment
facilities, which have the highest average age and sewer systems, which have
undergone the fastest rate of growth within the municipal infrastructure stock due
to urbanization and population growth (Gaudreault and Lemire, 2006).

5
 Table 1.2 Average investment by each level of government for new
construction and upgrading of existing infrastructure, from 1992-
1997 (Gaudreault and Lemire, 2006).

Although the above numbers provide a general idea of the average age of
some of the infrastructure assets in Canada, it is difficult to scientifically assess
the average age of all of Canada’s infrastructure stock, given that a complete
national inventory of the infrastructure stock is non-existent. Municipalities across
Canada have not maintained inventories of the infrastructure assets in their
communities. The construction specifications and financial data of many facilities
are now being archived, however, much of the documentation pertaining to the
older facilities does not exist. Therefore, while the overall condition of visible
structures can be assessed, the state of underground infrastructure is often
unknown, and in some cases, the exact location or even the existence of many
underground utilities remains uncertain. The lack of standard condition
assessment techniques for all municipalities also leads to uncertainties, given the
subjectivity of many evaluations, and therefore, the inaccuracy of available
infrastructure assessments. Together, the lack of a complete national inventory
and of national standardized condition assessment techniques makes it difficult to
accurately identify the areas with the greatest needs, and therefore, to accurately
get an overall assessment of the present infrastructure crisis.

6
1.3 The Infrastructure Deficit

Some groups have tried to quantify the infrastructure crisis in terms of the
municipal infrastructure deficit. This figure does not encompass infrastructure
owned by the other orders of government (e.g., hospitals, schools, military bases,
port infrastructure), but only those assets owned and managed by the
municipalities. Including infrastructure from other orders of government would be
a very difficult task. In particular, information retrieval would be complex and the
country’s incomplete infrastructure inventory would yield a less accurate estimate
of the deficit. Therefore, it is typical to find the municipal infrastructure deficit as
a separate figure than that which represents the needs of other specific
infrastructure categories owned and operated by specific groups or other levels of
government (e.g., waterfront/port infrastructure, provincial highways, etc.).
Table 1.3 summarizes the deficits derived from some recent studies by
various groups. First, in 1985, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM)
developed a survey to gather information from the various municipalities across
Canada regarding their infrastructure financing and other management practices,
and found a municipal infrastructure deficit of $12 billion. In 1992, the deficit
increased to $20 billion. Only three years later this estimate was revised and
found to be $44 billion, this time with a more comprehensive survey developed by
the FCM and McGill University. In 2003, various groups got together, among
these the Canadian Society for Civil Engineering (CSCE) and the National
Research Council (NRC) and upgraded the McGill-FCM estimate to $57 billion.
The Toronto-Dominion (TD) Bank Financial Group has estimated the deficit to be
about $60 billion, and increasing at the rate of $2 billion a year since 2003 (Mirza,
2007). However, estimates of the deficits for specific infrastructure categories,
derived from specialized groups (e.g., CWWA, CUTA, etc.) suggest that rapid
deterioration and, consequently, rapid aging have led this figure to compound
significantly over the past five years.

7
 Table 1.3 The escalating municipal infrastructure deficit obtained from
various studies.
Year Deficit ($ Billion) Group
1985 12 FCM survey results
1992 20 FCM survey results
1996 44 Detailed FCM- McGill survey results
2003 57 Technology Road Map (TRM): Upgrading
of FCM- McGill survey results.

The 2007 FCM-McGill Municipal Infrastructure Survey has confirmed

that the deficit has escalated dramatically since the $60 billion estimate of 2003. If
the recent tragic events and resulting deaths have not been motivating enough to
include infrastructure among the list of priorities on political agenda, at $123.6
billion, this revised estimate should be sounding an alarm that there is a need for
urgent action. Unlike past surveys, the 2007 FCM-McGill Municipal
Infrastructure Survey also established the new needs of communities across the
country. The capital needs for new infrastructure and for the expansion of existing
infrastructure to meet new needs was found to be $115.2 billion. While this value
cannot be compared to any past estimates, it is believed that this need is
compounding at a rate similar to that of the deficit for upgrading existing
infrastructure. As a result, Canadian citizens not only have to deal with using
deteriorated infrastructure on a daily basis, but even where infrastructure is in an
acceptable state, they must deal with the consequences of its inadequate capacity
to meet the required levels of serviceability (e.g., congestion and delays where
populations are high and transportation and transit systems are inadequate,
minimal options where sports complexes and recreational facilities are scarce but
in high demand, etc.).

8
1.4 Infrastructure Tragedies

The de la Concorde Overpass and the Minnesota Bridge collapses are only
two of the many infrastructure-related tragic events experienced by North
Americans over the past century. Together, they are also examples of only one
type of infrastructure system that has failed before society’s eyes. Water supply
contaminations, pipe bursts and transit accidents are among the other tragedies
that have affected communities and that continue to remind citizens of how often
infrastructure is taken for granted and how important it really is to the everyday
functioning of a society. Transit accidents can paralyze a city, which can leave
many without the possibility of getting to school or work and, even for a day, can
mean thousands of dollars lost for a business. An increasing amount of people
fear driving over bridges and today, many would be keen on the idea of their
municipalities adopting user-pay models such as toll booths if it meant that the
safety of bridges and highways would be ensured. The latter would have caused
public uproar by the majority of the population only ten years back. Water
tragedies such as the Walkerton case have left many fearful and with a lack of
trust in their water supply and treatment systems. In addition, many people are
still suffering from permanent kidney injuries due to this outbreak.
Appendix A provides tables of the major bridge failures, water outbreaks
and transit and rail accidents that have occurred in Canada. As bridge failures are
the most common and frequent type of infrastructure failures to make
international news, a table detailing popular international bridge failures is also
provided.

1.4.1. Bridge Failures

Unfortunately, despite the several tragedies, not much has changed and the
politicians have taken no significant actions or policy decisions. Approximately
96 injuries and 108 deaths have resulted from bridge and highway collapses in
Canada since 1900 and many more injuries and deaths have resulted from bridge
failures around the world. Approximately 40 major international bridge and

9
highway collapses have occurred since 1900 in countries such as the U.S., India,
Sweden, Wales, Australia, Russia, Spain, Korea, Palau, Israel, Portugal, Japan,
Guinea and Pakistan. An amazing 16 of these 40 failures have occurred since the
year 2000! Of the 40 bridge collapses that have occurred in Canada and the U.S.,
10 of these occurred during construction and one during decommissioning. All
major Canadian and international bridge collapses are summarized in Tables A.1
and A.2 of Appendix A.
Trends can be established when analyzing the main causes of bridge
failures at different points in time. Construction errors and design flaws were
noted to be the typical causes for the earlier bridge failures between 1900 and
1940, as many bridge designs and bridge construction practices were being
introduced. For example:

ƒ The Quebec Bridge collapsed in 1907, killing 75 people and injuring 11 others.
The dead load of the bridge was underestimated, a mistake that was not
identified, as preliminary calculations were not re-verified prior to construction.
On-site inspections by experienced supervisors were minimal and the primary
responsibility of a recent graduate. Additionally, some installed members had
defects (Ricketts, 2007).
ƒ The Second Narrows Bridge collapsed in Vancouver, British Columbia in 1930
due primarily to poor planning and design. The bridge was not designed with
adequate fender systems and an appropriate clear span between high tide water
levels and the bridge deck, for the shipping activities in the area. As a result, the
bridge was hit many times by ships; the last barge to hit the bridge was pushed
up under the span during high tide, taking away the centre span. There were 8
deaths and 20 people injured as a result of this accident (Bouton, 2008).
ƒ Timber forms used in the construction of the Sandö Bridge in 1939, in Sandö,
Sweden, were not securely installed and all scaffolding collapsed under the
weight of the fresh concrete, killing 18 workers (University of Cambridge,
2008).

10
 Lack of experience continued to be a cause for the subsequent collapses
occurring between the 1940s and the 1970s; more precisely design errors,
inadequate construction practices and inappropriate use of materials were the
main causes. Examples of bridges that collapsed during this era include:

ƒ The Heron Road Bridge which collapsed in 1966 in Ottawa, Ontario during
construction of the bridge, killing nine workers and injuring 57 others. The
wooden support forms lacked diagonal bracings and green lumber was used
(Laucius, 2006).
ƒ The Silver Bridge Collapse connecting Point Pleasant, West Virginia to
Kanauga, Ohio, which collapsed in 1967 and killed 46 people and injured nine
others. One of the steel eye-bar suspension chains had a crack, making poor
quality control during construction one of the main causes of the collapse.
However, had the bridge been designed appropriately from a maintenance point
of view, the severity of this crack growing over the years due to stress corrosion
and corrosion fatigue would have been apparent during inspections. Advanced
inspection techniques were unavailable during this time and the only way to
have spotted the crack was to disassemble the eye-bar (Corrosion Doctors,
2007).
As expected, negligent construction practices, inadequate inspection
techniques and deferred maintenance were the primary causes of collapses
occurring after the 1970s. Today, almost 40 years later, deferred maintenance
continues to be the leading cause for bridge collapses typically after 30 to 40
years of service life; these bridges should have been serviceable for 75 to 100
years. For example:

ƒ In North America, the de la Concorde Overpass and Minnesota bridges

collapsed after 36 and 40 years of service, respectively. Though not the sole
cause, deferred maintenance was a primary cause of both tragedies. Together,
these failures took the lives of 17 people.

11
ƒ The Seongsu Bridge collapsed in Seoul City, Korea in 1994 after only 15 years
of service. The bridge was highly corroded due to use of de-icing salts and no
maintenance or inspection standards were ever specified for this bridge. Thirty-
two people died and 17 others were injured (Kunishima, 2007).
ƒ Though the age of the bridge is not specified, the Daman Bridge in Daman,
India collapsed in 2003 due to similar reasons, killing 25 people (23 of whom
were children) and injuring another 20 people. The bridge had been in a state of
disrepair for some time, but proper actions were not taken to restore the bridge
to acceptable levels (BBC News, 2003).

The most unacceptable part of the current infrastructure crisis is that

people (including politicians) are aware that it is happening, yet history keeps
repeating itself. Prior to the 2001 Portugal Bridge Collapse, which killed 70
people, Mr. Paulo Teixeira, the mayor of Castelo de Paiva (one of the two towns
linked by the bridge), had reportedly warned the government that the bridge was
unsafe (BBC News, 2001). If the latter warnings were not convincing enough, the
fact that the bridge was 116 years old should have increased the priority of
performing detailed inspections and condition assessments of the bridge.
Similarly, Minnesota officials had been warned as early as 17 years prior
to the incident that the bridge was “structurally deficient”. In those 17 years, only
small scale repairs and inspections were performed. Two years prior to the bridge
collapse, the Department of Transportation has repeated these warnings, urging
for frequent and detailed inspections of the bridge’s trusses (Keen, 2007).
Investigation into the causes of the bridge collapse revealed that sixteen fractured
gusset plates in the central span of the bridge were the main cause of the collapse.
These plates were also found to be only half of the required thickness, making
design flaws another cause (McCarthy, 2008). In addition to the extra weight on
the bridge due to construction, its “poor condition” – a term used to describe the
bridge’s supporting structure in an inspection one year prior to collapse – is also
to blame; the bridge was rated at four out of nine, where zero means that the

12
structure requires a shutdown and nine means that it is in a perfect state (Wald
and Chang, 2007).

1.4.2. Transit System Accidents

The 1896 Victoria Streetcar accident is considered to be “the worst

streetcar accident in Canadian history”. A streetcar designed to hold 60
passengers was packed with 142 passengers, causing the wooden Pointe Ellice
Bridge, over which it was passing to collapse, killing 55 persons. Negligent
practices and operations have unfortunately been the cause of the Point Ellice
Bridge collapse and the later transit accidents as well. However, in addition to
negligent practices, faulty machinery and deterioration have largely contributed to
the causes of the largest transit accidents in Canada.
In 1995, Toronto experienced the “worst subway accident in Canadian
history”, which killed three and injured 36 people. A new driver ran three red
lights before depending on a fail-safe trip arm that did not function (Craig, 1995).
Similarly, the Montreal Metro accident of 1971 was due to a faulty throttle that
prevented proper functioning of the brakes, leading to a collision between two
metro cars. Inadequate ventilation in the metro tunnel was another detrimental
factor, leading to a fire lasting 17 hours. Firefighters had no choice but to flood
the metro tunnel, damaging much of the infrastructure, including the rolling stock.
In addition to the $7 million damage and firefighting costs, 35 injuries and
surprisingly only one death were the outcome of this metro tragedy (Halton,
1971). The second subway accident in Toronto occurred in 2007 when a subway
car was being used to push a flatbed car holding metal scaffolding that had been
used for tunnel repairs during the day. The heavy metal was not securely fastened
to the flatbed, causing it to fall onto the back metro car, killing the driver and
injuring two other passengers.
Internationally, other major cities such as Valencia, Rome, Tokyo and
London have had similar transit accidents. Two Tokyo trains collided in 2000,
killing four people and injuring 40 others. In London, a subway train collided into
the dead end of a tunnel in 1975, killing 43 people (Craig, 1995). The Valencia

13
transit accident (2006) was due to derailing of a metro car, killing 41 people. In
the same year, over 100 people were injured and one person died during another
metro collision in Rome. The latter was reportedly due to faulty brakes and
inadequate training of the personnel (RaiNews 24, 2006). Therefore, just as in the
case of bridge failures, common trends can be seen when analyzing transit
accidents, but yet again history keeps repeating itself (Table A.3, Appendix A).

1.4.3. Water Supply Contaminations

There have been seven deaths and more than 25,000 cases of illness from
water supply system contaminations in Canada since 1996. However, the list of
contamination outbreaks both in Canada and internationally does not end here.
Tables A.4 and A.5 in Appendix A detail only some of the major outbreaks of
pathogenic bacteria due to water contamination in Canada and internationally,
respectively. Among the worst and recent water supply contaminations in
Canadian history are the 2000 Walkerton Tragedy, which occurred in Walkerton,
Ontario and the 2001 North Battleford cryptosporidium parasite contamination,
which occurred in North Battleford, Saskatchewan. Together, these tragedies have
led to seven deaths, approximately 8000 cases of illness and millions of dollars
lost in medical costs, compensations, law suits and deferred infrastructure
upgrades; timely upgrades would have cost less and could have prevented such
tragedies from happening altogether.
In Walkerton, one of the three wells supplying water to the community
was shallower, which according to the Ontario Environment Minister was the
reason to install a chlorination piping system at this well. This chlorination system
was never installed, and the well was found to be in close proximity of a cattle
farm. Therefore, during a period of unusually high rainfall cow manure was swept
into the well. To make matters worse, the water chlorination system at the
treatment plant had not worked properly for some time. In addition, the
management was not qualified and did not have the knowledge, or training
required when faced with the problems at the treatment plant, or in the event of a
contamination. The Walkerton example shows the diversity of the causes of this

14
tragedy: poor planning, design errors, inadequate maintenance, deteriorated and
obsolete infrastructure, lack of quality control, negligent operations and
unqualified personnel, political inaction and inadequate levels of treatment.
The North Battleford contamination resulted from similar causes. These
events suggest that the society is not learning from its past mistakes, and in the
21st century, with the ready availability of newer technologies and greater
knowledge, such tragedies are only getting worse. An examination of the main
causes of these outbreaks (Appendix A) in Canada and around the world clearly
shows that some of the causes of the older water supply contaminations have
combined to cause most of the recent tragedies:

ƒ The cryptosporidium parasite contamination in North Battleford,

Saskatechewan in 2001 was due to a combination of factors, namely, design
errors (the treatment plant was built only 2 km downstream of the sewage
treatment plant), inadequate maintenance of the treatment plant, inadequately
trained personnel and management, and political inaction, as there were
warnings as early as 1997 that the effluent being discharged was not meeting
the environmental standards. The contamination caused 6000-7000 cases of
illness and over $18 million in compensations and infrastructure upgrades
(CBC, June 10, 2007).
ƒ Other cryptosporidium outbreaks occurred in Cranbrook, British Columbia and
in Kelowna, British Columbia in 1996, causing 2000 and 10,000-15,000 cases
of illness, respectively. Both were due to a combination of poor planning and
inadequate treatment levels. Freshwater sources in both cases were
contaminated by livestock feces (CBC, 2004).
ƒ The 1993 cryptosporidium outbreak in Milwaukee, in 1993 led to 403,000 cases
of illness and over 100 deaths. Again, a combination of factors - negligent
operations and inadequate treatment – led to this tragedy. One of two city water
purification plants was contaminated with sewage and the plant operated under
abnormal turbidity levels for a little over two weeks (Blair, 1995).

15
ƒ Another cryptosporidium and giardia outbreak in Sydney, Australia, which
occurred in 1998, also due to negligent operations and inadequate treatment
levels, affected three million people and cost tens of millions of dollars (public
inquiry, liability settlements, etc.) (Leiss, 2007).

While water supply contaminations usually have the gravest outcomes,

other failures related to water supply and sewage disposal infrastructure are
possible. It is estimated that in Montreal close to 50% of treated water is lost in
some districts due to leaking pipes, leading to large financial and energy loses and
possible contamination of the water supply. However, the severely cracked and
deteriorated pipes can result in structural failure of the system, which can also
lead to serious consequences. For example, the pipe burst on Pie-IX Boulevard in
Montreal Quebec, in 2002, flooded 250 homes and caused distress to 22,000
people, who were left without drinking water for nine days and were left with
their basements and possessions destroyed. It cost the City of Montreal $8 million
to compensate the affected citizens for this damage (CTV News, 2004).

1.4.4. Rail Accidents

The world’s deadliest rail accidents between 1915 and 2005 are listed in
Table A.6 (Appendix A). While Canada does not make this list, Table A.7 shows
that Canadians have had their share of rail accidents. The lengthy table may come
as a shock to many people, as it briefly summarizes the rail accidents that have
occurred since 1991. There have been over 120 rail accidents since that time,
many of them not making national news as they involve no fatalities or injuries.
Nevertheless, the causes of these accidents are examples of the poor state of the
rail infrastructure across Canada. Causes include:

ƒ Numerous derailments due to deteriorated railway tracks and ties, depressions

caused by failure of the track’s subgrade, poor welding, track buckling, etc.;
ƒ Inadequate control systems and technologies;
ƒ Negligence on the part of crew members in the yard;

16
ƒ Failure of conductors to follow speed limits and other specified regulations;
ƒ Conductor fatigue due to long shifts;
ƒ Faulty infrastructure, such as hand-breaks, switch-activated rails, computer-
assisted train control systems, warning signals at crossings, etc.; and
ƒ Unsafe or poorly designed pedestrian and vehicle crossings.

While fatalities and injuries are less than those reported in the world’s deadliest
rail accidents, the fact that some did occur should not be ignored. These accidents
had direct, serious impacts on the society and in many cases, they resulted in
large costs associated with property damage and deterioration of the environment
due to the resulting numerous oil and gas leaks.
A 2006 equipment inspection by Transport Canada revealed that 20.6% of
3,021 freight cars and 53.9% of 232 locomotives inspected suffered from safety
defects. These inspections revealed 151 defects pertaining to safety and another
145 defects pertaining to brake gear defects. An additional 60 defects were found
related to the car bodies. Similar inspections of locomotives revealed 80 defects
pertaining to brake gear, 28 pertaining to air brakes, and 72 related to combustible
materials (i.e., excessive accumulation of oil on the exterior of the locomotive, or
the fuel tank) (Transport Canada, July 29 2007). A historical overview of the
infrastructure in Canada (Chapter 2) would further elaborate the deficiencies in
railway infrastructure. Rail systems are amongst the oldest infrastructure types,
and the deterioration and rapid aging due to inadequate maintenance, repair and
rehabilitation to upgrade the system due to lack of funding and other reasons can
possibly explain these numerous defects. Additionally, with the advent of
airplanes and other modes of transit, dependence on rail systems decreased
considerably.

17
 CHAPTER 2

INFRASTRUCTURE IN CANADA:
A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Significant events in Canadian history can be directly associated with the

development of infrastructure across the country. High immigration rates and
settlement in Canada followed the construction of railways, which permitted
access to regions other than those once solely accessible by boat. Over time, even
remote areas of the North became accessible with the construction of railways and
the advent of aviation, which required the development of new infrastructure. The
development of road networks, including highways and bridges, further enabled
access to new lands, new resources and subsequently, the development of
communities and industries across the country.
As Canada’s major cities were founded and the populations continued to
grow, inter-city and urban transit systems were required to help shape the
metropolitan communities. Presently, transit and other systems linking intermodal
transportation networks remain major points of interest for citizens or business
owners seeking to find a new place to live, or to work, to establish a company, or
a new business. Consequently, the on-going improvement of the infrastructure,
management and operations of these systems to ensure their efficacy and
serviceability must remain high on political agendas for cities to remain
competitive and provide a good quality of life to their citizens.
Transportation infrastructure plays the most visible role in everyday life.
Water supply and sewage disposal systems are out of sight and normally taken for
granted, along with other associated infrastructure (e.g., treatment plants); these
facilities have improved considerably over the decades. The earlier systems are
unimaginable to the present generation. A review of the progress of infrastructure
facilities over the decades will reveal how Canadian communities have surpassed
an era of pain and suffering caused by spreads of waterborne epidemics.

18
Unfortunately, many communities across the globe are still living in unacceptable
conditions, with no water supply and sewage disposal systems, or water treatment
processes. Yet, North American-modern-day systems set high standards for their
water services, providing for high standards of living.
Economic development and the standard of living of a community are
directly related to the infrastructure that serves the community’s population on a
daily basis. The following chapters will summarize the most significant events in
the development of infrastructure in Canada, revealing its growth into one of the
leading countries among the most prosperous, commercially active and attractive
in terms of living conditions.

2.2 Transportation

Explorers and settlers arrived from Europe in the 1500’s and quickly
became familiar with the canals, rivers, streams and lakes used by the natives for
travel by canoe. These explorers and settlers introduced other forms of inland
transportation including horses, oxcarts and homemade carriages, which
multiplied when graded roads/trails were created. The first graded road in Canada
was a 16 km military road built in Nova Scotia, by Samuel de Champlain in 1606.
Similarly, the few roads constructed in the 1700’s were also built as military
trails, including a road built in the 1730’s linking Montreal and Quebec City,
which took four and a half days to travel by carriage, and Yonge Street – now a
major artery in Toronto, Ontario. However, road construction really accelerated in
the 1800’s following an appropriation made in 1804 for road construction and the
introduction of toll roads. Prior to this date, in the late 1700’s, settlers were
responsible for maintaining the roads adjacent to their properties (Day, 2007).
Although transportation by water was still the primary travel mode;
construction of roads enabled further inland access and reduced local travelling
costs. The earlier, poor condition of roads swayed people to solely use this option
for local, nearby travel. For longer trips, water transport and railways, which were
introduced in the 1830’s, were better alternatives. Railways encouraged
development in Western Canada, in areas other than those accessible by boat and

19
provided another means of travel during the winter months when ice often
prevented water transportation. Subsequently, road construction commenced in
British Columbia, the Northwest Territories and the Prairie Provinces, between
1850 and 1900. Until that time, Indian trails had provided sufficient inland access
(Gilchrist, 2007).
The construction of railways in Canada was the first step towards the
creation of urban and rural communities, industrial sectors and business districts;
it constituted a progressive step towards the development of the country. The debt
that railway construction imposed in Prince Edward Island, actually led the
colony to join the Confederation, and become a province of Canada in 1873. As
cities were formed and the railway network grew, the need for extended roads,
tunnels and highways became apparent. The introduction of early forms of urban
transit, to respond to large population increases in urban areas, had a similar
effect. The first horse-drawn trams were quickly replaced with inventions such as
trams, tramways or streetcars (steel-wheel vehicles on rail) and trolleybuses
(rubber-tired electric vehicles), prior to adopting buses.
Few of these traditional forms of transport exist today; extended bus
routes and subway systems generally serve Canada’s major cities. Modern-day
transit systems consist of a combination of services that complement one another
and provide acceptably frequent service to citizens. Modern light rail systems are
systems comprise electric cars which carry lighter loads (i.e., passengers versus
freight) at faster speeds, such as the Calgary C-Train, Edmonton’s light rail
system, Toronto’s streetcars and Ottawa’s O-train. Rapid transit systems are
electric railway systems that are grade-separated from street traffic, thereby
avoiding congestion in the more populated cities (e.g., the Montreal Metro,
Toronto subway and the Vancouver Skytrain). Without these modern forms of
transit, Canada’s major cities would not be able to flourish and be competitive
nationally and internationally.

20
2.2.1. Rail

The railway transportation system has played a very important role in the
shaping of urban communities and industrialization in Canada. A primitive
railroad was constructed on Cape Breton Island, Nova Scotia, by French
engineers in the 1720’s. The railroad consisted of two wooden rails, which
supported horse-drawn carts on wheels and was used to transport material from an
abandoned gypsum mine to a building site. The use of wooden tracks was
maintained, but the use of horse-drawn carts was abandoned with the advent of
steam engines.
Steam power was first employed on railroads during the construction of
Quebec’s Citadel in the 1820’s. Initially, the steam engine was stationary and
supplied power to moving cable cars, which transported stones up and down a hill
on wooden double tracks. The Canadians soon mirrored the English by employing
steam engines on rail, a discovery that was made in 1804 (Mika and Mika, 1985).
However, initial debates related to railway construction in Canada were not
related to the design choice, but to the controversial views of citizens who were
still questioning whether this type of transportation should be employed at all.
Two newspapers clearly reported the two opposing views. The Quebec
Mercury expressed the general consensus that constructing new canals and
improving navigation along the existing waterways would be more convenient
and economical than building a railway system. In its December 1st, 1824 issue,
the Montreal Gazette clearly pointed out the economical burden because of the
faulty canal construction. The Gazette used the example of the locks at the
Coteau-Du-Lac, which like other locks built during that time were expensive, too
narrow and had to be rebuilt if they were to service larger vessels. Additionally,
the newspaper outlined the costs of building the Lachine Canal and the Military
Canal at Granville, which were much greater than the proposed cost of
constructing a railroad (Mika and Mika, 1985).
The Quebec Mercury article clearly showed that the general consensus of
the public was not based on an analysis of the benefits brought by the railroads to
some European countries. The public also failed to consider how the railroads

21
would eliminate the inconveniences associated with the existing modes of travel,
namely the impediments caused by the winter climate on waterways and travel by
horse-drawn carriage, and the danger and inconveniences caused by the rapids.
The public did not envision the advantages of the railroads to enable convenient
travel and to develop new settlements; populated communities had been
concentrated around waterways in Ontario, Quebec and the Maritime Provinces.

2.2.1.1. The Beginning of the Railway Era: Far From Perfect

Construction of the Champlain and St. Lawrence Railroad – Canada’s first

railway – was the result of the persistence of a group of Montreal businessmen,
who believed that a railroad was the key to success and national prosperity.
Among these men and stockholders were John Molson, Montreal brewer and
steamboat owner, Peter McGill, President of the Bank of Montreal; and Jason C.
Pierce, a wealthy merchant who urged that plans to construct the railway be
carried out after being shelved for some years due to some more urgent matters,
including an election riot in Montreal and a cholera outbreak (Mika and Mika,
1985).
The 24 km railroad, linking Laprairie on the St. Lawrence River with St.
Jean on the Richelieu River went into service in 1836 and remained the sole
railroad in Canada for 10 years (Dorin, 1975). The wooden wheels of the steam
locomotive ran on wooden rails strapped with iron. Although far from being
perfect, the overall public opinion of railroads changed. The locomotive only
reached speeds of 32 to 48 km/hr, did not arrive at stops on time, derailed
frequently (without causing much damage, except in one instance) and the wood-
burning engine “puffed” thick clouds of smoke and cinders onto nearby
neighbourhoods and its passengers. Additionally, “in the early days during heavy
snowfall, passengers often had to disembark and help push the train when [it] was
unable to make it up the hill on her own”, and at many times travel had to be
suspended due to poor weather conditions (Mika and Mika, 1985). However,
complaints were minimal as citizens were quickly intrigued and convinced by the
new form of transportation. This increased popularity was reflected by high

22
passenger and freight traffic, resulting in a need for extended lines and additional
locomotives.
The railways constructed in the following years included the Montreal and
Lachine Railroad (1847), the St. Lawrence and Atlantic Railroad (1853), the
Great Western Railway (1854), and the Grand Trunk Railway (1860). Each
railway was constructed expecting that they would attain the popularity of the
Champlain and St. Lawrence railways. The Grand Trunk Railway (GTR), in
particular, was one of the greatest achievements in railway history at that time.
The railway ran from Sarnia, Ontario to Riviere-du-Loup, Quebec, and from
Montreal, Quebec to Portland, Maine. At over 1,528 km in length, the GTR was
the longest system in the World and was effective in linking Canadian cities to
each other and to the United States (Monaghan, 2007).

2.2.1.2. The Second Phase of Railway Construction

The railways that came before and after Confederation continued to reach
new boundaries in the history of railway construction. The Intercolonial Railway
(1876), owned and operated by the federal government and funded by British
Loans, came with Confederation and connected Halifax with Atlantic Canada,
Ontario and Quebec. The Intercolonial was the result of a reference in the 1867
British North American Act outlining “the central government’s responsibility to
physically connect Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec and Ontario with a
railway line” (Monaghan, 2007).
Railway construction in the West came after Confederation and brought
commercial activity in the areas of agriculture and timber production, improving
the economic development throughout the country. The Canadian Pacific Railway
(CPR), owned by the Canadian Pacific Railway Co., was the first railway
connecting central Canada with the Pacific coast, and soon extensions were made
to the Atlantic Provinces. Constructed between 1881 and 1885, the CPR brought
high levels of immigrants to the Western parts of Canada, leading to the creation
of many cities in British Columbia and the Prairie Provinces. Agriculture boomed
due to the high immigration rates and the resulting high economic activity

23
necessitated further railway expansion (Marsh, 2007). Construction of the
Canadian Northern Railway, the National Transcontinental Railway (from
Winnipeg to Moncton) and the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway in the following
years brought total railway lengths from 16,000 km in 1872 to over 57,000 km by
1920 (Monaghan, 2007). Although owned and funded primarily by private
companies or individuals, the railways had the support of the federal and
provincial governments, which also helped fund these railway projects through
cash grants and bonds.

2.2.1.3. Influence of the Two World Wars

The First World War led to a decline in immigration levels and funds for
new projects. As a result, the Intercolonial, the National Transcontinental, the Old
Grand Trunk, the Grand Trunk Pacific and the Canadian Northern were grouped
into one system – the Canadian National Railways – a national system now
owned by the Canadian government that provided for greater funding to keep
these systems operating (Marsh, 2007). Although new technologies were
developing (diesel electric locomotives replaced steam-powered locomotives and
steel replaced most wood construction), railway expansion declined following
both wars. In 1969, the railway system had only expanded by an additional 8,400
km (Monaghan, 2007).

2.2.1.4. Modern Day Systems

The face of railways has changed significantly from the earlier years, with
improvements in speed and effectiveness and a reduction in the maintenance
required. Presently, CPR is primarily used for freight transport across Canada and
to the United States, as are many of the remaining railway systems. In 1977, the
Federal Government, led by Prime Minister Trudeau, created Via Rail solely for
passenger traffic. Since the advent of motor vehicles and the development of
urban and inter-city transit systems, the demand for rail by passengers decreased
and CN and CP underwent large economic losses. Via Rail was created to develop
a system to be used solely to meet the demands of the public. Presently, Via Rail

24
services are continually improving to meet passenger demands. For example, in
2006 internet access was made available to all passengers in class I and comfort
classes (Via Rail Canada, 2007). For many Canadians, travel by train continues to
be a more economical and convenient choice. However, rail transport is still
highly dependent on trade and transport of freight across Canada, to the United
States and to ports for international trade.
The history of Canadian railways is full of ups and downs: reduced
passenger demands and funding shortages, which have been the main causes of
decline from the more prosperous-earlier years. However, the economic and
social benefits that railways have brought to Canadians are far greater than any of
the “downs” experienced. Not only did extensive railway systems open doors for
travel and settlement across the country in areas other than along the waterfronts,
they provided access to many of the country’s natural resources and other areas
where Canadians were able to develop new markets (e.g., agriculture in Western
Canada). Consequently, employment and economic development soared, and the
railroad industry itself grew as a prominent market (Marsh, 2007). Adoption of
railways as new travel modes had an impact on urban planning, particularly
influencing the location of new industries, tourist amenities, and links to water
and other transport modes.
The early history of rail transportation in Canada shows the large impact
of the railways in initiating construction of other transportation infrastructure in
Canada. The railways brought the need for other engineering projects such as
bridges and tunnels (Marsh, 2007). In addition, railroads have also had an
influential role in developing streetcars as urban transportation systems, such as
the one presently used in Toronto, Ontario.

2.2.2. Roads, Bridges and Highway Networks

After World War II, construction of more elaborate road networks was
necessary to link Canadian cities. Millions of immigrants had settled in Canada
and the number of families purchasing cars was increasing continually. The
number of registered automobile users soared from 2,131 in 1907 to more than

25
50,000 in 1914, to approximately 1.62 million in 1930. However, even with these
increasing numbers, the Great Depression and the two World Wars put a halt to
road and highway construction. Additionally, most of the few paved roads that
were created for military purposes were destroyed by heavy traffic during the war
(Gilchrist, 2007). During the 1950’s, rail remained the primary source of
transportation across the country, but much was being done to increase the
number of paved road networks to satisfy the automobile users (Trans-Canada
Highway, 2007). The expenditures by local governments on road and highway
construction increased from $103.5 million in 1946 to $1.5 billion in 1966, to
$4.5 billion in 1986. Consequently, the number of paved urban roads and paved
rural highways increased tremendously between 1946 and 1966, from 10,000 km
to 49,662 km and from 28,982 km to 99,325 km, respectively (Gilchrist, 2007).
Road and highway expenditures increased significantly between 1946 and
1986, although they saw peak and declining periods during the 1990’s, when
expenditures ranged between $5.9 billion and $6.6 billion. The provincial and
territorial expenditures were consistent with those of local governments during the
same period (Gilchrist, 2007). The length of paved roads also soared in the years
following WWII, although presently, the largest increase in road construction is
with unpaved roads, around new rural developments and in the areas of resource
recovery. As construction of unpaved roads is relatively inexpensive, they are
used in areas with lower traffic. On the other hand, roads paved with hot mix
asphalt, or concrete are constructed to handle regular traffic and to support heavy
traffic loads at faster speeds. Table 2.1 summarizes the total length and percentage
of public roads per province in 2006, along with the length and percentage of
roads that are paved and unpaved. The road lengths are expressed in two-lane
equivalent kilometres, where a lane-kilometre measures the number of lanes
within the one-kilometre of road being considered.

26
 Table 2.1 Length of paved, unpaved and total length and percentage
distribution of public roads per province and territories in 2006
(Transport Canada, July 16 2007).

Length (two-lane Provinces, Percentage

equivalent thousand km) Territories share distribution
of total (per
Paved Unpaved Total cent) Paved Unpaved
Newfoundland
and Labrador 10.6 8.6 19.3 1.8 55.2 44.8
Prince Edward
Island 4.3 1.8 6.0 0.6 70.8 29.2
Nova Scotia 18.1 9.0 27.1 2.6 66.8 33.2
New Brunswick 19.5 12.0 31.5 3.0 61.9 38.1
Quebec 81.5 63.2 144.7 13.9 56.3 43.7
Ontario 119.8 71.1 191.0 18.3 62.8 37.2
Manitoba 19.3 67.3 86.6 8.3 22.3 77.7
Saskatchewan 29.5 198.7 228.2 21.9 12.9 87.1
Alberta 61.7 164.6 226.3 21.7 27.3 72.7
British
Columbia 48.2 22.9 71.1 6.8 67.8 32.2
Yukon 2.2 3.5 5.8 0.6 38.5 61.5
Northwest
Territories 0.9 3.6 4.5 0.4 19.2 80.8
Nunavut - 0.3 0.3 0.0 0.0 100.0
415.6 626.7 1,042.3 100.0 39.9 60.1

Table 2.1 confirms that the Prairie Provinces and Northern Territories have the
largest percentages of unpaved roads, and that Saskatchewan, Alberta, Ontario
and Quebec have the largest share of public roads, which account for 75% of the
total road network in Canada. These same provinces hold the largest share of

27
highways in the country, with the exception of British Columbia, which has the
longest total highway system.
The highway system links Canada’s major cities, provinces, and provides
access to remote areas of the North and international border crossings. However,
less than 60 years ago, the thought of linking the provinces by a highway system
was a mere idea – an idea that, once made reality, gave way to elaborate highway
construction in Canada and changed the course of transportation history.
In 1949, the Trans-Canada Highway Act was signed with the objective of
connecting the provinces and major cities with a highway network. Completed in
1970, the 7,821 km Trans-Canada Highway is the world’s longest national
highway (CBC, June 5 2007). Extending from Victoria, B.C. to St. John’s, NF,
the highway improved tourism, national and international trade and has brought a
sense of national unity to the country. The Trans-Canada Highway is substantial
to the history of transport in Canada and is a significant part of the 38,000 km
National Highway System. Table 2.2 shows the breakdown of the highway
system by province and route type (i.e., core, feeder, Northern or remote route).
The National Highway System accounts for less than 3% of the national road
network, yet it supports most commercial trade and passenger travel across the
provinces, or more than one-quarter of highway travel (WESTAC, 2007).

28
 Table 2.2 Breakdown of the National Highway System by province and route
type (core, feeder, northern and remote routes) (Transport Canada,
July 16, 2007).

Northern
and
Core Feeder Remote
Jurisdiction Routes Routes Routes Total

Yukon 1,079 km - 948 km 2,027 km

Northwest Territories 576 km - 847 km 1,423 km

Nunavut - - - -

British Columbia 5,861 km 447 km 724 km 7,032 km

Alberta 3,970 km 217 km 197 km 4,384 km

Saskatchewan 2,450 km - 238 km 2,688 km

Manitoba 982 km 742 km 370 km 2,093 km

Ontario 6,131 km 706 km - 6,836 km

Quebec 3,448 km 766 km 1,436 km 5,649 km

New Brunswick 993 km 832 km - 1,825 km

Prince Edward Island 208 km 188 km - 396 km

Nova Scotia 903 km 296 km - 1,199 km

Newfoundland and Labrador 1,008 km 298 km 1,163 km 2,469 km

Total 27,608 km 4,490 km 5,922 km 38,021 km

The construction of bridges to support vehicular, rail and pedestrian traffic

has enabled travel across many of Canada’s waterways. Prior to bridge
construction, streams or other smaller waterways were crossed with the use of
trails made using wood logs. During the winter months, the ice provided sufficient
support for people, however, during thawing and initial freezing periods, there
was considerable hesitation to travel across the thinner ice. Bridge building was

29
extensive in the post-war period. The first types of bridges seen in Canada were
covered bridges and were found particularly in Quebec and New Brunswick.
These were also termed “kissing bridges” because young lovers took advantage of
the privacy of the covered bridges to steal a kiss. Some of the original covered
bridges can still be found in both provinces, but mainly in New Brunswick, which
is the home of the Hartland Bridge - the longest covered bridge in the world.
Covered bridges were made of timber and had various simple truss designs.
Engineers began using truss designs in the early 1800’s. Although wooden trusses
were primarily used in the earlier years, steel took over as the leading material in
bridge design by the end of the century. In the interim period, other materials
were used, such as in the case of the Intercolonial Railroad built in 1876, partly
supported on a bridge having masonry piers and wrought iron spans (Legget,
2007).
Reinforced concrete was adopted for construction of bridges in the early
1900’s. Presently, it remains the material of choice for highways, but some of the
new larger bridges, made of structural concrete (Legget, 2007). For example, the
12.9 km, two-lane Confederation Bridge, linking New Brunswick and PEI and
completed in 1997, is the longest bridge in the world to cross ice-covered salt
water and is the longest bridge in North America. Needing 12 minutes to cross by
car, this bridge has provided an environmentally-friendly and time-efficient
alternative to the prior three hour ferry service. While many new designs and
materials have been used since the beginning of bridge construction in Canada,
the bridge failures discussed in Chapter 1 suggest that experimentation with
maintenance and monitoring techniques has been less extensive. Again, the
Confederation Bridge shows the possibilities of applying new technologies to our
bridges. Over 750 sensors were included in the bridge components to monitor the
forces, deformations, temperature variations, and vibrations caused by traffic and
seismic activity, and the sensors in the bridge’s piers being used to monitor the
impacts of ice (Downey, 1998). Therefore, technological advances in bridge
construction, inspection and monitoring are available – it is the application of

30
these technologies and improvements in management that require progress and
innovation.

2.2.3. Airfields

Similar to the construction of roads to cater to the rapid increase in car

users, airfields were needed following mass production of war aircrafts.
Therefore, as was the case for roads and highways, the first airfields were also
constructed for military purposes. The first powered aircrafts acquired in the
United States were for military purposes in the early 1900s. After WWI, the
Canadian government also sensed the need for acquiring military aviation, an
acquisition which had already taken place in most industrialized nations. As a
result, construction of airfields became extensive in Canada after the Royal
Canadian Air Force was established in 1924 (National Defence, 2007).
In 1937, passenger flights began on the new government-owned Trans-
Canada Airlines (TCA), the first flight being from Vancouver, B.C. to Seattle,
Washington (CBC, 1939). In 1942, Canadian Pacific Air Lines (CP) was founded,
covering Northern routes and therefore requiring the construction of new
terminals and airfields in Northern areas. Passenger flights from Canada doubled
from the end of the war in 1945 to 1948, then tripled by 1950. As with the first
locomotives and first forms of transit, airplanes were far from perfect and being
safe; they were noisy, not fully protected from aggressive weather conditions and
were not equipped with emergency oxygen for passengers and staff (Watson,
1976). Conditions changed as technologies improved, air routes were altered and
flight demand continued to grow.
The Trans-Canada Airlines became Air Canada in 1965, on a move by
former Prime Minister Jean Chrétien for a bilingual name that also reflected the
overseas routes covered by the airline. Although CP still provided service, this
was limited to domestic flights at considerably lower frequencies than travel
provided by Air Canada. Other smaller airlines emerged, some of them (including
CP) joining together in 1987 to form Canadian Airlines, which until 2001 was
Canada’s second largest airline company. Today, the National Airports System

31
(NAS) includes 26 major airports in Canada (although smaller ones exist), which
are owned by the federal government and serve 94% of cargo and passenger
traffic (Transport Canada, July 30 2007).
In 2006, there were 3,903,900 passengers entering Canada using air
transport, from countries other than the United States, compared with the to the
486,700 and 126,100 passengers entering by land and water transport,
respectively. These statistics demonstrate the importance of runways, airport
facilities and other related infrastructures within Canada’s transportation network.
Only 4,175,600 travelers from the United States came to Canada by airplane in
2006, whereas 22,064,900 used land transportation. However, air transport in this
case still accounts for the second most widely used transportation mode to and
from the United States, followed by bus (1,069,600), boat (955,600), train
(123,300) and other transportation modes (483,700) (Statistics Canada, 2007).
These statistics do not include the total number of passengers using air transport
for domestic travel, which is quite common, given the accessibility provided by
the air travel to remote areas of the North and given the faster travel times,
compared with other transportation modes such as rail or transportation by road.
The first airports served mostly as military bases and training camps. Even
when passenger flights were introduced, the available facilities at the airport were
minimal, including the basic multi-functional facilities and few runways. Today,
the public area, which includes numerous restaurants and commercial vendors, the
multi-level parking facility, which allows for short- and long-term parking, and
the hotel, for passenger convenience have all become essential parts to airport
infrastructure as are the runways and terminal facilities. Just as is the case with
ports, the air transportation infrastructure must ensure smooth, safe and efficient
operation of airports and it extends far beyond the aviation authority’s
jurisdiction.
Figure 2.1 is a diagram illustrating the elaborate components of
Montreal’s Pierre-Elliott Trudeau International Airport, although many more exist
including 52 gates, 71 self-service kiosks, 194 check-in desks and hangars and
parking for as many as 72 aircrafts (Aéroports de Montréal, 2007). Figure 2.1 also

32
shows the de-icing centre and the control tower, which are among the facilities
needed to ensure adequate and safe operation of aircrafts, the parking center and
search shelter, the customs office for safety measures, and the cargo buildings to
handle large volumes of traded goods. Again, these facilities are among the
countless others needed for proper functioning of airport operations. Additionally,
easy access to major highways, sufficient taxi lanes, links to rapid transit and
major metropolitan areas, and shuttle services have become vital to the
competitiveness of Canada’s major airports.

Figure 2.1 Facilities at Montreal’s Pierre Elliott Trudeau International Airport

(NAV Canada, 2007)

33
2.3 Transit Systems

Transit systems have evolved with the advent of new technologies.

Electric power brought the electric railway and the trolley, and motors, and
subsequently motor vehicles led to the creation of buses. The motives for the
development of the first horse-drawn trams are quite similar to those for the
present rapid-transit systems. Transit systems were developed as populations
continued to grow, and suburban and industrial/commercial sectors were formed.
Citizens needed to travel longer distances to get to work. Although speed, comfort
and convenience are more significant in the present urban transportation planning,
the current forms of public transportation have all evolved with the objective of
providing the citizens with safe and efficient ways of traveling to and from their
homes. Increased mobility of workers has resulted in the current economic
prosperity and higher standards of living in countries with highly developed
transportation networks.

2.3.1. The Beginning of Transit in Canada

Toronto (1845) and Montreal (1860) were the first major cities to adopt
the horse-drawn tram - the first form of urban transit in Canada. Horses were
expensive, dirtied the streets, needed periods of rest and could not carry high
loads. The electric streetcar, or tram, replaced the horse-drawn trams in the
1880’s. The first electric street railway line was constructed in Windsor, Ontario.
Trolleybuses, introduced in 1922, ran on rubber tires and derived energy from
overhead power lines, thereby combining the benefits of electric streetcars and
buses, which came into use in the 1920’s (Day, 2007). Due to their lower cost and
more flexible routing, buses continued to replace many streetcars, which were
gradually phased out. Presently, Toronto has the largest streetcar system
remaining in North America. Many citizens opposed the idea of abandoning this
form of transit, therefore it was retained, maintained and modernized; streetcars
were replaced and some routes were abandoned and relocated to reserved lanes.

34
Prince Edward Island similarly continues to benefit from seven trolley routes in
addition to its bus service.

2.3.2. The Post-War Period

In the case of other Canadian cities, most systems, such as trolleys and
streetcars, were abandoned during the Great Depression and the Second World
War; the needed major upgrades followed during the subsequent years. With the
boom in urban development after this inactive period, increased and innovative
forms of public transit were needed to satisfy the needs of the growing population,
to prevent congestion and to encourage national growth. The world’s first subway
system was constructed in 1863 in London, England, which proved to be an
effective way of reducing congestion. The first North American city to adopt its
own subway system was Boston in 1898, but many years passed before a
Canadian city turned to this form of transport – partly due to the municipal debt
carried by many cities after the Great Depression, and the two world wars.
Toronto was the first Canadian city to adopt a subway line; the 7.4 km
Toronto Yonge subway line was built between 1949 and 1954. The success of the
subway was reflected in the crowds it brought to Downtown Toronto and the
resulting boom in construction in the midtown and downtown areas.
Subsequently, the subway line was expanded almost ten years later, in 1963
(CBC, July 15 2007). New lines and subway stations were constructed during the
following years and other Canadian cities modeled Toronto and began adopting
subway systems of their own. The next city to construct a subway was Montreal.
Three subway lines were constructed (two in 1966 and one in 1967) totaling 22
km. The Montreal metro system consisted of rubber tires on concrete tracks, with
the steel wheels and steel rails coming into operation when the rubber tires failed.
Moscow and Mexico City have similar subway systems. Rubber tires provide a
quieter, faster system as opposed to the traditional steel wheels on steel rails.
They also required that the subway line be constructed entirely underground,
unexposed to Montreal’s harsh winter climate (CBC, July 15 2007).

35
2.3.3. Modern Systems

Rapid-transit systems now complement bus routes, commuter rail services

and other transit systems in four other major Canadian cities. Edmonton was the
first North American city with a population less than one million to build a
modern Light Rail Transit system (LRT) in 1978 (ETS, 2007). The Edmonton
Transit System’s Light Rail Transit is 12.3 km long and comprises 11 stations,
partly underground and partly at the street level. Calgary’s C-Train (42.1 km – 36
stations – in operation since 1981) is a two line rapid transit system that runs
partly underground and partly aboveground, and is powered by overhead electric
wires. The Vancouver SkyTrain (49.5 km – 33 stations – 1986), the world’s
longest automated light rapid transit system, similarly runs on two lines, but on
elevated tracks reserved specifically for transit, separated from the city traffic.
Construction of the third line began in 2005 and plans for a fourth line are
currently in progress. The newest but shortest system, the Ottawa O-Train (8 km –
5 stations – 2001), is a diesel powered light rail line, isolated from urban traffic,
and shared with a Canadian Pacific freight rail line.
Rapid transit (RT) and light rail systems (LR) were solutions to providing
faster and more frequent service by diverting traffic away from the busy streets. In
many cities, buses have also been isolated from streets to their own designated
right-of-way on highways and bridges, or simply reserved bus lanes, providing
rapid bus service. Bus rapid transit (BRT) serves citizens in Calgary, Toronto,
Montreal, Vancouver, York Region (Ontario), Edmonton, and Ottawa, which has
one of the largest BRT routes in North America – the Transitway. In combination
with modern RT and LR systems, cities now rely on more frequent, faster and
more reliable modes of transportation that are continually being adapted to fulfill
the increasing community needs. As the needs of different communities differ due
to their geography, climate, population and lifestyles, the transit systems in
different Canadian cities differ from one another to cater to the specific needs.

36
2.3.4. Improved Passenger Options

Benefiting from its natural waterfront, Vancouver has provided the

citizens with the option of the Seabus to commute from the North shore to
Downtown Vancouver. This catamaran ferry transports passengers from a
northern bus route terminal to the downtown area where more transit options are
available, namely other bus routes, the Vancouver SkyTrain and the West Coast
Express – a commuter train service. Halifax, because of it geography, has also
adopted a daily passenger-harbor ferry service.
Canada’s major cities which do not have RT, LR or ferry services,
continue to use buses as the principal form of transit in busy areas. Yellowknife
and Whitehorse provide bus routes on their principal streets. St. John’s provides a
Metrobus service in Newfoundland and Labrador that consists of 19 bus routes
around its metropolitan area. Larger cities such as Montreal and Quebec City also
provide a Taxibus service, a bus service that transports people to areas further
away from their metropolitan downtown areas, where construction of a regular
bus route is not economically feasible. In addition to its regular bus services,
Montreal, Quebec City and Fredericton are among the cities offering special door-
to-door bus services for people with disabilities. Although these systems have
convenienced the daily travel of many people, most regular buses are now being
designed to include wheelchair ramps.
The buses have also undergone numerous advancements similar to those
for the modern subway systems, with technological upgrading of the buses (i.e.,
wheelchair ramps, automatic door-sensors, etc.), wider service options (i.e., more
frequent service, BRT, etc.) and development of the appropriate infrastructure
(i.e., express bus lanes, high-grade routes for BRT, etc.). Without these newer
widespread options, communities and particularly metropolitan areas could not
have developed as they have over the past century. As long as faster, more
efficient and safe transit systems continue to evolve, both residents and tourists
will continue to be attracted to Canadian cities, leading to an increase in the
standard of living and Canada’s competitiveness.

37
2.4 Ports

Ports consists of infrastructure assets along the waterfront where ships and
boats are berthed, loaded and unloaded, and where cargo and passengers transfer
to and from different modes of transportation. Therefore, ports constitute an
important part of the transportation system of a country. Ports have complemented
railway and airplanes in enabling the transport of people and goods
internationally, though transport by ship has primarily been the least expensive
and, therefore, the preferred mode of transport for large shipments of goods
(Heaver, 2007). The Canadian Port Authorities “handle approximately $100
billion worth of goods annually, a quarter of all Canadian trade” (ACPA, 2006),
making ports vital points in Canada’s transportation network.
A port comprises several wharves, terminals and piers and it must be
equipped with the required technology for loading and unloading of vessels.
However, the infrastructure required for the daily operations of a port extend far
beyond that within a port’s jurisdiction. Intermodal transport is necessary in ports
where, depending on the port’s location and the nature of its activities, railway
stations, transit systems, ferry terminals, road networks, and bridges are necessary
for both the transport of cargo and passengers to and from the port.
The Association of Canadian Port Authorities (ACPA) represents
Canada’s ports, harbors, and other port-related businesses and organizations.
Founded in 1958, this national association is the common link between the latter
groups, private sector companies, transportation associations, the government and
the public. This association works to develop Canadian ports as economic engines
and strives to increase public awareness and interest in all of their activities.
Raising awareness of the deteriorated state of waterfront infrastructure and the
changes needed to meet the various port needs is the responsibility of the ACPA.

2.4.1. Canada’s Waterways and the Beginnings of Trade

The waters surrounding most of Canada have been an advantage

commercially throughout Canadian history; these three oceans also represent an

38
added threat to the country from possible invasions, terrorist attacks, and other
forms of criminal activity. For this reason, port infrastructure now includes some
the most widespread technologies and security systems. The large amounts of
cargo handled in Canadian Ports, advancements in cargo handling and storage
equipment ensure sustained effectiveness of port operations, and in turn,
competitiveness among the other major world ports. However, much of Canada’s
success on the international market is mainly due to its geographical position; its
waterways have enabled trade since the very beginning of Canadian history.
The first settlers traveled to the interior of Canada via the St. Lawrence
River, which served as the primary maritime route for travel, war ships and
transport of goods, particularly for trading of fur which began in the 1600’s and
continued to be a major industry until the mid 1800’s. The first signs of
engineering along the St. Lawrence date back to the 1680’s, with the construction
of the first canal around the Lachine Rapids. Until the 1800’s other canals were
constructed along other rapids, and dredging and channeling was performed to
allow the passage of more boats. The St. Lawrence Seaway officially opened to
oceangoing shipping in 1959; its improved channels provide uninterrupted access
to the Great Lakes by larger vessels (Owens, 2007).
Iron, wood and fur were important industries by the early 1800’s and
although their manufacturing and trade was extensive, little port facilities had
been constructed by that time. The terminals, wharves, docks and piers used today
were non-existent, leaving ship owners no choice but to anchor their boats in the
open-sea. Being distant from the shore, freight and passengers had to be
transported from these anchored boats to shore with the use of other boats, or
ferries. Presently, the waterfront infrastructure listed above not only enable the
direct transfer of passengers and cargo on land, but are equipped with fender
systems and the cargo-carrying equipment necessary for quick and efficient
handling of goods. The construction of docks began in 1818, when a dock and
hangar (the first port facilities) were constructed in Trois-Rivières, between
Montreal and Quebec. By 1935, 2743.3 meters of wharves were constructed (Port

39
of Trois-Rivières, 2007) and have since increased to meet the increasing trade
demands.
The technological developments following the Second World War led to
the abandonment of the deteriorated infrastructure in many ports. Many cruise
ship terminals and piers lost their usefulness as travel by plane became common.
Development of the post World War II transportation infrastructure involved
construction of many bridges, highways and road networks, resulting in the
increase in the number of family cars, which led to a reduced need for ferry
terminals at the ports. Furthermore, many railroad networks were abandoned due
to increases in truck delivery to and from ports (Breen and Rigby, 1994). The
need for revitalization of many ports and waterfronts arose during the 1950’s and
1960’s. The increase in the size of ships and in the amounts of imports and
exports, the emergence of new machinery and the development of new
transportation networks had a tremendous impact on port operations and
redevelopment needs.

2.4.2. Increased Environmental Concerns

Beginning in the 1970’s, the image of many ports changed due to greater
environmental awareness. Many waterfronts were designed by planners to
embrace some of the natural splendors found on coasts around the world.
Increased governmental concern and therefore, spending on cleaning up waters
and creating environmental codes and regulations transformed the image of many
ports. While people were once turned away from the more “industrialized”
looking waterfronts, they are now being drawn towards the natural waters,
landscapes and vegetation found in the waterfront environments (Breen and
Rigby, 1994). Therefore, port facilities have gone beyond the containers and
storage facilities that meet the commercial demands, but they now include many
public and recreational facilities to meet recreational and tourism demands.
Furthermore, the diversity of the ecosystem found in ports, where activities and
operations are endless, demonstrates the importance of the environmental
considerations needed in such locations, which has led to the development of

40
more sustainable and environmentally-friendly machinery and practices over the
years.

2.4.3. The Canadian Port Authorities

In 1998, the Canadian Government adopted the Canada Marine Act

(CMA) to set standard practices for all Canadian ports. Many of these practices
were developed based on international policies, and therefore, they were aimed at
promoting and increasing the competitiveness of Canada’s ports. The CMA was
aimed at regulating infrastructure management, environmental policies, services
offered and their costs, safety procedures, transportation systems and other port
activities within the different jurisdictions. Implementation of the CMA led to the
creation of the 19 Canadian Port Authorities (CPA), which administer each port
based on the governing procedures outlined in the CMA. Therefore, the Port
Authorities operate under federal jurisdiction and were created as another means
of controlling port governance and regulating port operations across the country.
Presently, the CPA not only handle a significant portion of the traded goods, but
create over 250,000 direct and indirect jobs: overall the economic impact of the
CPA activities surpasses $20 billion annually (ACPA, 2006).
Modernization of waterfront infrastructure due to new technologies is
necessary if ports are to remain competitive in the international market. Foreign
trade and domestic cargo are expected to double or even triple by 2020 (ACPA,
2004). Canada, the United States and Mexico initiated the North American Free
Trade Agreement in January 1994. Since then, trade between Canada and the
United States has doubled. Trade with countries such as China, India and South
Korea are also expected to double over the next 15 years (ACPA, 2006). These
increases in trade, the continuous development of new technologies and the
increasing demands of markets where commercial activity is high, are all exerting
considerable pressure on ports. If the ports are to remain competitive and continue
to contribute to improving the quality of life in Canadian communities, significant
upgrades will be needed in the future.

41
2.5 Water Supply and Sewage Disposal Systems

Prior to the development of municipal water distribution systems, people

collected water for their own use from local wells, or other nearby water sources.
In some areas of British Columbia, dogs were used to distribute water to
households (James, 1998). The disposal of untreated wastewater and industrial
wastes into the same nearby bodies of water was the norm. However, with greater
knowledge of waterborne diseases, disease transmission and fire safety came a
public demand for urban water supply and sewage disposal systems. By the
beginning of the 1900’s, most developed communities in Canada had a water
distribution system, which along with the subsequent construction of sewage
systems, improved public health tremendously. Throughout the 1900’s, water and
sewer systems were enlarged and extended to meet new needs required by the
population growth in new and existing developments. Water and sewer systems,
along with the advent of water treatment technologies, improved water quality
chemically and aesthetically, thereby reducing health and environmental risks.
As with other types of infrastructure, the materials and practices used in
the construction of underground and other associated infrastructure assets (e.g.,
treatment plants) have improved considerably because of several related
innovations. The different infrastructure categories have a common role in
impacting the quality of life of all citizens. Of all the infrastructure categories,
however, underground infrastructure has had the greatest impact on public health
and the environment. The shift from the earlier to modern water distribution and
sewage disposal systems will be considered separately, highlighting these
impacts. A short note on the evolution of storm water collection and water
treatment is also included for completeness.

2.5.1. Water Distribution

The records show that the first privately owned water systems existed in
Montreal, as early as 1801. The first public water system in Canada was built in
Saint John, New Brunswick in 1837. Toronto (1841), Montreal (1845), and

42
Halifax (1848) followed suit immediately afterwards. In the early 1900’s, water
supply systems existed in all major Canadian cities. The development of water
distribution systems in smaller communities followed the improvement of pipe
construction and the use of new pipe materials, which considerably reduced
construction, repair and maintenance costs for these smaller communities
(Infrastructure Canada, July 2 2007).
Initially, wood was the primary pipe material, while clay and grey cast
iron (GCI) were also used. By the early 1900’s, concrete, vitrified clay and
asbestos cement pipes, and pipes made of cellulose fiber, impregnated with coal-
tar pitch, were being employed increasingly for water distribution. Sewer systems,
which were constructed within the same timeframe, were also primarily made of
wood, though larger conduits were made of brick, stone or slate. In the late 1800’s
and early 1900’s, vitrified clay and cement mortar were generally used for smaller
sewers, and cast iron and concrete were utilized for constructing larger conduits
(Shladweiler, 2007). Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and other composite pipes
emerged in the 1960’s, followed by the use of ductile cast iron (DCI) in the
1970’s. Table 2.3 summarizes the total length and the percentage of pipe material
still in use today, based on a study of 21 municipalities across Canada. It should
be noted that pipes made of other materials, such as wood and ceramic, are still
found in some older districts.

Table 2.3 Length and percentage of pipe materials in use today (Rajani and
McDonald , 1995).

PCCP
(Prestressed
Pipe Type GCI DCI AC PVC Total
concrete
cyclindrical pipe)
Total length
8,769 4,238 2,105 1,818 623 17,554
km/pipe type
Percentage of
50.0% 24.1% 12.0% 10.4% 3.6% 100%
total length

About 75% of the existing water pipes in Canada are made of grey- and
ductile cast iron (50% made of grey-cast iron which was one of the earlier

43
materials employed). Although presently, pipes made of asbestos cement (AC) are
rarely fabricated, 12% of the pipes made from asbestos cement are still in use,
which has caused considerable public concern. Asbestos is considered
carcinogenic if inhaled, however, no significant health risks have been attributed
to the ingestion of water passing through this type of pipe (Walski, 2006). It is
also interesting to note that the use of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipes, which were
introduced for water and sewage systems in the 1960’s, has surpassed the use of
prestressed concrete, which has been used since the beginning the 1930’s
(Portland Cement Association, 2008).
Construction practices and design methods have also changed
considerably. The PVC pipes have facilitated construction tremendously, because
they are lightweight and easy to install. This material is, therefore, just one of the
many that have resulted in improvements in the public works sector over the past
century. When watching a road reconstruction project today, while surrounded by
heavy trucks, it is difficult to imagine that trenches were once dug by hand. Also,
through trial and error and with the emergence of prefabricated pipes, circular
cross-sectional pipes were adopted by engineers to replace the original rectangular
cross-sections, diminishing sedimentation and improving flow pressures. Like
bridges, new construction methods (e.g., trenchless technologies) and monitoring
technologies (e.g., watermeters) emerged over the past century. While these have
been accepted and deemed successful in some communities, they have yet to gain
wider acceptance in many others.
Other water supply infrastructure besides the obvious watermains and
smaller distribution pipes are pressure reducing stations, watermeters, storage
capacity (i.e., reservoirs), pumping stations and watertreatment plants.

2.5.2. Sanitary Sewers

Prior to the advent of urban sanitary sewage systems, human and other
wastes were accumulated in buckets and dumped outside the home, in the street,
or in nearby bodies of water. Waste collection commenced in 1760, when the
government ordered residents to accumulate their waste on the front of their

44
properties, where it would be picked up and dumped into the St. Lawrence River.
Using a bucket instead of a flush toilet - the honey bucket system – remained the
norm in many Arctic communities. In other parts of Canada, where plagues of
cholera and typhoid were becoming increasingly common, the way communities
dealt with wastes needed reconsideration.
The first sewage systems were constructed between 1830 and 1860, in
Toronto, York and Hamilton (James, 1998). At the time, not much importance
was placed on sealing the pipe joints. Engineers felt that if groundwater
penetrated the joint it would improve sewage flow, while simultaneously acting as
a drain to collect the rainwater. The opposite scenario was of no concern: sewage
penetrating the joints into the groundwater was not perceived as being harmful
(Shladweiler, 2007). Presently, ensuring proper sealing of joints is an essential
requirement, as leaks pose a serious risk for contamination of the groundwater,
which is relied on by 30.3% of the population in Canada (9 million Canadians)
and 90% of Canadian farms (Environment Canada, 2006). However, cracks and
leaking joints are also cause for concern where groundwater is not of reliable
quality for domestic use. The contaminated groundwater, or soil may make its
way to the nearby water pipe, which, if cracked, or if not sealed properly, will
allow these contaminants to ingress. Sealing methods and leak detection
techniques have improved significantly over the decades to avoid such
occurrences.

2.5.3. Stormwater Collection

In the mid-1950’s, engineers began designing separate sewage systems.

Such systems consist of two conduits; one for sanitary sewage (i.e., waste from
homes, industries and other facilites) and the other for stormwater (i.e., rainwater,
snow melt and other surface water from watering lawns, etc.). A sewer carrying
municipal wastewater (a combination of both sanitary sewage and stormwater) is
called a combined sewer and can still be found in areas with older systems. As
many of these communities also have older treatment facilities, there remains a
risk of overloading the facility during periods of heavy rainfall, at which point

45
raw sewage may overflow into a body of clean water prior to being treated. The
development of separate sewers has prevented this risk and has also avoided the
unnecessary costs of treating stormwater at levels similar to those of sanitary
sewage (Environment Canada et al, 2001).
Both combined and stormwater sewers consist of more than just pipes, and
include infrastructure, such as interceptors, manholes, retention basins, septic
tanks, lift stations and treatment plants (including all associated facilities and
equipment) which will be discussed next.

2.5.4. Treatment Plants

The link between exposure to human wastes and the transmission of

certain diseases, particularly typhoid, was made by European scientists in the
1880’s (The Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto, 1997). These new discoveries
led to the construction of sewer systems and treatment plants, which not only
reduced foul odours, but reduced the death toll caused by the infectious diseases
of the 19th century.
A slow-sand filtration plant was established in Toronto in 1912, after
George Whipple, a Harvard engineering consultant, suggested that water should
be filtered as opposed to the more costly option of purifying sewage. Between
1914 and 1918 a faster drifting-sand filtration system replaced the first filtration
plant and was the largest of its kind. The treatment consisted of adding a liquid
coagulant to remove bacteria, followed by filtration of the water through sand-
filled iron cylinders, and finally the addition of liquid chlorine (The Municipality
of Metropolitan Toronto, 1997). Water purification quickly reduced the death rate
caused by typhoid and cholera, though the public was not fully satisfied with the
new treatment systems. The citizens did not like the taste of chlorinated water,
and many were bothered by the fact that their drinking water was chemically
modified – a concern that seems unreasonable because of the prior exposure of
water to sewage.
The sewage treatment underwent many changes in following years,
particularly after the 1950’s, with a considerable increase in the environmental

46
concerns. The fish deaths due to chemical contamination and dissolved oxygen
depletion, algal bloom from high nutrient levels and the destruction of natural
habitats are among the impacts of wastewater. Along with the continuing goal of
reducing risks to human health, treatment was improved to reduce these
environmental impacts. Improvements varied for different communities and the
level and sequencing of treatment continued to vary for different treatment plants
across Canada, according to the needs of different communities. Most of the large
treatment facilities adopt the activated sludge system, which uses microorganisms
(encouraged to grow within the secondary treatment tanks) to help remove
suspended solids after the primary treatment, and facilitate their settlement.
Following this procedure, liquid chlorine is added to kill the remaining bacteria.
Reducing the suspended solids in sewage plant effluent has improved treatment
quality and has greatly reduced negative impacts on the ecosystem. Even with the
recent significant improvements, problems persist with the adequacy of the
treatment methods.
Inadequate treatment may occur as a result of an aging infrastructure.
Furthermore, new treatment processes need to be devised to counteract the
problem of certain chemicals not being effectively eliminated. Some substances,
such as pesticides, industrial chemicals, certain detergents, natural estrogen and
other hormones from human wastes can pass through the wastewater treatment
system, disrupting the growth, reproduction and development of many species.
These substances are known as endocrine disruptors, and have been found to
cause feminization of male fish and deformities in many fish and bird species,
among other “disruptions”.
Not much is known about the extent of this problem in Canada, although
there is evidence of animal life being affected negatively by these chemicals.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals may affect the immune system, the brain, the
thyroid gland, the nervous system, sexual development and reproduction. With
evidence of animal life being affected by these chemicals, much has to be done to
eliminate these effects on wildlife and prevent the negative effects of these
chemicals on humans who consume both the fish and the water. There is

47
considerable focus on research in this area, yet no immediate solutions have been
devised for improving treatment methods, or controlling the input of these
chemicals in wastewater.
The variability of treatment methods and treatment facilities pose an
additional complication to counteracting this problem. In 1999, approximately
26% of Canadians (mainly in rural areas) relied on septic tanks for sewage
treatment. Out of the 74% of the population serviced by sewage systems, 97%
relied on sewage treatment of varying levels (Environment Canada et al, 2001).
Of those benefiting from sewage treatment, 78% were benefiting from at least
secondary or tertiary treatment. Activated sewage sludge systems have greatly
increased from 1983, when 56% of the population with sewage disposal systems,
was benefiting from at least secondary treatment. Treatment levels have
increased, yet the previous numbers also show that 3% of the population continue
to dispose of wastes in nearby bodies of water.

48
 CHAPTER 3

INFRASTRUCTURE: THE PRESENT SITUATION

3.1 Infrastructure Surveys

The infrastructure deficit is the difference between the funding that is

needed and the available funding to maintain and upgrade existing municipal
infrastructure systems. Presently, the infrastructure deficit for a country such as
Canada at a given time is established by an appropriately designed survey of the
various member communities, such as the municipalities, or other organizations
owning infrastructure. Figure 3.1, shows the deficits for Canada’s municipal
infrastructure obtained from previous surveys up to 2003. As can be seen, the
deficit has compounded from one study to the next due to a number of factors.
Deferred maintenance has led to extremely rapid deterioration of the
infrastructure, aging being another factor causing the deficit to escalate. Other
factors include demographics, geography, local needs, climate change and
economics.
Larger communities place higher demands on transportation and transit
systems than smaller rural and northern communities, showing how demographics
can affect the infrastructure deficit. Northern and coastal communities have
varying needs than larger inland cities, demonstrating the effects of geography.
Local needs will clearly vary from one region to another, based on a community’s
activities, climate, population, socio-economic conditions, etc. Climate change
will also place heavy strains on the effective performance of the existing
infrastructure; economic factors such as inflation will also have a negative impact
on the deficit (Mirza, 2007). Each of the factors discussed should be considered
for a more scientific estimate of the infrastructure deficit. A literature review of
the past studies showed that the latter factors were not considered when devising
past deficit estimates. Efforts were made to include these in the 2007 FCM-
McGill Survey.

49
 Figure 3.1 Canada’s infrastructure deficits devised from studies between 1985
and 2003 (Mirza, 2007).

3.1.1. The 2007 FCM-McGill Municipal Infrastructure Survey

Following a literature review of the past surveys, a draft questionnaire was

formulated with consideration for the main infrastructure categories that were
considered in past surveys to enable comparative analysis. Where applicable, each
main infrastructure category was further subdivided into sub-categories to gain
more detailed information about specific infrastructure assets, making this survey
the most comprehensive of its kind. The draft survey was distributed in both
English and French to professionals across Canada, dealing with different aspects
of infrastructure (i.e., finance, engineering, etc.). Feedback from these
professionals enabled amelioration of the survey questionnaire prior to its final
distribution to 166 municipalities across Canada in October 2007. These
municipalities were asked to respond to six broad questions through an online
survey software, email or fax, within a period of one month. The six questions
dealt primarily with the municipality’s current budgeting practices (e.g., annual
operating and capital expenditures), their existing and projected upgrading needs
and their needs for new infrastructure. To account for varying local needs and the

50
influences of other factors such as climate change and urban sprawl,
municipalities were asked to rank the influence of these factors on compounding
their municipal infrastructure deficits. These factors were also considered in
careful selection of responding municipalities. Municipalities were selected from
each province, territory and from population groups varying from greater than one
million people to less than 10,000 people.
Complete and partial responses were received from 85 local governments,
giving a total response rate of 51%, which is representative of 46% of the total
national population. The Nunavut Association of Municipalities (NAM)
responded on behalf of 24 local governments, giving a good representation of the
needs of the northern communities. Table B.1 in Appendix B briefly highlights the
objectives and other details of the 2007 survey and other previous surveys (e.g.,
response rates): the 1985 and 1992 FCM surveys, the 1996 FCM-McGill
Infrastructure Survey and the 2003 Technology Road Map.
Responses to the second part of the 2007 FCM-McGill Municipal
Infrastructure Survey were returned one month after the first deadline. Questions
in this second part dealt with the infrastructure stock of the municipalities: its
inventory, average age and condition rating. An incomplete data set was returned
from each of the municipalities who responded to the second half of the survey
questionnaire. Where data was incomplete, most municipalities responded that
“information is unavailable”, showing that the available information about the
country’s infrastructure stock is limited or incomplete.

3.1.2. Other Infrastructure Surveys

A smaller – less comprehensive survey was conducted by the NRC and

another by Municipal World, a Canadian municipal magazine who worked in
conjunction with IPSOS/REID, a market research company. The questions
pertaining to the condition of infrastructure assets in the 2004 NRC survey -
Survey on Municipal Infrastructure Assets – were not specific to different
infrastructure categories but to the municipality’s infrastructure stock and
infrastructure-related management practices in general. It should also be noted

51
that the 2006 IPSOS/REID Municipal World Survey was conducted by the general
public and not by the municipalities. Table B.2 in Appendix B summarizes the
details of both the NRC and the Municipal World surveys. The survey findings of
both surveys were excluded from Table B.1 to enable more accurate comparisons
of the state of the main infrastructure categories over the past 20 years, based
solely on the data received from municipal officials and infrastructure
professionals working for municipalities.
The results from the IPSOS/REID Municipal World Survey (see Section
4.1) show that although the public is aware that the infrastructure is in a poor state
of health, their responses are more optimistic than the realities of the current
infrastructure crisis. Though the response rate for the 2004 NRC survey was not
high, the survey nevertheless demonstrated interesting results. In particular, the
municipalities’ confidence levels in the responses they submitted were low,
further suggesting that many uncertainties exist regarding the state of
infrastructure due to the lack of standardized condition assessment techniques and
inventory keeping. The reported annual maintenance expenditures also proved to
be below the required sustainable levels (see section Section 4.3).

3.2 The Present State of Canada’s Infrastructure

The following sections will examine each of the main infrastructure

categories included in the 2007 FCM-McGill Infrastructure Survey. The present
state of each category will be discussed and the survey findings will be
summarized. First, Table 3.1 lists the infrastructure assets that are included in
each category.

52
 Table 3.1 Main infrastructure categories and sub-categories.

ƒ Watermains (trunkmains)
ƒ Distribution pipes
ƒ Pressure reducing stations
Water Supply Systems ƒ Watermeters
ƒ Treatment plants
ƒ Storage capacity (including reservoirs)
ƒ Pumping stations
ƒ Sewage pipes
ƒ Storm water pipes
ƒ Sewage interceptors
ƒ Storm water interceptors
ƒ Combined (sewage and storm water) pipes
Wastewater and ƒ Combined (sewage and storm water) interceptors
Stormwater Systems ƒ Manholes
ƒ Treatment plants, including all associated facilities and
equipment
ƒ Retention basins
ƒ Septic tanks
ƒ Lift stations
ƒ Emergency vehicles
ƒ Road cleaning and snow removing vehicles (snow plows,
bulldozers, sidewalk snow removing vehicles)
ƒ Road cleaning and snow removal - facilities
ƒ Airports
ƒ Airports- Annual traffic count (one traffic count includes one
arrival and one departure)
Transportation ƒ Ferries
ƒ Docking facilities
ƒ Paved roads
ƒ Unpaved roads
ƒ Sidewalks
ƒ Curbs
ƒ Bicycle paths
ƒ Bridges
ƒ Rapid transit systems, light rail transit systems and subways –
track, rolling stock, stations, service facilities and parking
facilities
ƒ Municipal parking areas
Transit Systems
ƒ Buses - dedicated lanes, rolling stock, stations, service facilities,
parking facilities
ƒ Trams – tracks, rolling stock, stations, service facilities, parking
facilities
ƒ Government buildings (including structures, parking facilities,
etc.)
ƒ Public buildings (community and social services, police, fire
and paramedic stations, etc.)
Cultural, Social, ƒ Multipurpose complexes (stadiums, theatres, opera and concert
Community and performance facilities, convention centres, etc.)
Recreational ƒ Sports complexes - outdoor
ƒ Municipal housing facilities
ƒ Municipal parks
ƒ Parks and playgrounds- playing areas, parking areas, picnic
areas, pools

53
 ƒ Lake and water sports facilities (beaches, marinas, picnic and
parking areas)
ƒ Municipally-owned theme parks, casinos
ƒ Landfills
ƒ Municipal recycling facilities
ƒ Hazardous waste disposal/storage facilities
Waste Management
ƒ Hazardous waste recycling facilities
ƒ Municipal waste vehicles
ƒ Hazardous waste vehicles

3.2.1. Water and Wastewater Systems

In 2000, water and wastewater systems made up 30% of Canada’s total

municipal infrastructure stock (Tarek et al, 2003). The results of the 2007 FCM-
McGill Infrastructure Survey for the two main infrastructure categories were
found to be consistent with the deficit estimates from more specialized groups. In
2003, for example, the Canadian Water Network estimated a deficit of $39 billion
dollars to upgrade existing infrastructure in this area. They also estimated that
between 2003 and 2013, $90 billion would be needed to meet upgrading and new
needs. Similarly, the Canadian Water and Wastewater Association (CWWA)
found that $88.5 billion were needed in 1997 over a period of 15 years for all
needs (upgrading and new needs) in this area. According to the latest 2007 FCM-
McGill study, the municipal infrastructure deficit to upgrade existing
infrastructure is $31 billion, an increase of $10 billion since the 1996 survey. The
deficit for new needs is $56.6 billion (Table 3.2). If the cost to upgrade existing
infrastructure and the cost for new infrastructure needs are added together, the
total $86.6 billion is consistent with the estimated $90 billion and $88.5 billion
deficits estimated by the CWA and CWWA, respectively.

Table 3.2 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for water and wastewater
systems, in 1996 and 2007.

1996 2007
Average cost to upgrade* $21 billion $31 billion
existing infrastructure assets
Average cost for new - $56.6 billion
infrastructure needs**

54
*Upgrading - includes the maintenance, repair, rehabilitation, and replacement
needed to bring existing infrastructure assets to acceptable levels of safety and
serviceability.

**New needs - includes the infrastructure that is needed to meet the new needs
generated by population growth, the environment, new laws and regulations,
suburban sprawl, etc.

In 1999, the total length of water supply pipes in Canada was estimated at
112,297 km and that of wastewater pipe (sewage and stormwater combined) at
109,296 km (Felio, 1999). As mentioned, an accurate estimate of the total pipe
length and condition of the underground infrastructure could not be deduced from
the responses, as the information provided by the municipalities was limited. In
1996, the survey results showed that sanitary and combined sewers, water
distribution systems, water supply systems and stormwater systems were the
oldest infrastructure systems at the national level with an average age of 42, 37,
36 and 32 years, respectively. Additionally, municipalities with populations
between 10,000 and 100,000 claimed that the condition of their sanitary and
combined sewer systems was getting worse. The municipalities with populations
between 10,000 and 100,000 (2007 survey) classified the condition of their water
and wastewater systems (and their sub-categories) as being between the states of
“acceptable” and “needs some repair”. In 1996 municipalities with populations
between 100,000 and 400,000 claimed that their water distribution systems were
improving.
In 2007, the number of responses obtained from the 100,000 to 400,000
population group represented 13% of the group’s total population. The responses
showed that water supply systems in some cases were classified as “needs
extensive repair”. Since the 1996 survey, the $10 billion deficit increase also
suggests that the condition of the water and wastewater systems has worsened at
the national level. Table 3.3 summarizes the average condition ratings for the
100,000 to 400,000 population group for both the water supply, and wastewater
and stormwater system categories. Responding municipalities classified the
condition of their infrastructure assets according to the following scale:

55
 ƒ 1 – good
ƒ 2 – acceptable
ƒ 3 – needs some repair
ƒ 4 – needs extensive repair
ƒ 5 – not acceptable
ƒ 6 – not under municipal jurisdiction, not existing, or not applicable

Table 3.3 Average condition ratings for water supply, and wastewater and
stormwater systems in municipalities with populations between
100,000 to 400,000.
Water Supply Condition No. of Population
Systems Rating Responses Represented % of Group
Water mains
(trunkmains) 2.6 6 954,437 12.7
Distribution pipes 2.6 8 1,249,437 16.7
Pressure reducing
stations 4 4 689,494 9.2
Water meters 1.7 6 924,494 12.3
Treatment plant(s) 3.4 4 728,757 9.7
Storage capacity
(including all
reservoirs) 3 5 839,494 11.2
Pumping stations 2.7 7 1,134,494 15.1
Wastewater and
Stormwater Condition No. of Population
Systems Rating Responses Represented % of Group
Sewage pipes 2.1 7 1,038,537 13.8
Sewage interceptors* 1.7 5 839,494 11.2
Storm water pipes 2.3 6 880,680 11.7
Storm water
interceptors* 2.9 3 470,737 6.3
Combined (sewage
and storm water)
pipes 4.2 3 518,757 6.9
Combined (sewage
and storm water)
interceptors 4.8 2 360,900 4.8
Manholes 2.2 6 808,594 10.8
Treatment plants,
including all
associated facilities
and equipment 3 2 307,857 4.1
Retention basins
(×1,000 m3) 1.9 5 765,737 10.2
Septic tanks 5.7 2 321,637 4.3
Lift stations 2.2 5 713,594 9.5

56
 Results of the previous two (1996 and 2007) FCM-McGill surveys can be
complemented by a national report card published by the Sierra Legal Defence
Fund in 2006, which specifically analyzed the adequacy of water regulations in
Canada. The letter grades assigned to the various provinces show that all but one
province have improved their water protection, treatment and testing methods and
have complied with new water safety regulations since the last report card was
published in 2001 (Table 3.3), which shows that while the provinces and
territories have improved in the area of drinking water, other improvements in
operations, testing and standards, among others, have been recommended. In
particular, the Sierra Legal Defence Fund has listed numerous recommendations
and guidelines that the provincial, territorial and federal governments should
adopt, including strict implementation of recommendations from the Walkerton
Commission of Inquiry and improvement of the water quality standards in the
First Nation Communities (Sierra Legal Defence Fund, 2006). The Sierra Legal
Defence Fund has not limited their scope of work to the improvement of water
quality, but to wastewater treatment as well.
In 1999, 74% of the Canadian population was serviced by a municipal
sewer system; 97% of which were served by some level of sewage treatment. The
other 26% not serviced by a municipal sewer system relied on septic tanks for
sewage treatment (Environment Canada et al, 2001). Therefore, 3% of the
population serviced by a sewer system are not serviced by some level of
treatment, which is simply unacceptable. Water treatment is an infrastructure
category which has made considerable progress since 2001. Cities such as
Edmonton, Calgary and Whistler have progressed in recent years, treating all of
their sewage with advanced tertiary levels of treatment (Sierra Legal Defence
Fund, 2004). However, due to faulty infrastructure and little progress by other
municipalities, in their treatment practices, further work is still needed.
The Sierra Legal Defence Fund also publishes a national report card,
evaluating the sewage treatment in Canadian cities with letter grades from A to F.
Table 3.4 compares the grades given to 22 cities in 1999 and 2004. Of the 22
cities, 14 have made some progress since the 1999 report, 3 cities have degraded

57
and 4 have not changed their treatment methods – remaining in a similar situation
as in 1999. The Sierra report clearly portrays the current shocking state of water
treatment in some of Canada’s major cities:

“Of the twenty-two cities documented in this report, five (Victoria, Saint
John, Halifax, St. John's and Dawson City) continue to dump some or all
of their sewage, raw and untreated directly into Canada's rivers, lakes
and oceans – a total of 140 billion litres per year. Three other cities
(Vancouver, Montreal, and Charlottetown) discharge some or all of their
sewage after receiving only primary treatment, consisting of little more
than the settling and skimming off of large debris. Together, these eight
municipalities alone generate more than 3.0 billion litres of sewage
effluent per day - nearly 40,000 litres every second. All of it is discharged
with no, or only minimal, treatment” (Sierra Legal Defence Fund, 2004).

The report also reveals that due to combined sewer overflows and treatment plant
bypasses, another 42 billion litres of untreated sewage from our major cities are
discharged into the environment every year. These cities include Montreal,
Toronto, Vancouver, Edmonton and Hamilton (Sierra Legal Defence Fund, 2004).
Table 3.5 shows that the city of Victoria, being the only Canadian city that still
discharges all of its raw sewage into the environment, was suspended in 2004.

58
 Table 3.4 National Water Report Card II (Sierra Legal Defence Fund, 2006).

NATIONAL DRINKING WATER REPORT CARD – GRADES

Jurisdiction Comments (source protection comments not included) 2001 2006
GOOD: Treatment standards; contaminant standards;
accredited labs for water quality testing; operator
Alberta B B
certification. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: testing. LACKING:
public reporting.
GOOD: accredited labs for water quality testing; operator
British Columbia certification. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: treatment standards; D C+
contaminant standards; testing; public reporting.
GOOD: accredited labs for water quality testing; operator
certification; public reporting (planned). NEEDS
Manitoba C- C+
IMPROVEMENT: treatment standards; contaminant
standards; testing.
GOOD: testing; government tests water quality; public
Newfoundland reporting. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: treatment standards; D C-
contaminant standards. LACKING: operator certification.
GOOD: accredited labs for water quality testing. NEEDS
IMPROVEMENT: treatment standards; testing.
New Brunswick C- D
LACKING: contaminant standards; water treatment system
design regulation; operator certification; public reporting.
GOOD: contaminant standards; testing; accredited labs for
water quality testing; public reporting. NEEDS
NW Territories C C+
IMPROVEMENT: treatment standards. LACKING: operator
certification.
GOOD: treatment standards; contaminant standards;
Nova Scotia accredited labs for water quality testing; operator B- B
certification. LACKING: public reporting.
GOOD: contaminant standards; accredited labs for water
quality testing. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: treatment
Nunavut C C
standards; testing. LACKING: operator certification; public
reporting.
GOOD: treatment standards; contaminant standards;
Ontario testing; accredited labs for quality testing; operator B A-
certification; public reporting.
GOOD: testing; accredited labs for water quality testing;
operator certification. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: public
PEI F C-
reporting (but plans in works). LACKING: treatment
standards; contaminant standards.
GOOD: treatment standards; contaminant standards;
testing; accredited labs for water quality testing; operator
Quebec B B+
certification. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: public reporting
(reports at the regional level only).
GOOD: accredited labs for water quality testing; operator
Saskatchewan certification; public reporting. NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: C B-
treatment standards; contaminant standards; testing.
GOOD: contaminant standards; testing; accredited labs for
† water quality testing; operator certification. NEEDS
Yukon D- C-††
IMPROVEMENT: treatment standards. LACKING: public
reporting.
NEEDS IMPROVEMENT: evaluation and regulation of
chemicals; formulation of standards for guidelines.
Federal LACKING: First Nations drinking water safety; binding Not
F
Government minimum drinking water standards; recognition of a right to Graded
clean drinking water; tracking national drinking water data,
trends and best practices.
Note: †Based on detailed proposed legislation. ††Will be higher if reforms are implemented.

59
 Table 3.5 National Sewage Report Card III (Sierra Legal Defence Fund,
2004).

1999 2004
CITY SUMMARY +/-
GRADE GRADE
Implemented 100% secondary treatment and UV
Brandon disinfection. Combined overflow of up to 2.8 million D + B-
litres per year.
UV disinfection added to 100% tertiary treatment.
Calgary A + A+
Additional upgrades in the works ($250 million).
Primary treatment only. Volume of discharges not
Charlottetown E + E+
monitored. Plans to upgrade to secondary by 2006.
Still discharging one billion litres of raw sewage per
Dawson City year. Await funding for upgrade to secondary F- + E
treatment.
Upgrade to 100% tertiary treatment and UV
Edmonton B+ + A-
disinfection.
Secondary treatment with UV disinfection. No major
Fredericton B NC B
improvements since 1999.Low percentage of CSOs.
More than 65 billion litres of raw sewage discharged
Halifax each year. Regional plants provide secondary or E-/C + D
tertiary treatment.
Upgrades to secondary and tertiary treatment.
Hamilton Discharges 5.9 billion litres of raw sewage each C- + C+
year. Only 88% of population served.
Primary treatment only. No discernible progress
Montreal F+ - F
made.
Secondary treatment. Seasonal chlorine
Ottawa disinfection, no dechlorination. Overflow system C + B-
controls installed.
Secondary treatment with seasonal UV disinfection.
Quebec City C + B
Combined sewer overflow events reduced.
Enhanced secondary treatment with expanded UV
Regina B + B+
disinfection. Extensive upgrades planned.
Reduction in combined sewers. Primary and
Saint John secondary treatment. Almost 40% of population still E + D
do not receive treatment.
100% secondary treatment. Minimal changes since
Saskatoon C+ NC C+
1999.
More than 33 billion litres of raw sewage
St. John’s discharged. Primary sewage treatment plant under F- + E
construction.
Toughest Sewer-Use Bylaw in country. Secondary
Toronto treatment. Still discharge 9.9 billion litres of C/B + B-
untreated sewage and runoff.
Up to 22 billion litres of combined sewer overflows
Vancouver each year. Upgrades to 100% secondary treatment C- - D
won’t be completed until 2030.
Preliminary screening, no treatment. More than 34 Suspen-
Victoria F- - ded
billion litres of raw sewage discharged each year.
Secondary treatment. Minimal progress since 1999.
Whitehorse Efforts under way to reduce volumes of sewage. No B- NC B-
raw sewage discharges.
100% secondary treatment. Reduced number of
Winnipeg combined sewers, still one billion litres of combined C + B-
sewer overflow per year.
Whistler 100% tertiary treatment. - A
100% secondary treatment with natural UV
Yellowknife B+ NC B+
disinfection. Only minor changes since 1999.

60
3.2.2. Transportation

The results of the 1985 municipal infrastructure survey showed that roads,
bridges, and sidewalks were in the poorest condition. The 1996 survey similarly
confirmed that at the national level, roads, bridges and sidewalks were in greatest
need for repair and that their condition, in comparison to other types of
infrastructure, was getting worse. While transportation was not the category
showing the greatest funding need in the 2007 survey, the per capita expenditure
needed to upgrade existing infrastructure almost doubled since the 1996 survey,
rising from $384 per capita to $686 per capita. In total, an investment of $21.7
billion is needed for upgrading, as compared with the estimate of $11.4 billion in
1996 (Table 3.6). Of the main findings, 65% of the upgrading needs were
expressed by the larger municipalities, which was expected because most of the
transportation systems in these larger communities were developed in the post-
war period and many are in need of urgent repairs and replacement. While most
of the new needs were also from the larger municipalities, a significant percentage
(38%) was expressed from smaller, rural and northern communities, showing a
need for expanded transportation systems in these regions.

Table 3.6 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for transportation

infrastructure, in 1996 and 2007.

1996 2007
Average cost to upgrade $384/capita $686/capita
existing infrastructure
$11.4 billion $21.7 billion
assets
Average cost for new - $28.5 billion
infrastructure needs

The transportation network in Canada consists of more than 900,000

kilometres of roads and highways: the National Highway System (NHS)
comprising approximately 38,000 kilometres of highway (Transport Canada,
2006) and 3,534 bridges (Transport Canada, August 16 2007). The municipalities,
and the provinces and territories control approximately 73% and 25% of Canada’s

61
road network, respectively. The federal government owns approximately 2% of
the road network, which includes roads on Indian reserves, the Alaska Highway,
roads passing through national parks, or found on other federal properties
(Transport Canada, 1996). The little involvement of the federal government in
road building and renewal has had its toll on the transportation network in
Canada. In particular, roads and highway segments under federal jurisdiction have
a higher average age, and the lack of federal intervention has led to insufficient
investments, as federal taxation powers and revenues could help increase funding
needed to bring road and highway networks to acceptable levels.

3.2.2.1. Dealing with Aging and Deteriorating Systems

Most of the existing roads and highways were built in the 1950’s and
1960’s to satisfy new needs imposed by the population growth, increases in the
number of registered car users and suburban sprawl. Although traffic soared
dramatically, as networks were built, much of the existing transportation
infrastructure was not designed for the current traffic volumes and significantly
heavier truck loads. Additionally, compared to many other countries,
infrastructure deterioration in most Canadian communities is accelerated due to
the aggressive winter climate and the use of de-icing salts. The illustrations (a) to
(g) of Figure 3.2 demonstrate the progressive formation of a pothole in asphalt
pavements.
Illustration (a) shows the cracking of the asphalt due to fatigue, or the
repetitive traffic loading on a localised section of the pavement that has a base and
sub-base that has not been compacted properly. Illustration (b) shows a crack
propagating all the way through to the subgrade; the crack seen on the surface is
reflective of the base and sub-base joint caused by differential settlement. During
the winter months, water and snowmelt enter the existing cracks and pores in the
asphalt and concrete pavements, due to poor drainage (illustration (c)). Freezing
(illustration (d)) and thawing (illustration (e)) cycles cause expansion and
contraction, damaging the internal structure of the pavement. Once frozen, the
pavement has excellent load bearing capacity. Once thawed, the internal damage

62
of the asphalt pavement’s sub-layers has reduced the pavement’s strength, which
may no longer be adequate to support the traffic loads, thereby causing the asphalt
surface to “cave-in” or break-up (illustration (f)). Upon continuous traffic loads
and wear and tear, the remaining pulverized material is lost leading to the
formation of a pothole, as seen in illustration (g).

Cracks (Inadequate consolidation,

Wheel fatigue cracks due to repeated loads)

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 3.2 Steps in the formation of potholes in asphalt pavements (Mirza

and Sipos, 2008). (a) Initial stages of pavement deterioration:
formation of fatigue cracks.

Crack (Reflection of base

Wheel
joints and cracking; differential
settlement)

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 3.2 (b) Cracking due to differential settlement.

63
 Water, snowmelt ingress (Accumulation due to
poor drainage)

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 3.2 (c) Ingress of water and snowmelt

Ice lens development

(Expansion; can resist load during winter)

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 3.2 (d) Freezing

Weakened zone (Ice melts; load

support lost)

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 3.2 (e) Thawing

64
 Wheel
Pavement material pulverized; lost
under wheel action

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 3.2 (f) Pavement break-up

Pothole (Continuous passage

of wheels; pulverized weak
material lost)

Asphalt Pavement
A.C.

Base, sub-base
B; S-b.

Subgrade Sg.

Figure 3.2 (g) Pothole formation

65
 In the case of a concrete pavement, internal voids and cracking damage
may leave room for more water to seep in and undergo freezing and thawing
cycles, due to the increased permeability of the concrete. This latter situation is
worsened with the ingress of de-icing salts, which causes a differential freezing
temperature profile along the depth of the concrete. Considering a concrete block
exposed to freezing temperatures and de-icing agents (Figure 3.3), the extreme
top layer of the concrete will undergo a temperature drop due to exposure to the
de-icing salts, which lower the freezing temperature (Figure 3.3 (a)). The
difference in the temperature leads to internal stresses, as the top layer tends to
expand (tension) and the subsequent layers which are freezing tend to contract
(compression). Different areas along the depth of the concrete will also freeze at
different times due to the effect of the de-icing salts and the large variation in the
pore sizes on water distribution within the hydrated cement pores. This will also
generate tensile stresses in the thin top layer, with compression in the layer
immediately underneath it. This causes the upper layer to crack and disintegrate,
causing scaling of the top surface (CEB, 1989).
Cracks allow further access for the ingress of water and de-icing salts into
the concrete and they accelerate corrosion of the embedded reinforcing bars. The
rust formed on the reinforcement as a by-product of corrosion, in turn, may
increase the reinforcing bar’s volume by as much as 600%. This increase in
volume causes expansive forces within the concrete, leading to additional
cracking and spalling.

66
ȱ
Figure 3.3 Differences in the timing of the freezing layers within the concrete
(CEB, 1989).

Levels of deterioration have increased across Canada as routine

maintenance has not been the common practice, and the deterioration caused by
aggressive winters has accumulated over the years. Although potholes are usually
repaired in the springtime, these repairs are typically temporary solutions to a
recurring problem. A typical pothole repair is illustrated in Figure 3.4. This repair
consists of simply patching the pothole, as is, with a cold- or hot-mix bituminous
material. This material is then compacted. In light of saving time and money, the
more lengthy process of preparing the pothole for a more adequate repair is
avoided. As can be seen in Figure 3.4 (a), cracks extend beyond the area where
the pothole is formed. Therefore, by patching the pothole, its weak, feathered ends
and the cracked pavement around it are not dealt with. Over time, as vehicles pass
over the patched repair, the feathered ends get removed and the cracks continue to
propagate under load (Figure 3.4 (b)). As a result, the typical method of repairing
potholes is not providing a fast, economical and sustained solution, but, on the

67
hand, repairs are requiring their own repairs leading to higher costs, wasted time
and short-term solutions.

Feathered end
Repair material
(Small thickness)

200-300mm 200-300mm
Asphalt Pavement
A.C.
Base, sub-base

Subgrade Sg.

Damaged zone

Figure 3.4 A typical pothole patch repair (Mirza and Sipos, 2008).
(a) Patch repair without pothole preparation.

Wheel
Loose A.C. (Material at feathered ends
lost gradually; repair failure)

Asphalt Pavement

Base, sub-base

Subgrade Sg.

Figure 3.4 (b) Failure of the patch repair

68
 Figure 3.5 illustrates the more effective pothole repair, which first requires
preparation of the pothole. The area surrounding the pothole is milled to square
edges to eliminate any weak feathered edges and surrounding cracks. This can
extend 200-300 mm laterally around the pothole, or a greater surface can be
milled if the surrounding area is severely deteriorated. Milling should also extend
to the sub-grade to ensure adequate compaction (which caused the initial fatigue)
and to prevent inadequate bonding between the new fill and the existing base
materials. The milled area is cleaned by blowing out any debris or water, to
prevent poor bonding with the fill. Cold-or hot-mixed asphalt material is then
used to fill the square-edged milled area, though a hot-mix provides a superior
bond with the existing material. The fill should be added in layers so that each
layer is properly compacted. The milled area may also first be coated with asphalt
emulsion to improve the bond between the old pavement and the new filler.
Inadequate investments have caused limitations to adequate levels of
repair and maintenance, however, other constraints exist. For example, the
rehabilitation of main arteries in metropolitan districts is usually most urgent due
to more wear-and-tear and older infrastructure. However, projects are often
deferred to avoid upsetting or inconveniencing the population or businesses that
would be affected by street closures and construction, demonstrating how politics
can act as a constraint.

69
 Pothole

200-300mm 200-300mm

Asphalt Pavement
Cracks due to
Base, sub-base fatigue; pothole
formation
Subgrade Sg.

All cracked and weak material removed.

Squared edges perpendicular to the road
surface. Patched in one or more layers, with
each layer compacted properly.

Figure 3.5 Effective pothole repair (Mirza and Sipos, 2008).

Transport Canada’s 1988 study of the NHS revealed that 38% of the
system was deficient “relative to minimum geometric design, serviceability
(based on a 10-year projection of traffic), structural strength or riding comfort.”
Furthermore, 22% of the bridges within the NHS required major strengthening or
rehabilitation within the following five years (Transport Canada, August 16
2007). A 1987 report by the Ontario Road Builders’ Association (ORBA) stated
that:

“3,796 bridges, or 32.5% of the bridges in [Ontario] will need to be

rehabilitated or replaced during the next five years. Another 1,500
bridges do not meet normal highway loading standards. Sixty-one per
cent, or 37,000 kilometres of municipal paved roads will need resurfacing
within five years” (CMHC, 1989).

It is clear to see that numbers would be higher today if much of this infrastructure
was not appropriately maintained in the past decade. The improvement

70
implemented in the transportation networks since the two 1980 studies needs a
careful evaluation.

3.2.2.2. Where Does the Transportation Network Stand?

Canada has had its share of transport-infrastructure related tragedies since

the beginning of this century, in addition to several bridge collapses. On
December 11, 2006 a piece of concrete, approximately the size of a loaf of bread,
fell from a railway overpass in Ottawa. The concrete fell onto a traveling vehicle
below the overpass, damaging the car, but luckily not harming the driver (Sekeres
et al, 2006). Large pieces of concrete falling from the overpasses have also been
reported in Quebec. In the wake of the 2006 de la Concorde Bridge Collapse in
Laval, Quebec, the Quebec Ministry of Transport issued, on July 19, 2007, a list
of 135 bridges in Quebec that need thorough evaluations, consisting of
inspections, coring and structural analyses. The concrete structures are deemed to
have insufficient steel reinforcement to counter shear cracking, increasing the risk
of failure if levels of degradation are high. Until the confirmation of the structural
integrity of these structures through rigorous evaluation, heavy vehicles such as
buses and trucks are not permitted to use these structures, as a preventative
measure.
These measures have put considerable pressures on trucking companies,
which rely on the closed bridges and overpasses for faster and, therefore, less
costly operations. Moreover, events such as those described have raised the level
of importance of infrastructure renewal in the public eye, many are concerned that
their safety is at risk when crossing highways or bridges. Although Laval and
other Montreal residents have experienced the latest Canadian “infrastructure
tragedy”, this and other similar recent international occurrences have raised a red
flag among the general public across the country. A CBC news broadcast
following the Minnesota Bridge collapse revealed that of Canada’s 50,000
bridges, it is estimated that half are deficient either structurally, relative to
serviceability, due to severe deterioration or due to a combination of these factors,

71
suggesting that Montrealers are not alone and that the transportation infrastructure
had not improved since the studies performed in the 1980’s.

3.2.3. Transit

Figure 3.6 shows the number of urban transit users between 1974 and
1998. The statistics are representative of 1,110 companies, including interurban
transportation, school bus transportation, charter bus industry, shuttle services,
sightseeing transportation and 100 urban transit companies, which provide service
to approximately 97% of all urban transit users in Canada (Statistics Canada,
1998). The fluctuations can be attributed to the several factors turning citizens
away from public transit, considering that many of these factors change over time,
such as:

ƒ Increasing transit fares to meet maintenance demands and new needs, and to
follow suit with escalating fuel prices;
ƒ Suburban sprawl, which leaves many inconvenienced by not having a transit
service between city core and their homes;
ƒ Frequent changes in transit service hours and unaccommodating transit
schedules;
ƒ Aging of the population, which leads many to drive cars in preference to public
transportation because they feel it is a safer, more comfortable and time-saving
mode of travel (Kohn, 2000); and
ƒ Loss of public confidence in transit systems due to frequent service
interruptions or slow service because of faulty infrastructure, or emergency
repairs, and because of below capacity systems, which do not offer comfort to
the rider.

The poor state of existing infrastructure will certainly discourage people from
using public transit; the lack of new infrastructure to meet new service
requirements would have a similar effect. Examples include new buses and metro
cars to provide more frequent service, or larger parking lots and bicycle shelters at

72
train or metro stations that can benefit those that are inconvenienced or not
serviced by bus hours and bus routes.

Figure 3.6 Number of urban transit passengers between 1974 and 1998
(Statistics Canada, 1998).

Figure 3.6 shows that the number of urban transit passengers has been
steadily increasing from 1996 to 1998. In 2000, the ridership rose to 1.5 billion,
which is close to the maximum of 1.53 billion passengers that used urban transit
in 1990, which was available to 95% of the urban residents, representing roughly
61% of Canada’s total population (MRC, 2002). Public ridership continues to rise
as government investment in transit systems increases. The provincial
government’s share in transit capital investment has increased from 15% in 2000
to 40% in 2005. Similarly, the federal government investment has increased from
zero to 18% during the same timeframe (CUTA, 2007). The municipalities,
however, continue to cater for the largest of the expenditures in public transit
infrastructure. Although investments are increasing, there still remains a shortfall

73
in the investments needed to improve the existing transit infrastructure and meet
the continually growing needs.

3.2.3.1. Transit in the Twenty-First Century

The results of a Canadian Urban Transit Association (CUTA) survey,

evaluating local transit system needs in municipalities across Canada, between
2004 and 2008, revealed that there was an $8.3 billion shortfall within the $14.1
billion needed for new infrastructure to meet growing service demands (CUTA,
2005). Figure 3.7 demonstrates how this shortfall has been growing within the
past decade, as adequate actions have not been taken to reduce the infrastructure
deficit and to improve the state of the transit infrastructure. CUTA has revised the
transit infrastructure deficit with a survey distributed to all of its transit system
members and has found that $40 billion are needed over the next five year period
from 2008 to 2012: 29% ($11.6 billion) for renewal and rehabilitation of existing
transit infrastructure and 71% ($28.4 billion) for new transit needs. The survey
responses show that the $40 billion deficit represents 95% of Canada’s total
transit operations (CUTA, 2008). Figure 3.8 demonstrates the areas where
rehabilitation and replacement are most needed. Rolling stock needs the most
upgrading, followed by fixed guideways (or rights of way), buses and
maintenance facilities.

Figure 3.7 Transit infrastructure needs in Canada, for the 2000-2008 period
(CUTA, 2005)

74
 Other

Maintenance
Facilities Other Rolling Stock

Bus Purchase or
Refurbishment

Fixed Guideway or
Rights-of-Way

Figure 3.8 Transit system rehabilitation and replacement needs 2008-2012

(CUTA, 2008).

According to the 2007 FCM-McGill infrastructure Survey, it will cost

municipalities $22.8 billion for upgrading needs, which has risen tremendously
since the 1996 survey when only $3.05 billion was needed. An additional $7.7
billion is needed for new infrastructure, which in addition to the $22.8 billion for
upgrading needs, is consistent, but slightly less than the CUTA projection (Table
3.7). Most responses for the transit category were received from the larger
municipalities. This would be expected, since the smaller rural and northern
communities have limited transit services. However, it is surprising that these
smaller communities did not show a greater immediate and future need for transit
systems. Instead, new transit systems require considerable investment in the larger
municipalities to meet the higher service demands. The latter is also consistent
with the responses to the CUTA survey which show that 73% of new
infrastructure needs are for larger cities (Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver), 25%
for other census metropolitan areas and only 2% of new needs are for smaller
cities and towns (CUTA, 2008).

75
 Table 3.7 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for transit system
infrastructure, in 1996 and 2007.

1996 2007
Average cost to upgrade $3.05 billion $22.8 billion
existing infrastructure
assets
Average cost for new - $7.7 billion
infrastructure needs

3.2.4. Cultural, Social and Recreational Facilities

According to the Canadian Parks and Recreation Association, about $15

billion were needed in 2007, to upgrade sports and recreational facilities. The
1996 and 2007 municipal infrastructure surveys included other public facilities
(Table 3.1). In 1996, the cost to upgrade existing infrastructure was $7.55 billion
and in 2007, this number increased to an amazing $40.2 billion. The survey
results showed that $18.1 billion are needed to meet new infrastructure needs
(Table 3.8). The responses for this infrastructure category were quite distinct for
larger and smaller (i.e., rural and northern) communities. The high average cost to
upgrade existing infrastructure comes from the largest municipalities (i.e.,
Montreal and Toronto), while it is primarily the smaller municipalities, with
populations less than 100,000, which showed the greatest need for new social and
recreational infrastructure.
Urban population growth and rapid aging of public facilities may best
explain the upgrading needs being more prevalent for the larger municipalities. A
lack of funding over the past 30 years has been one of the main causes for the
present backlog of deterioration. Therefore, whatever funding was directed to the
municipalities over the past years were directed primarily to infrastructure thought
to have the most prevalent needs, such as transportation, transit and
water/wastewater systems (Mirza, 2007). For this reason, cultural, social and
recreational facilities have been neglected and require immediate attention.

76
 Table 3.8 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for cultural, social and
recreational facilities, in 1996 and 2007.

1996 2007
Average cost to upgrade $7.55 billion $40.2 billion
existing infrastructure
assets
Average cost for new - $18.1 billion
infrastructure needs

3.2.5. Waste Management

The final infrastructure category – waste management – remains the

category with the least needs, according to the 2007 FCM-McGill survey
responses, yet the needs have escalated since the 1996 survey. In 1996,
approximately $1 billion was needed to upgrade existing waste management
infrastructure. In 2007, this need has risen to $7.7 billion. The new needs are
about $4.3 billion. There is great potential for upgrading the infrastructure in this
category to more sustainable and environmentally-friendly alternatives. If another
survey were conducted in five years, waste management will most likely be an
area with a large increase in new needs, as environmental concerns continue to
receive more attention, and become important elements of political, social and
corporate agendas. To date, very little research has been performed to identify the
exact needs in this area. These can, therefore, not be compared to the present
survey findings, which are summarized in Table 3.9.

Table 3.9 The municipal infrastructure sub-deficit for waste management,

in 1996 and 2007.
1996 2007
Average cost to upgrade $1 billion $7.7 billion
existing infrastructure
assets
Average cost for new - $4.3 billion
infrastructure needs

77
3.3 Waterfront Infrastructure

While waterfront infrastructure was not included in any of the surveys, it

constitutes one of the most important infrastructure categories in terms of tourism
and international trade, and thus, international competitiveness. The knowledge of
the condition of the waterfront infrastructure in Canadian ports and harbours is
inadequate, as it has not been the subject of any known recent condition
assessment surveys. As port activities are overseen by the Port Authorities, which
operate under federal jurisdiction, this class of infrastructure was not included in
the FCM-McGill surveys. Economic reports are clear in stating that waterfront
infrastructure is no exception to the deteriorated infrastructure seen across the
country and requires immediate attention, if Canada is to move forward as a
competitive country. Yet, a thorough assessment of the present state of health of
the waterfront infrastructure is needed. The Association of Canadian Port
Authorities (ACPA) has applied to Infrastructure Canada for a grant to undertake
a complete study of the current state of Canadian waterfront infrastructure
(ACPA, 2006). In the meantime, the ACPA is working with other groups to
improve the state of marine-infrastructure.
Aggressive marine environments, the impact of ships and the damage
caused by heavy equipment and vehicular traffic (e.g., cargo carrying vehicles)
are the predominant causes of deterioration of waterfront infrastructure. The large
difference in the waterfront environments and the facilities in each port make it
difficult to conduct a general assessment of the condition of these facilities in a
broad study of the infrastructure across Canada, without the help of the Port
Authorities. It is therefore recommended that a survey similar to that conducted
by McGill and the FCM focus solely on this infrastructure category. It is also
hoped that the Port Authorities will cooperate in completing this type of survey,
as waterfront infrastructure acts as a vital part of the overall transportation
network in Canada.

78
3.4 Factors Influencing the Infrastructure Deficit

The results of the 2007 FCM-McGill Infrastructure Survey note the

infrastructure categories with the greatest needs and shortfalls. However, unlike
the past surveys, the 2007 study was not only aimed at identifying the deficits for
each infrastructure category, but it was also aimed at identifying the factors that
caused rapid escalation of these deficits. Municipalities were asked if they
“strongly disagree”, “disagree”, “somewhat disagree”, are “unsure”, “somewhat
agree”, “agree” or “strongly agree” that the following factors are contributing to
new and/or expanding infrastructure needs and creating additional funding
requirements:

ƒ Aging of infrastructure ƒ Financial Regulations

ƒ Climate Change ƒ Managerial Regulations
ƒ Population Growth ƒ Safety Standards
ƒ Urbanization ƒ New Environmental Regulations
ƒ Suburban Growth ƒ New Wastewater Requirements
ƒ Red Tape ƒ Lack of Qualified Personnel
ƒ Lack of ƒ Lack of Technical and
Training Opportunities Managerial Expertise
ƒ Environmental Regulations

The number of municipalities which provided a classification for each of these

factors varied. However, more than 48 municipalities responded in each case.
Figure B.1 in Appendix B consists of pie-charts showing the classification
provided for each factor as a percentage of the responding municipalities. The
main results are as follows (percentages represent the weight of a particular
classification for each factor and do not provide the weight of responses received
for each factor):

ƒ Aging of infrastructure (68%), followed by population growth (28%) and new

environmental regulations (29%) are the factors that the largest percentage of
respondents “strongly agreed” are compounding the infrastructure deficit;

79
ƒ Most municipalities “agreed” that environmental regulations (42%), new
environmental regulations (41%), population growth (40%) and urbanization
(32%) are the factors compounding the infrastructure deficit;
ƒ Lack of training opportunities (23%), lack of technical and managerial expertise
(17%) and climate change (14%) are the factors for which municipalities most
“disagreed” to having an impact on compounding the deficit;
ƒ Most municipalities were unsure about the influences of managerial regulations
(32%) and climate change (30%) on the deficit’s escalation.

3.5 Canada’s Position Among Other Nations

The current situation may seem grave in Canada, but the infrastructure
deficit and the state of facilities are comparable with those in the U.S.A. The
latest infrastructure report card developed by the American Society of Civil
Engineers (ASCE) gave a failing grade ‘D’ to the American infrastructure and
noted that $1.6 trillion dollars was needed within the next five years (2008-2012)
to bring their infrastructure to acceptable levels. The most recent infrastructure
deficits of various other countries and regions around the world are listed in Table
3.10.

80
 Table 3.10 International infrastructure deficits.

Year Deficit Country/Region (Sources)

($Billion)
2000 7.7 Northern Ireland (Confederation of British Industry)

(BBC, 2001)
2007 90 Australia (Business Council of Australia)
$6.4B in lost production per year

(Dunlop, 2008)
2006 145 Indonesia (Asian Development Bank)

(Greenwood, 2006)
2007 500 India (Planning Commission, Government of India)

(Joshi, 2007)
2007 600 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific Region (UNESCAP)

(Srinivasan, 2007)
2006 1,000 East Asia
(Japan Bank for International Cooperation, the World
Bank, the Asian Development Bank)

(Greenwood, 2006)
2005 1,600 U.S.A.
(ASCE, 2008)

The Canadian infrastructure deficit of $123.6 billion to upgrade existing

infrastructure, seems low in comparison to those of other countries, but is
nevertheless a problem that needs immediate attention. The International Institute
for Management Development (IMD) in Switzerland published a world
competitiveness report in 2003, ranking countries according to their infrastructure
debts. Canada ranked sixth out of 10 countries with the U.S. having the highest
debt (Vander Ploeg, 2003) (Figure 3.9).

81
Figure 3.9 World competitiveness report: infrastructure debt rankings by
country (Vander Ploeg, 2003).

82
 CHAPTER 4

CURRENT TRENDS

4.1 Introduction

Some awareness of the infrastructure crisis does exist presently, however,

many politicians and citizens lack the information needed to clearly assess the
severity of the infrastructure crisis. It is very difficult to understand the pain and
suffering of those who lost a loved one due to an infrastructure-related tragedy,
such as a bridge collapse or transit accident, or the aggravation of someone who,
years after a water supply contamination, still needs medical treatment. Yet, the
frequency of these events is causing fear among many others who were not
directly affected by these tragedies, but who are thinking “this can happen to me
or to my family at any time”. These people generally fear aspects of the
infrastructure that are visible to them everyday, such as exposed and severely
corroded rebar under an overpass, or the common culprit for damaged cars and
public outrage: the pothole. Many people fail to focus on other issues that are
equally important, because they are “out of sight and out of mind”, or because
they affect them only indirectly. While the “general public” (i.e., in this context,
people whose field of study or whose occupation is not related to infrastructure in
any way) should be educated on the causes and the consequences of the
deterioration in the various infrastructure.

4.2 Public Point of View

The responses to the 2006 IPSOS/REID Municipal World Survey (Section

3.1.2) reflect the way the general public rates the quality of the different
infrastructure types. The responses are representative of the views of 1,173
respondents from the different provinces. The main Municipal World Survey
responses are shown in Figure 4.1, and they demonstrate the public view of the
infrastructure assets in their communities to be in better condition than the

83
rankings provided by the municipalities. In particular, the public claimed that
32% of sewage treatment facilities were in a “declining or desperate condition”.
Comparatively, the 1996 FCM-McGill survey responses ranked 58% of sewage
treatment facilities as being in “need of repair/in unacceptable condition”.
Although not ranked as poorly as by the municipalities, public opinion was
consistent in suggesting that roads and highways were in greatest need for repair,
substantiating the idea that what is “out of site and out of mind”, as is
underground infrastructure, water treatment facilities and power generation is
often ignored. Public transit is another major area of concern to the public, as are
schools, which are not included in any of the recent infrastructure surveys because
they do not fall in the municipal jurisdiction.

Figure 4.1 Public opinions on the state of infrastructure assets from the
IPSOS/REID Municipal World Survey (Gunther et al, 2007).

As with many other issues, public opinion frequently changes with the
turn of events and with increased media coverage of these events. Montreal’s
winter snowfall records of 2007-2008 (a little more than 347cm), for example,

84
were close to reaching the 1971 record (383cm). The winter’s extreme weather
conditions and the way the City of Montreal dealt with these abnormal volumes of
snow left many outraged and clearly proved to the city management that snow
removal equipment, and the capacity of storage facilities and dumps were
inadequate. Many had to depend on the City’s metro and other forms of transit,
due to the long wait for snow clearing in many boroughs. In many cases, the
frequency of bus and train pick-ups was inadequate for the needed increase in
service and capacity. Furthermore, after such a harsh winter, it was inevitable that
the yearly trend of emerging potholes would be more excessive than usual.
Therefore, one harsh winter has brought out flaws in the state of infrastructure
assets and the management of the services provided by these assets. One would
therefore expect that after a long and dreadful winter, the general public opinions
of infrastructure in their community would change. Similarly, recent media
attention on major pipe breaks in Rivière des Prairies, on the east end of the
Island, and on the possible installation of toll booths on Montreal bridges would
have a similar effect.
Thus, post-publication of the revised infrastructure deficit and a time when
infrastructure has become a popular news item for many of the reasons listed
above, is also a time for a revised evaluation of the public opinion. For the
purpose of this paper, a more general survey was sent solely to people in and
around Montreal (e.g., Laval, the South Shore, etc.), for convenience and to
question people who have either directly or indirectly been affected by events
such as the Pie-IX pipe burst, in Montreal in 2002 and the 2006 de la Concorde
Overpass collapse, in Laval. Even if the respondents’ daily lives were not affected
by these events, the results show that the events have “hit close to home”, leaving
many fearful and with greater awareness of the infrastructure crisis. Furthermore,
the lack of capacity of snow dumps, huge potholes and slow transit services have
particularly affected many citizens during the past year. Appendix C presents this
2008 Municipal Infrastructure Public Questionnaire and assembles all of the
responses received for each of the 13 questions posed; the main survey results
follow.

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4.2.1. The 2008 Municipal Infrastructure Public Questionnaire

4.2.1.1. General Information

The first part of the survey was aimed at gathering general information
about the 64 respondents. As the respondents also included civil engineers, civil
engineering technicians and students studying in the area of infrastructure design
and management, asking the respondents to include their occupation made
comparison of the results between these people and “the general public” much
simpler. Similarly, knowledge of the age groups of the respondents was also
useful for comparison purposes. The results to some questions were specific to
certain age groups. Lastly, respondents were asked to specify their municipality
and boroughs of residence. As it is not unusual for a Montrealer to travel from
different points on and off the Island, it is difficult to associate responses to
certain areas. Instead, it was assumed and often specified by the respondent that
responses were not limited to their communities per se, but to the state of the
infrastructure around the City (their home, work place, school area, etc.) in
general. However, some questions had specific responses from respondents from
certain boroughs. For example, respondents living in areas right off the Island of
Montreal were more familiar and accepted practices, such as water-metering,
because this is common practice in their district. A review of these relationships
follows.
The respondents included a cook, administrative assistants, educators,
engineers, nurses, social workers, etc. As mentioned, a complete list of the
responses to this and all other questions can be found in Appendix C. The highest
number of responses was received from respondents in the 20-25 year age group
(39% of respondents). There was a fairly consistent response rate amongst the
other age groups between 26 and 60 years of age (11-16% response rate for each
group). No responses, or very few were received from those under 20 years of age
or greater than 60, respectively. As this survey was meant to gain a general idea
of how people in Quebec perceive the state of their infrastructure, the latter is due
to limited distribution of the electronic survey to people within these age groups.

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The survey was simply passed on by various people to colleagues and classmates,
thereby often excluding retirees, or students in colleges and schools. However,
respondents were widely spread out across the Island of Montreal – from the West
Island to the East end – and around the Island. The boroughs represented are
shown in Figures C.1 to C.3, in Appendix C.

4.2.1.2. Public Perceptions of the Crisis

The respondents were first required to state how they perceive the state of
infrastructure in Quebec, by selecting a statement that best described the
magnitude of the crisis from a list. The majority of the respondents (81%) selected
the statement claiming that Quebecers are facing “an infrastructure crisis - more
changes than just increased spending are needed to improve the state of our
infrastructure”. Only 9% of respondents claimed that what Quebecers are facing is
a “small problem that can be overcome with increased government spending”.
Luckily, only one respondent felt that the issues related to infrastructure are
drawing too much media attention and that the infrastructure in their community
was in an acceptable state. On the other hand, 9% of respondents selected the
statement reading “we’re facing problems with our infrastructure?”
Approximately 80% of the respondents “definitely” agreed that the de la
Concorde Overpass and Minnesota Bridge collapses, as well as the Pie-IX pipe
burst and other tragic events have made them more concerned and aware of the
importance of infrastructure systems for the functioning and safety of a
community. Another 7% and 3% of respondents “somewhat” agreed or did “not at
all” agree with the same statement, respectively.

4.2.1.3. The State of Specific Infrastructure Types

The respondents were asked to rank the following main infrastructure

categories according to the categories they felt are in the most deteriorated state
and are in the greatest need for repair. These were ranked from 1 to 6, where ‘1’ is
the infrastructure category with the greatest need for repair and ‘6’ is the
infrastructure category with the least need for repair. The responses varied, but the

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following ranking scheme is representative of the majority of responses received
for each infrastructure category:

Infrastructure Category Ranking

Transportation 1
Watersupply 2
Wastewater and stormwater 3
Waste management 4
Transit 5
Social, cultural, community and
recreational 6

As with the 2006 IPSOS/REID Municipal World Survey, according to the public,
transportation infrastructure is in the greatest need of repair (55% of respondents).
Infrastructure categories that require the least need for repair are transit (34%),
contrary to what was expected after the last survey, and social, cultural,
community and recreational facilities (67%).
The respondents were also asked to rank the main infrastructure categories
according to the ones they felt are negatively affecting Canada’s international
competitiveness, economic growth and the quality of life of Canadians due to
their present deteriorated state. Again, these were ranked from 1 to 6, where ‘1’ is
the infrastructure category with the greatest negative impact and ‘6’ is the
infrastructure category with the least impact. The categories were ranked as
follows based on the majority of responses:

Infrastructure Category Ranking

Transportation 1
Transit 2
Watersupply 3
Wastewater and stormwater 4
Waste management 5
Social, cultural, community and
recreational 6

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Transportation infrastructure was again ranked first, thereby signifying that it is
perceived as having the greatest negative impact on Canada’s international
competitiveness, economic growth and the quality of life of Canadians. As would
be expected, transit was ranked second, followed by watersupply and wastewater
and stormwater systems, which most people ranked third or fourth. The
respondents expressed the opinion that waste management and public facilities
(social, cultural, community and recreational facilities) had the least impact on the
above factors.

4.2.1.4. User pay models

The respondents were questioned about their acceptance of two different

user pay models for transportation and water supply infrastructure, namely, toll
booths and watermeters. In the first case, they were asked whether or not they
would be willing to pay a toll when driving over a major Canadian bridge and
highway, if the money would be used to implement routine maintenance programs
of bridges and highways. Similarly, in the second case, the respondents were
asked whether they would accept the installation of watermeters in their
community, if it meant that the money would be used to implement routine
maintenance of the water distribution systems, sewage disposal systems and water
treatment facilities in their community. Each of these questions was followed up
with a question asking the respondents if they would have had the same opinion if
they were asked these questions 10 years earlier. They were also given the chance
to give reasons why they were against the user pay models, when applicable.
Overall, the respondents had mixed feelings about implementing toll
booths: 45% would “definitely” be willing to pay a toll for the above-mentioned
reasons, 34% said “maybe” and 20% said that there is “no chance” they would be
willing to pay a toll. A little more than half (52%) of those who responded
“definitely” would have supported the same decision 10 years ago. Therefore,
close to half (48%) would not have agreed to the installation of tolls if they were
asked the same question 10 years ago, however, they have changed their minds,
most likely due to the deteriorated state of highways and overpasses, and due to

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recent events. Of those who would “maybe” agree to the installation of tolls, 45%
would not have had the same opinion 10 years ago. Approximately half of those
who responded “no chance” would have had the same opinion. From the
comments received, disapproval of toll booths in Canada is primarily due to the
argument that the Government manages the funds poorly and that there is no
guarantee that the money that drivers will spend on tolls will be used for the
sectors promised. Many claimed that they are already paying enough for the
license fees and the gas tax and that this money should be sufficient if
appropriately allocated to improving the conditions of transportation networks.
As with the tolls, the respondents were torn between accepting or not
accepting the installation of watermeters in their communities: 44% would
“definitely” be willing to accept watermeters in their communities, 41% said
“maybe” and 15% said that there is “no chance” that they would be willing to
accept watermeters. Of the 28 respondents who would “definitely” accept the
installation of watermeters, 18 said that they would have had the same opinion 10
years ago (64%), seven respondents (25%) said that they would not have; others
were unsure or the question was not applicable to them (i.e., respondents would
have been too young). Of those who responded “no chance”, no one said that they
would have had a different opinion if asked the same question 10 years ago. Here,
most people who rejected the idea of watermeters had similar reasons as the
objections given for tolls. People felt that the money from existing taxes should be
spent more appropriately. Therefore, while many seemed skeptical that money
would be used for maintenance of underground infrastructure, many did express
interest in monitoring consumption and paying some fees if it meant that people
would be more conscientious about their water usage. One respondent suggested
educating the public on the matter of water conservation before implementing
additional fees.
It is interesting to note that 60% of the respondents in age groups greater
than 51 years of age responded that there was “no chance” that they would be
willing to pay a toll. Students who responded may be more concerned with the
public transit for the time being, while they are maybe also less skeptical as to

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how their tax dollar was being spent. Half of the respondents who said “no
chance” to water-metering were from these same age groups. The lower age
groups seemed to have stronger opinions about water-metering, probably because
it is a topic that is applicable to them at this stage.

4.2.1.5. Primary Concerns

The respondents were asked to rank a list of impediments to successful

rehabilitation and maintenance of infrastructure from 1 to 6, where ‘1’ signifies
the greatest impediment and ‘6’ signifies the least impediment. The majority of
responses for each impediment lead to the following ranking:

Impediments Ranking

Red Tape 1

Political inaction 2

Lack of knowledge of the problems

associated with inadequate upkeep and 3
management of infrastructure by politicians

Funding shortage 4

Lack of knowledge of the problems

associated with inadequate upkeep and 5
management of infrastructure by the
community

Lack of qualified personnel 6

Red tape and political inaction are the factors that most respondents felt were
impeding successful rehabilitation and maintenance, followed by lack of
knowledge about the problems associated with inadequate upkeep and
management of infrastructure by politicians. Funding shortages and lack of
knowledge about durability, upkeep and management of infrastructure by the
community were of minimal concern. The respondents felt that lack of qualified
personnel was the least impediment.

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 Two open-ended survey questions were meant to gather the primary
concerns of the public. The first asked whether there were specific types of
infrastructure that concerned them and if yes, what concerned them the most
about these assets. The second question was optional, asking respondents to list
their primary concerns about the state of infrastructure. The specific infrastructure
assets that were most listed as being a concern to the public were roads
(particularly potholes), bridges, and water distribution systems, in that order.
Other concerns were related to the transit systems, snow removal, water
treatment, and waste management. In terms of more general concerns, most
people expressed fear of other more tragic events occurring and uneasiness to the
thought that actions were not being taken promptly to improve the current
situation, be it through policies, best practices, or education. Therefore, while the
general public seemed to list concerns related to fear of jeopardized health and
safety, and expressed resentment towards the inappropriate allocation of existing
funds, the respondents who have an educational or work background that is
related to the area of public works listed concerns related to the planning and
management of infrastructure. For example, these respondents stated their
objections to:

ƒ Focus being placed on new construction and not enough on rehabilitating and
maintaining the existing assets;
ƒ Rough and “patchy” techniques used for quick road and pothole repairs;
ƒ Lack of an enforced maintenance plan for all infrastructure projects;
ƒ Lack of creative financing alternatives;
ƒ Present lowest-bid tendering process that does not consider the contractor’s
plans for future maintenance and life-cycle performance of the infrastructure
facility;
ƒ Lack of technical knowledge of individuals making administrative decisions;
ƒ Inertia and delay in adopting new materials, techniques or practices, used
successfully in other countries;

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ƒ Lack of an immediate response to change with an immense deficit to overcome;
and
ƒ Lack of funds being diverted to improving infrastructure asset management.

A partial list of responses to the open-ended questions is presented in Appendix C

under questions (8) and (12). A complete list is available upon request.

4.2.1.6. The Infrastructure Deficit

When asked where Canada’s municipal infrastructure deficit stands today,

many respondents chose the correct category of $100 to $125 billion, but overall,
most responses (52%) were within the broader range of $75 to $150 billion. Six
people actually estimate the present deficit to be greater than $200 billion.

4.3 Government

Many of those who responded to the public municipal infrastructure

survey expressed their concern for the lack of technical knowledge of decision-
makers in infrastructure planning and project prioritization. Whether in
administrative positions or politics, many of these decision-makers are unaware of
the different deterioration modes, their consequences and the preventative
measures, or maintenance needed for the upkeep of assets, yet they make major
decisions related to these topics. While the following section is not aimed at
highlighting the issues which are not and that should be addressed by all three
orders of government, it is meant to make the reader aware of the more general
concern that the infrastructure crisis has merely been acknowledged by the
political leaders. There are still provincial elections without any mention of
infrastructure among the list of political priorities. The government infrastructure
programs that are created, typically last as long as the elected party’s tenure. This
leaves the next elected official with the responsibility of developing a program to
address a backlog of infrastructure needs that could not be addressed with the
previous program, due to its limited funds and limited duration. The latter fails to
address the sustained long-term planning needs.

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 In the last provincial election in Quebec, which was held after the de la
Concorde Overpass collapse, the only mention of infrastructure in the Leaders’
televised debate, was when the Action Démocratique Leader tried to blame the
Liberals for having hidden, from the public, documentation pertaining to potential
problems related to the overpass. Besides using the word “infrastructure” to try to
bring down the other party, no mention was made about improving the state of
health of infrastructure, or to acknowledge the overpass collapse as a problem and
to acknowledge that actions should be taken to prevent any recurrences.
It would not be fair to suggest that the three orders of government have not
begun to take remedial actions, but rather much too slowly. The steps being taken
are totally inadequate to address the problems that need immediate attention.
Examples of recent actions include:

ƒ The Big City Mayors’ Caucus of the FCM had proposed that a National Transit
Strategy be implemented to ensure dedicated investment ($2 billion per year by
the federal government in addition to gas tax funds and funds provided by other
infrastructure programs), incentives for transit users and research into
innovative and safety improvements, among other improvements (FCM, 2007).
ƒ Following the Johnson commission’s inquiry into the de la Concorde overpass
collapse, the Province of Quebec is taking back ownership of 4,281 bridges
from the municipalities. The Province’s goal is to bring 70% of the bridges up
to acceptable levels of safety and serviceability by 2012, and 80% by 2022. To
ensure that these objectives are met, $100 million will be spent annually for
four years (2008-2012) (Dougherty, 2008).
ƒ Under the 2008 Federal budget, $500 million will be invested into public
transit; the municipal Gas Tax Fund will become a permanent source of funding
for municipalities, which would reach $2 million by 2009-2010; and $10
million will be spent over a two year period to help clean up and repair small
harbors, which will then be divested to municipalities (Department of Finance
Canada, 2008).

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While many of these actions are positive, the Canadian Union of Public
Employees (CUPE) has evaluated some of the flaws associated with each of the
2008 budget allocations:

ƒ The funds transferred to the municipalities from the Gas Tax Fund are not
indexed to inflation or population growth. Therefore, the value of these funds
will decrease by about 3% a year;
ƒ Most of the $500 million allocated to transit systems in Canada are already
allocated to the large municipalities – Montreal, Toronto and Vancouver –
while smaller municipalities are struggling to meet their transit needs;
ƒ While the Government is providing funding for improvements of small harbors
prior to leaving these to the control of municipalities, they are not providing the
assistance for their future upkeep, only leaving communities with an increased
financial burden;
ƒ Finally, a long standing demand of transfer of 1% of the GST to the
municipalities for their infrastructure needs was not satisfied, but the
Conservative Government chose to cut the GST instead. Transferring the 1%
would have provided the municipalities with $6 billion annually (CUPE, 2008).

Further review of the 2008 budget and recent government initiatives, particularly
the latest $33 billion Building Canada Fund, its benefits and shortfalls are
presented in Chapter 5.

4.4 Industry

4.4.1. Deferred Maintenance

On June 16, 2007 the Montreal Gazette published an article entitled

“Design, Build, Forget: A Flawed Formula”, in which Professor Saeed Mirza of
the Department of Civil Engineering and Applied Mechanics at McGill University
assessed some of the most deteriorated bridges and overpasses on the Island of
Montreal. He discusses how, what he refers to as “Design, Build and Forget”,
best represents the current mind-set in civil engineering practice. As stated by

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Professor Mirza, “Maintenance? They do it. But if the government has a financial
crunch, a budgetary crisis, maintenance is deferred” (Marsden, 2007). Not only is
this way of thinking preventing a shift towards more sustainable practices, but it
has also contributed to the current infrastructure crisis. With little or no
consideration for the future upkeep of an asset at the initial planning stages of a
new project, engineers and infrastructure management are failing to provide
future generations with the tools and resources needed to better manage their
assets. Instead, assets are simply being “passed on” to future generations often
with high levels of deterioration that cannot simply be eliminated through
maintenance or minor repairs, but which require elaborate repairs or some form of
rehabilitation, at much higher costs than the costs that would have been needed if
routine maintenance had been carried out.
This current mentality must change to one of – design, build and maintain
– however, it is clear that there are inconsistencies in the way municipalities and
other organizations plan for routine maintenance of infrastructure systems, and
generally planning for maintenance is neglected altogether. It is recommended by
federal governments and private agencies in North America, including the
National Association of College and University Business Officers (NACUBO),
the National Research Council of the USA (NRC USA) and the Civil Engineering
Research Foundation (CERF) of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
that annual sustainable funding levels for maintenance should be between 2% and
4% of the current replacement value of an infrastructure asset (Vanier and
Rahman, 2004). Figure 4.2 illustrates the effects that 0%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%
maintenance levels will have on the infrastructure’s service life and quality of
service (i.e., performance levels). For example, the ‘2% maintenance’ curve
demonstrates that if the minimum recommended investment of 2% of the facility
cost is reserved to provide for routine maintenance of the facility throughout its
intended service life, the facility will operate at the minimum required service
levels throughout this intended period of time. However, if no funds are dedicated
to maintenance (‘0% maintenance’ curve), the facility will reach unacceptable
levels of safety and serviceability (lower than the minimum acceptable quality

96
level) long before the end of its service life. Depending on the facility in question,
these unacceptable levels may be attained long before its design mid-service life.
Therefore, regular maintenance would ensure that service levels are maintained at
the required levels throughout the facility service life.

2%maintenance

1.5%

1%

0%
1.00

Minimum acceptable quality

level

30 45 60
Time
(years)

Figure 4.2 Qualitative performance curves showing the impact of different

levels of maintenance on the infrastructure’s useful life and quality
level (Mirza, 2006).

In the 2004 NRC Survey on Municipal Infrastructure Assets, the

municipalities were asked to specify their current and desired levels of
maintenance expenditures, by specifying their annual maintenance expenditures
as percentages of the replacement value of their assets. Figure 4.3 presents partial
results of this survey; the responding municipalities’ actual levels of investment
are compared to their desired levels of investment. The main findings presented in
Figure 4.3 suggest that:

97
ƒ A majority of the responding municipalities (26%) spent less than 1.0% of the
replacement value of the asset on maintenance;
ƒ However, fewest municipalities (approximately 2.5%) claimed that a level of
investment of ‘less than 1.0%’ was their desired level of investment;
ƒ An alarming 21% of respondents were not even aware of their actual levels of
investment;
ƒ Therefore, together, almost half of the respondents (47%) demonstrated that
little importance is placed on annual maintenance expenditures in their
municipalities, as investment levels for maintenance are either ‘unknown’ or
below a ‘1.0% investment’ level.

Another objective of the survey was to determine if the municipalities were aware
of the recommended funding levels (between 2% and 4%). The main findings
follow:

ƒ 29 respondents (44%) were not aware of the recommendations;

ƒ 15 respondents (23%) were vaguely familiar with the recommendations; and
ƒ 22 respondents (33%) were aware of the recommendations.

The 22 municipalities who responded that they were aware of the recommended
maintenance funding levels were asked to indicate what they thought was the
recommended expenditure on maintenance. Only eight of these municipalities
indicated what they thought the recommended figure was, and seven of the eight
figures were correctly within the 2% and 4% range (Vanier and Rahman, 2004).

98
 Figure 4.3 Actual versus desired maintenance funding levels of 66 Canadian
municipalities (Vanier and Rahman, 2004).

4.4.2. Asset Condition and Worth

The following example of water and wastewater systems should clearly

highlight the difficulty in accurately ascertaining the areas of concern, as the exact
state or, in some cases the existence of underground infrastructure in some
districts are unknown. It is actually not surprising to find older pipes in these
municipalities, made of cellulose fibre impregnated with tar, ceramic or even
wood. This is particularly the case in older municipalities, which without a
complete inventory of their underground infrastructure lack the information
needed to perform a proper assessment of their municipal water and sewage
infrastructure needs.
The most common ways of rating a water supply system include recording
the number of breaks per year, per 100 km of pipe length. Presently, the Canadian
average is approximately 20 breaks/100km/year (Sipos, 2006). Another rating
method consists of recording the amount of water lost through leaking pipes.
Loses between 5 and 10% are considered good, 15 and 25% are average and more
than 30% signifies that the system is faulty (Siblin, 1999). However, again,
without a complete national inventory of the underground infrastructure, one

99
cannot accurately generalize the state of the underground infrastructure across
Canada from the results of these condition assessment techniques. It is clear that
even with responses from an infrastructure survey or a report card (which
constitutes the third method of tracking an infrastructure asset’s state of health)
one cannot determine the exact needs in a scientific manner, given the subjectivity
of the person responding to the survey and the varying condition assessment
techniques used in each municipality.
The uncertainties related to the existence and, therefore, the condition of
many assets include the lack of knowledge of the age of many assets, their
remaining useful service life, their worth and, more generally, the value of a
municipality’s infrastructure stock. These uncertainties are confirmed and
presented in Figure 4.4, which shows the municipalities’ confidence levels in the
responses provided in the 2004 NRC Survey on Municipal Infrastructure Assets.
For example, when the municipalities were asked to give the remaining useful
service life for different infrastructure assets, no municipality responded that they
were “very confident” with their response, but rather a majority (approximately
56%) said that they were “somewhat confident”. Similarly, less than 5% of
respondents felt “very confident” with their responses regarding the condition of
their assets. A majority (approximately 63%) said they were “somewhat
confident”. Confidence levels were slightly higher for other questions, such as
that concerning the municipalities’ infrastructure stock, however, while 55% felt
“confident” of the infrastructure assets they claimed to own, only 12% were “very
confident”.

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 Figure 4.4 Municipalities’ confidence levels for responses provided to the
2004 NRC Survey on Municipal Infrastructure Assets (Vanier and
Rahman, 2004).

4.5 Academia

At a time when professionals, the public and politicians are aware or

increasingly realizing that an infrastructure crisis prevails on the society, it is
imperative that new graduates entering the areas of public works are adequately
trained to accept the new challenges posed by the infrastructure crisis. While the
previous sections suggest that professionals and politicians acknowledge the
current issues and remain abreast of the ways of mitigating these issues, it is vital
that the academic institutions remain at the forefront of the societal issues and
new needs. For example, as the world is undergoing a new environmental
movement, some Universities are only now beginning to integrate courses on
sustainability and climate change into the civil engineering curricula – many have
yet to make these topics a fundamental part of a civil engineer’s development.
This implementation should be made quickly so that new graduates can
effectively deal with these issues. Most existing civil engineering programs

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should also begin to shift from one centered on design of new facilities, to one
that places equal importance on educating students on maintenance and renewal
techniques. There is an urgent need for these activities, and they must receive an
increased priority in the future.
The universities must establish the tools and resources needed to establish
courses dealing with the maintenance and upgrading of infrastructure, as well as
courses on sustainable asset management and financing. The students should be
trained to perform the condition assessments and ratings, inventory maintenance
and management of the infrastructure facilities.
Table 4.1 presents a partial list of North American organizations who deal
with various areas of infrastructure, from transportation systems, pavement and
water supply infrastructures, to bodies who deal with all infrastructure categories.
In most cases, these groups consist of professional organizations who lobby the
government for funding and other important needs related to infrastructure,
promote sharing of knowledge, ideas and best practices amongst professionals in
the field, promote and ensure research and development in key areas, act as a
central source of communication between professionals and the public for
discussion of issues related to public works, etc. This partial list is meant to
highlight the considerable research and development being carried out in this area.
What is lacking is support and resources from decision makers, who should
reconsider the role of some of the listed organizations. Efforts should be made to
allow experts at Infrastructure Canada to help government bodies in making
informed decisions when it comes to infrastructure planning, policy development,
etc.

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Table 4.1 Partial list of North American infrastructure organizations and their
primary objectives.

Infrastructure Objectives
Organization
Infrastructure Canada ƒ Build/communicate knowledge; connect
www.infrastructure.gc.ca researchers; help decision-makers; work with the
Federal, Provincial and Territorial governments
to establish needs and priorities; fund projects of
national importance under government
programs, etc.
Ontario Good Roads ƒ Advocacy, policy analysis; education and
Association training; leadership in the area of infrastructure
www.ogra.org/ asset management; develop plans, programs and
partnerships for service delivery in the area of
transportation and public works
Sustainable Infrastructure ƒ Development and application of tools and
Society resources needed for the development of
www.greenbc.org adequate management, finance and operations to
be used by water suppliers and other
organizations who service communities with
other infrastructure systems, in British Columbia
Transportation Association of ƒ Forum for the exchange of best practices,
Canada technical guidelines and ideas; promotion of best
http://www.tac-atc.ca/ practices, safety, efficiency, environmentally-
sound and financially sustainable services
Canadian Society for Civil ƒ Promotes development and exchange of
Engineering professional knowledge in all areas of civil
http://www.csce.ca engineering; maintain high standards of practice
across Canada
American Society of Civil ƒ Promotes development and exchange of
Engineers professional knowledge in all areas of civil
http://www.asce.org/asce.cfm engineering; maintain high standards of practice
across the U.S.
Amercian Public Works ƒ Educational and professional association;
Association members include public agencies, private sector
http://www.apwa.net/ companies, etc; forum for public works
professionals to exchange ideas, discuss public
works issues; promote professional excellence;
promote public awareness
American Concrete Pavement ƒ National technical initiatives (e.g., training and
Association education programs to share best practices);
http://www.pavement.com/ promotion of concrete pavements through
publications; advocating legislation that
promotes adequate financing; influence
legislative actions based on environmental
concerns; recognition of outstanding work
through awards programs; public relations –
targeting decision makers in the area of
transportation

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American Public Transportation ƒ Advocacy, innovation and information sharing;
Association represent transit agencies, public and private
http://www.apta.com/contact/ organizations, state departments of
transportation, etc.;
American Water Works ƒ Organization of water supply professionals;
Association knowledge/information sharing; advocacy to
www.awwa.org improve water supply infrastructure and water
quality

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 CHAPTER 5

FEDERAL GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS

5.1 Introduction

The federal government has developed some programs aimed at

amelioration of the deteriorated infrastructure in Canada, with the improvement
often occurring as a result of other desired objectives, such as job creation and
better access to resources. To a lesser extent, the programs aimed explicitly at
infrastructure improvements have also been implemented. Table D.1 in Appendix
D summarizes the investments, objectives, and main outcomes of some of the
major programs, acts and bills which have contributed to the shaping and renewal
of infrastructure in Canada within the last century. Earlier programs were integral
to facilitating national trade and travel across Canada, by linking the provinces
and major cities with rail and highway systems, while later programs were
primarily focused on ameliorating sanitation and reducing unemployment rates.
More recently, programs have been directed towards improving the condition of
infrastructure, encouraging private investment and promoting “green” practices.
Among these programs is the 1993 Federal Infrastructure Works
Program, which was aimed at upgrading municipal infrastructure by investing in
local communities. More precisely, the program was aimed at improving the state
of the economy by investing in short-and long-term employment creation in local
communities, in the area of infrastructure. A part of the 1996 FCM-McGill
Survey was assigned to measuring the success of the $6 billion Federal
Infrastructure Works Program. The municipalities questioned were asked to
indicate and comment on the following:

ƒ Facilities funded or improved by the program;

ƒ Projects, if any, funded by the program;
ƒ Whether the program funded some of the more important projects in their
municipality;

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 ƒ The amount of money allocated to their municipality by the program;
ƒ If the municipality cost-shared a program that they felt was important; and
ƒ The effectiveness of the program in improving the state of municipal
infrastructure.

The perceived success of this program is illustrated by the positive

response from 82% of the respondents, confirming that the program helped fund
many major projects in their municipalities, the other 18% disagreeing or feeling
unsure about whether the program led to any improvements. Moreover, the
general consensus was that the program helped improve the state of infrastructure
in Canada. However, 60% of the funds allocated to the municipalities under the
Federal Infrastructure Works Program were used for projects involving new
construction (Siddiqui, 1997). Therefore, while the municipalities stated that the
program helped fund major projects in their municipalities, the program failed to
meet its initial objectives of improving the condition of the existing deteriorated
infrastructure.
Approximately 12,000 projects were funded under this program and about
10,000 jobs were created as a result (Government of Newfoundland and Labrador,
1997). Therefore, while employment creation was successful and communities
were benefiting from the construction of new facilities, little was done to
eliminate the backlog of deteriorated infrastructure. Consequently, the five year
program had an immediate positive impact, but lacked a more sustainable
approach to improving existing facilities before the end of its duration. Many of
the programs listed in Table E.1 suffer from a similar lack of foresight.

5.2 Learning from Past Mistakes

Federal programs such as the Canada Highway Act (1919-1928) and the
Trans-Canada Highway Act (1949-1971) have had a huge impact on the lives of
Canadians, uniting Canadians and facilitating the transport of goods across the
country. These programs can be considered among the most successful
infrastructure-related government initiatives; other programs can be criticized for

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poor planning and investment decision-making. Although less successful, such
programs can help to improve formulation of future programs that stem from
safety-and sustainability considerations, with optimal allocation of funds and
catering to long-term objectives.

5.2.1. Finding New Motivations

The 1930 Unemployment Relief Act, the 1957 Roads to Resources
Program, the 1963 Municipal Development and Loan Fund, the 1977 Atlantic
Provinces Primary Highway Strengthening/Improvement Program, the 1982
Employment Creation Grants and Contributions Program and the 1993 Federal
Infrastructure Works Program all share the objectives of increasing economic
growth and reducing unemployment through public works projects. These
programs show that investing in public works has been an effective way of
improving the economy throughout the past century. Unfortunately, short-term
economic gains have driven these programs more often than the needs to increase
safety, improve the environment, and shift to more sustainable construction
practices and long-term private investment.
The program objectives listed in Table E.1 show that infrastructure has
commonly been upgraded as a result of wanting to improve employment
opportunities for Canadians. Deterioration of existing infrastructure and the
resulting tragedies clearly necessitate the need to rethink project objectives and
focus on achievement of safety standards, with economic improvements
becoming the desirable by-products. Such a shift is desirable from a political
perspective, since Canadians would feel reassured that something is being done to
ensure their safety at a time when crumbling infrastructure is a popular news item;
tragic events are recurring and as a result, lives are being lost unnecessarily.
Table E.1 illustrates that the 1919 Canada Highway Act, the 2001
Strategic Highway Infrastructure Program and the 2001 Canada Strategic
Infrastructure Fund, are a few of the major initiatives undertaken to improve
infrastructure planning and management. These programs had the objectives of
achieving more uniform road standards, improving transportation planning,

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encouraging funding partnerships and meeting climate change and sustainable
development needs. Improving maintenance procedures, ameliorating the
planning involved in infrastructure projects and developing better construction
practices to account for climate change and sustainability, should be the
motivations behind any future program.

5.2.2. Funding Allocations

Population has been the main criterion to allocate funds for projects and
programs in the past, because it is used as a rough measure of the needs of the
provinces, territories and municipalities. A larger portion of funds is allocated to
the most populated provinces and municipalities, which generally contribute the
most to the economy and to improving Canada’s image as a developed and
competitive country. Therefore, the need to improve the economy and
consequently the standard of living by improving municipal infrastructure in more
populated areas is often considered a priority. The use of population as a basis for
allocating funds for infrastructure cannot be rationalized. Larger cities are often in
greater need of infrastructure renewal due to greater use and earlier construction
of these assets, resulting in greater wear and tear. Also, these areas frequently
need technological upgrades, such as intelligent transportation system
technologies to reduce congestion and improve transportation systems, to remain
competitive.
While population remains relevant, there are other, more relevant criteria
which should be used increasingly by investment planners when prioritizing and
allocating funds for infrastructure projects. However, audits of past programs
have revealed that the information provided to investment planners is often
inadequate for appropriately allocating funds.
The deterioration and primarily the inadequate design of the 115-km
stretch of the Trans-Canada Highway between Gull Lake, Saskatchewan and the
Alberta border has been the cause of over 900 accidents and 26 deaths between
1988 and 1998. This is but one of many sections of the Trans-Canada Highway
across Canada that is described as “dangerous” by the Canadian Automobile

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Association. However, an audit performed by the Office of the Auditor General of
Canada (OAG), revealed that Transport Canada does not consider the safety
rating of road segments when requesting funding, or approval for future programs
(CBC, June 5 2007).
In Chapter 25 of a December 1998 report by the OAG: Transport Canada
– Investment in Highways, deficiencies in planning for future highway
expenditures are described. These deficiencies lie in the lack of accurate
information provided to government planners, which led to inappropriate
allocation of funds. The report states that “Transport Canada collects information
from the provinces on road accidents and incidents, but generally uses it to
compile statistics on vehicle safety and to summarize key statistics on incidents
for its annual reporting”, and not to prioritize road works (Ruta et al, 1998). The
provincial and municipal governments and concerned organizations such as the
Canadian Automobile Association do have information pertaining to dangerous
zones within the highway system, which can be used in any decision making for
future investments. However, Transport Canada does not take advantage of this
type of information and, therefore, it is not provided to federal government
officials before the programs are approved.
Part of the Highway Improvement Program that ran between 1993 and
1998, was among other programs analyzed in the OAG’s report. Again, the report
indicated the main shortcomings of the information provided to planners by
Transport Canada. Firstly, the funding requested by Transport Canada to upgrade
roads to acceptable levels was inappropriate for the funding allocations specified.
In other words, Transport Canada claimed that roads were below the minimum
national standards, but the funds requested to improve the highway system were
more appropriate for meeting new level-of-service and proposed design
requirements, which cost considerably more than the upgrades and maintenance
needed to meet the national standards. The OAG also states that in the past,
Transport Canada claimed to use “minimum national standards” to refer to actual
minimum national standards, but also to refer to the proposed design and level-of-
service improvements (Ruta et al, 1998).

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 Funding was proposed in 1997 to upgrade segments of the National
Highway System that were initially recorded as being “acceptably smooth” and
“over the acceptable engineering standards for surface roughness” – information
that was obviously not provided to investment planners. Moreover, it was found
that funds were being allocated to improve stretches of highway that already had
funds approved for them under the same program. As a result, the Auditor
General expressed the concern that allocated funds may have been used to meet
cost overruns, rather than to achieve new program objectives (Ruta et al, 1998). In
this case, scarce funding history has placed a barrier on successfully classifying
priorities. In all cases, unclear and ineffective condition assessment methods;
clearly lack the relevant information pertaining to the infrastructure condition has
led to poor investment decisions.

5.2.3. Long-Term Objectives

The duration of each of the programs listed in Table E.1 reveals the short-
term commitment of the federal government to improving the state of
infrastructure. Throughout the 1950’s, 60’s and 70’s, programs were of a longer
duration than those created today. Examples include the Trans-Canada Highway
Act (1949-1971), the Sewage Treatment Program (1961-1974) and the Road to
Resources Program (1957-1975). One can notice that beginning in the mid-1970s,
the majority of the programs created were of a shorter duration. Among the
shortest programs are the most recent, the Canada Infrastructure Works Program
(1994-1999) and the Infrastructure Canada Program (2000-2007), lasting six and
seven years, respectively. The latter two programs are also among the programs
that are aimed at improving all categories of infrastructure in all provinces and
territories. In comparison to the province-and infrastructure-specific
Newfoundland Transportation Initiative (1987-2003) and the Yellowhead
Highway Improvement Program (1987-1992), the six or seven year lifespan of the
recent two nationwide programs hardly seems adequate.
Most of the programs tend to be focused on implementing immediate
changes, with little consideration for sustained long-term improvement. Part of

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the problem lies in the country’s reliance on federal grants and contributions, both
forms of transfer payments, to finance the local infrastructure. The Treasury
Board’s June 2000 update of the Policy on Transfer Payments included “a
requirement for the renewal of terms and conditions of programs within five
years, unless otherwise approved by the Treasury Board” (Neville, 2000). The
Treasury Board is responsible for overseeing financial management functions in
departments and agencies, and of approving regulations. To gain approval by the
Treasury Board, the department seeking to renew the terms and conditions of a
program for an extended period must conduct a formal evaluation of the program
and complete a report on the effectiveness of the program. Otherwise, with federal
contribution programs not able to exceed five years without special approval,
providing assistance to the provinces/territories and the municipalities over a
longer term becomes a more difficult fragmented task.
The broader scope and shorter timeframe of some programs, such as the
Canada Infrastructure Works Program and the Infrastructure Canada Program
poses the question of clarity of the program objectives. Although the main
objectives and outcomes of each project are summarized in Table E.1, the lack of
more detailed information pertaining to program failures makes it difficult to
assess whether most program objectives have been met. However, exceptions do
exist and will be examined in the following paragraphs.
The 1963 Municipal Development and Loan Fund was created to fund
municipal capital works programs aimed at creating employment. In total, $400
million or 2,429 loans were approved for 1,262 municipalities to upgrade water
and sewer systems, schools, transportation systems, civic administration buildings
and other recreational and public facilities. A review of the available literature
shows that the Fund was allocated based on the community population. While the
Fund did generate employment, particularly in the construction industry, it could
have generated many more jobs, if the funds were allocated based on
unemployment rates, given that the main objective was to create employment
(Infrastructure Canada, June 7 2007). Therefore, while the program objective of
creating employment was defined, the program did not meet the objectives to its

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full potential because they were not properly followed through. Furthermore, this
program confirms that inefficiencies do exist when funds are allocated for certain
programs, based on community population.

5.2.4. Future Needs

Based on the successes and downfalls of the past and currently active
government programs, the following recommendations are proposed for the
improvement of future initiatives:

ƒ Public safety should prevail, above all other motives, when defining program
objectives. Meeting environmental standards and climate change objectives
should be included in the scope of all programs.

ƒ Program objectives should be clearly defined prior to the allocation of funds.

On a large scale, population and unemployment rate can be the basis for the
distribution of funds among the provinces and territories, depending on
program goals. When defining more specific project objectives within the
provinces and territories, infrastructure that poses a danger to the users should
be assigned a higher priority and it must be funded and implemented first.

ƒ Condition assessments of infrastructure facilities should be standardized

nationwide to develop infrastructure priorities. This assessment should
include a standard scale where infrastructure can be categorized based on its
safety and the risk to the public.

ƒ Federal investment planners should be given the pertinent information

necessary for prioritizing projects and allocating funds. Information provided
should include details of the facility’s condition, its safety level, and history
of funds that have been previously allocated to improving the facility, along
with a list of the repairs and improvements made.

ƒ Although program objectives should focus on improving the state of the

infrastructure, they should focus equally on improving infrastructure-related
practices. Specifically, some programs should be designated to improving
maintenance standards, improving/standardizing condition assessment

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 techniques and developing a national inventory database. Funds should also
be designated for training infrastructure management personnel and educating
them on modern practices.

Finally, recommending an ideal timeframe for a federal program depends on the

nature of the program, the influence of other policies and the exceptions, listed
under these policies (e.g., the Policy on Transfer Payments).
The 1994 Canada Infrastructure Works Program, for example, was
created to promote the development and the maintenance of various types of
infrastructure: roads, bridges, water/sewer systems and other public buildings.
While upgrading each of these types of infrastructure is urgently needed in all
parts of Canada, it is also a need that cannot be met within a six year timeframe.
The Canada Infrastructure Works Program and many others are needed to
eliminate the infrastructure crisis one step at a time. However, the improvements
brought about during the program duration will vanish quickly if the infrastructure
is not properly maintained.
The Trans-Canada Highway Act is another example of an initiative that
has benefited Canadians tremendously, by improving the country’s
competitiveness and standard of living. This Act has had one of the greatest
outcomes in Canadian history: the world’s largest national highway (7,821 km).
However, the lack of specifications pertaining to future upkeep has also been a
downfall. New branches have been added to the highway ever since its
construction was completed in 1970, but maintenance and improvements on
certain sections of the highway that needed immediate attention were deferred due
to lack of funding from the federal government. Unfortunately, as mentioned
above, many accidents have occurred and lives lost as a consequence.

5.3 The $33 Building Canada Plan

The Federal Government announced its latest infrastructure program in
2007, the $33 billion Building Canada Plan, which is to run between 2007 and
2014. Though the program is claimed to be the first of its kind, with such a high
investment, it should be noted that only $16 billion is new funding (Department of

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Finance Canada, 2007), the rest having been pledged by the previous Liberal
Government. Table 5.1 gives the breakdown of funds that will be allocated under
the Building Canada Plan. While it is refreshing and reassuring to see a program
initiated with the overall objective of improving the state of infrastructure across
the country, there are some shortfalls in the program. This becomes clearer when
each respective fund or component in the plan is further analyzed. Details of each
fund or component within the $33 billion plan are presented in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1 Breakdown of the $33B Building Canada Plan (Government of

Canada, 2007).

Municipal GST Rebate $5.8 B

ƒ Rebate has increased from 57% to 100%
ƒ Fund the maintenance and upgrading of existing infrastructure
assets
ƒ Fund new infrastructure projects
Gas Tax Fund $11.8 B
ƒ Support environmentally sustainable municipal infrastructure –
contribute to cleaner air, cleaner water, reduced GHG emissions
ƒ Eligible project categories: public transit, water and wastewater
infrastructure, community energy systems, solid waste
management, local roads and bridges that enhance
sustainability
ƒ Funding for communities to adopt long-term planning – this
will require the municipality to develop Integrated
Sustainability Plans
Building Canada Fund $8.8 B
ƒ Priority funding categories include: NHS routes, drinking
water, wastewater, public transit and green energy.
ƒ Other projects: environmental projects (solid waste
management), projects that support economic growth and
development (short-line rail and short sea shipping,
connectivity and broadband, tourism, regional and local
airports)
ƒ Development of safe and strong communities: disaster
mitigation, culture, sport, local roads and bridges, etc.
ƒ Support public infrastructure owned by provincial, territorial

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 and municipal governments, and private industry in some cases.
ƒ Funding will be allocated to the provinces and territories based
on population
ƒ All projects will be cost-shared – maximum federal
contribution of 50%, except where the infrastructure is owned
by the private sector – here the maximum contribution will be
25%
ƒ Municipal infrastructure projects shared on one-third basis
between federal, provincial and municipal governments
Public-Private Partnerships Fund $1.25 B
ƒ Support innovation projects that provide an alternative to
government infrastructure procurement
ƒ Expand infrastructure financing alternatives
ƒ Provide incentives to the private sector
ƒ Increase knowledge and expertise regarding alternative funding
sources
ƒ $25 million to establish a federal P3 office
ƒ All projects seeking over $50 million in federal funds will be
required to consider the P3 option

Gateways and Border Crossings Fund $2.1 B

ƒ Development of new gateway and corridor strategies
ƒ Eligible projects include: NHS facilities impacted by
increased trade flows, inter-modal connectors and facilities,
international bridges and tunnels, rail/road grade separations,
short-line rail, short-sea shipping, intelligent transportation
systems
ƒ $400 million to the construction of an access road for the new
Windsor Detroit Crossing

Asia-Pacific Gateway and Corridor Initiative $1.0 B

ƒ A more specific entity of the Gateways and Border Crossings
Fund

Provincial-Territorial Base Funding $2.275 B

ƒ Support the categories listed under the BCF
ƒ Support the rehabilitation of infrastructure in these categories
ƒ Federal funding cost-shared with provinces and territories

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 ƒ Ensure that smaller jurisdictions also benefit from this funding

Total $33 B

As can be seen, the first two components – the Municipal GST Rebate and
the Gas Tax Fund - are the only two of the seven that will entirely be directed to
the municipalities. Therefore, over half of the funding available under this
program, or $17.6 billion, will be allocated to the municipalities. While this figure
projects as a fair portion of the total fund going towards the municipalities, when
this figure is spread out over the program’s seven year duration, it is obvious that
the approximate $2.5 billion that will be allocated to the municipalities is
inadequate in comparison with the present $123.6 billion municipal deficit
estimate. Furthermore, it is unclear as to whether this $2.5 billion per year will be
used primarily to upgrade existing infrastructure assets, or it will be used to fund
new projects. The $5.8 billion coming from the Municipal GST Rebate alone is
said to be for both the upgrading of existing infrastructure and meeting new
infrastructure needs. Again, if this figure is divided into the seven year period, it
translates into less than $1 billion per year.
The $33 billion Building Canada Plan is a step in the right direction in
terms of its motivations and goals. The plan is developed with the objective of
improving the state of assets but unlike past programs, it is also meant to improve
project planning and management through the following:

ƒ The Public-Private Partnership Fund which will:

o Improve and encourage the use of non-traditional financing
alternatives;
o Help establish a P3 office to facilitate the use of this funding
alternative;
o Establish requirements for project planners to turn to P3s as a
funding alternative when seeking over $50 million in federal funds;
and

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 o Help expand knowledge of the use of P3s and other viable
financing alternatives.

ƒ The Gas Tax Fund which will:

o Help support sustainable infrastructure projects that will ensure
reduced GHG emissions and contribute to the reduction of air and
water pollution;
o Encourage communities to focus on more long-term planning by
developing Integrated Sustainability Plans to help achieve their
long-term sustainability goals (Government of Canada, 2007).

While the latter points seem rather vague, the last point is also an example of an
initiative with no mention of standardizing long-term planning techniques for the
various municipalities. The municipalities will be required to report on their
progress and use of this fund. No initiative is being taken, however, to help
implement a long-term sustainability plan in each community. An ideal plan
would help municipalities incorporate sustainable practices in their current
management practices, such as life cycle analysis, routine maintenance and the
required social and environmental impact analyses needed for the development of
new sustainable infrastructure projects.
The new plan represents a significant effort by trying to incorporate long-
term sustainable practices, consideration for the reduction of GHG emissions, and
improved financing through alternative funding alternatives, and increased cost-
sharing between the three levels of government. However, the program is deficient
in not specifying appropriate allocation of funds, such as the lack of specifications
pertaining to the allocations for existing and new infrastructure projects.
Furthermore, the new initiative is frequently described as being one of a kind
because of long-term goals. However, it is yet another infrastructure funding
program with a specified duration and a specified fund. Provision of $33 billion
over a seven-year period is clearly insufficient at a time when it is clear that the
country is experiencing an infrastructure crisis and has to deal with a compounding

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deficit, while attempting to incorporate environmental and sustainability
considerations and the impact of climate change, which have been recognized as
crucial components of infrastructure planning only recently. The Government has
yet to establish a sustained infrastructure fund that will provide continuous funding
for the maintenance, repair and rehabilitation of existing infrastructure assets, and
that will be complementary to future funding programs aimed at more specific
projects and goals.

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 CHAPTER 6

SUSTAINABLE INFRASTRUCTURE-ASSET MANAGEMENT

6.1 Introduction

Various tools are needed to help practitioners achieve sustainable

infrastructure planning and decision-making. Legislation and guidelines that
regulate and encourage the use of a standardized asset management (AM)
framework across Canada is urgently needed, if the infrastructure crisis is to be
eliminated. Subsequently, successful implementation of the practices outlined in
the guidelines can only be achieved with the assistance of a comprehensive AM
information system. Some sources have presented state-of-the-art papers
describing the benefits and the shortfalls of existing infrastructure-asset
management systems (IAMS). The main challenges posed by available IAMSs
are presented and the major needs in the area of infrastructure AM are
summarized. This Chapter proposes an ideal IAMS that addresses the present
shortfalls and needs. The recommended model supports facilitated
implementation and maintenance of the IAMS.
A clearer understanding of the infrastructure deficit and the sub-deficits
for the various asset types requires a detailed inventory of infrastructure assets,
their existing condition and the risks posed by them to public safety, public and
environmental health, and productivity, which are directly related to the economy,
the international competitiveness of our country and the quality of life of
Canadian citizens. These problems of funding constraints and the strong need to
tackle the serious deterioration problems can be solved only with a strong
national commitment and implementation of effective AM programs across
Canada.

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6.2 Why Asset Management?

Hudson et al (1997) define AM as “the systematic, coordinated planning

and programming of investments or expenditures, design, construction,
maintenance, operation, and in-service evaluation of physical facilities” and
IAMS as “the operational package (methods, procedures, data, software, policies,
decisions, etc.) that links and enables the carrying out of all activities involved in
infrastructure management” (Hudson et al, 1997). Municipalities and
organizations are increasingly adopting AM systems with increased privatization
of infrastructure and public-private partnerships: AM helps “safeguard” the
investments made by stakeholders. Also, as a result of the United States
Government Accounting Standards Board (GASB) and the Canadian Public
Sector Accounting and Auditing Board (PSAB) requirements that the value of
tangible capital assets must be recorded within annual government statements
(Falls et al, 2004).
Many software development companies are providing “asset
management” systems with data storage capabilities and the ability to produce
spreadsheets, charts/graphs and reports that facilitate analysis of this data for the
common aspects of project planning (e.g., procurement, scheduling, etc). These
vary between “general-purpose” and “asset-specific” software (Halfawy et al,
2006). The majority of the IAMSs support management operations, but they fail
to encourage long-term planning, thereby maintaining the current mentality of
“design, build and forget”, which must be changed to one of “design, build and
maintain”.
The City of Edmonton is a leader in long-term planning approaches.
Through its Office of Infrastructure (2000), the City of Edmonton maintains a
complete inventory of all assets and financial data, and has developed a risk
assessment methodology, a life cycle costing protocol, and a standardized
condition rating scheme (based on letter grades) among other much needed tools.
The latter has required that the City “translate” asset-specific condition ratings
already employed by specific departments (e.g., the use of a Pavement Quality

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Index by the Transportation and Streets Department), by defining conversions
between ratings within a computer application. This is one way in which the City
has addressed the challenge posed by the varying data, analysis and modeling
needs for the different infrastructure categories/sub-categories (Cloake and Siu,
2002), providing for more integrated planning between the infrastructure
categories.

6.3 Present Challenges

Between 2003 and 2007, the National Research Council’s (NRC) Institute
for Research in Construction (IRC) evaluated several existing AM and associated
information systems (Table 6.1) and noted the following:
ƒ Difficulties of developing AM techniques, and educating professionals and the
public in the short-term (Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Difficulties of integrating new information systems with existing databases,
financial information management systems, etc. (Vanier and Danylo, 1998);
ƒ A strong need to shift the mind-set of academia from the present focus on
“design” to a much needed focus on “renewal” practices (Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Sparse guidance available in implementing sustainable infrastructure strategies
(Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Lack of a central information source on AM (Vanier and Danylo, 1998);
ƒ Lack of infrastructure AM codes, standards or guidelines (Vanier et al, 2005)
(e.g., The InfraGuide, produced by the FCM, the NRC and Infrastructure
Canada).

Specific needs include:

Economic
ƒ Implementing life-cycle analysis and costing as standard, routine practices
(Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Including valuation and deprecation as key factors in the life-cycle analysis;

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ƒ Identifying sustainable funding levels to ensure routine maintenance for the
different infrastructure types (Vanier et al, 2005).

Technical
ƒ Developing deterioration models to assist in equitable project prioritization
(Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Adopting standard practices to evaluate the remaining service life of
infrastructure assets (Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Uniform standardization of condition assessment techniques and rating
schemes for improved project prioritization (Vanier et al, 2005);
ƒ Adopting objective condition assessment and condition rating techniques, to be
compatible with clear, pre-defined management methodologies, defect
condition ratings and measurement scales (PSAB, 2007); and
ƒ Developing management information systems that facilitate integrated
management of assets (Vanier et al, 2005).

Technological
ƒ Encouraging the development of information systems by software companies
working closely with professionals who work in the domain of municipal works
to ensure the most comprehensive and satisfactory systems;
ƒ Facilitating the continual maintenance and upgrading of management systems.

Others
ƒ Ensuring the available funding and other resources necessary for
implementation of IAMS;
ƒ Incorporating existing and new environmental regulations;
ƒ Adapting to the needs of climate change;
ƒ Catering to urban and rural needs within one system;

Finally, there are associated social and political issues that pose many challenges.
The Government must commit to a sustained program to address and mitigate all

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issues presented, and fund programs to develop legislation, information systems
and implementation strategies to support these as standard management practices.

6.4 Asset Management on an International Scale

The Australian and the New Zealand Governments have shown strong
commitments to IAMSs since the early 1990’s, the AM guidelines and manuals,
legislation and programs have, become widely accepted in both countries. Some
highlights follow:

ƒ The Australian National Audit Office (ANAO), the National Public Works
Council Inc. and various State Government departments publish and maintain
AM guidelines and manuals (Shah et al, 2004).

ƒ Victoria, Tasmania, Queensland and Western Australia have all implemented

AM improvement programs aimed at increasing the knowledge of council staff
on the subject of AM. Such programs have focused on improving the
understanding of asset and service level characterization, and methods of
funding prioritization among many other topics (NSW DLG, 2006).

ƒ In 2005, the Local Government (Financial Management and Rating)

Amendment Act was passed by the South Australian Parliament, requiring that
all councils “incorporate long-term financial plans and asset management plans
in their strategic plans, establish audit committees, and consult with their
communities on annual programs and budgets” (NSW DLG, 2006).

ƒ Western Australia’s Local Amendment Act (1995) requires that councils

develop two year asset management plans for the future and that these be
maintained and updated every two years. These future plans must be taken into
consideration in preparing the council annual budgets (NSW DLG, 2006).

ƒ New Zealand’s Local Government Amendment Act (1996) requires that

councils prepare long-term financial plans (10 years) and that these be reviewed
every three years. In addition, the 2002 Amendment Act specifies that all local

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 governments develop and abide by the asset management practices within a
long-term community plan. These include the requirements to identify assets, to
identify the procedures that will be undertaken to maintain, renew and replace
assets, and to identify the funding plans for these activities (NSW DLG, 2006).

Therefore, since the early 1990’s, Australia and New Zealand have led the
way in using sustainable decision- making tools, including development of AM
guidelines, manuals, and related legislation and programs. Other countries have
also been implementing IAMSs for some years, however, in many cases these
systems are asset specific and lack the integration capabilities necessary for
complete project prioritization at a national scale. For example, the U.S.’s Federal
Highway Administration (FHWA) and the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) have worked closely together
to provide state and local transportation agencies with the technical assistance and
training needed to implement specific IAMSs, including the various Pavement
Management Systems (PMS) and Bridge Management Systems (BMS).
The Australian literature reveals that, similar to the U.S., state manuals
and information systems vary, making it difficult to co-ordinate management
practices at the state and the national levels (PSAB, 2007). The latter highlights a
major need in the development of an ideal IAMS for Canada: IAMSs should
support the use of consistent AM practices and data recording between the
provinces, territories and municipalities. For example, if one municipality groups
sewer systems and stormwater systems in one classification, it is difficult to
compare the needs of other municipalities who keep records of both asset types
separate, which adds to the difficulty of adequately prioritizing the needs. One
system that supports the implementation of standard practices would be ideal, but
it would require that aspects of the system be customizable to account for varying
demographics, environmental conditions and new regulations, population growth,
activities/lifestyles, local needs, etc.

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6.5 Existing AM Systems

Principal highlights of a representative sample of typical systems used in

North America are summarized in Table 6.1. If these highlights are combined to
form one system, the system’s framework would consist of three main groups of
features: software, management and technical. The first group comprises
attractive features of the software itself, such as the characteristics of being web-
based, GIS-based, easily integrated to other common applications, etc. (Column 1
in Table 6.1). The management features include those that support long-term
planning and the ability to store AM protocols. The largest group is the last - the
technical features – which enable all data modeling, analysis and reporting. The
software features are generally common to all systems, while the management
and, increasingly, the technical features are particular to only a few systems.
Therefore, while some key components of IAMS are listed in Table 6.1, these
aspects are limited to only a few systems, and therefore they benefit a few
municipalities and organizations.
Two components in a typical framework proposed by Lemer (2000) are
particularly lacking in North American systems: renewal engineering and capital
investment strategy. It is important that future systems provide for distinction
between the management of renewal projects and new construction. The 1993 $6
billion Federal Infrastructure Works Program was partly aimed at upgrading
existing municipal infrastructure by investing in local communities and was
partly used to create jobs in the area of municipal works to improve the state of
the economy. At the end of the program, it was found that 60% of funds were
utilized towards new construction, thereby not meeting a major project objective.
There is an urgent need to maintain, rehabilitate and replace much of the existing
crumbling infrastructure that poses a threat to public safety and productivity.
Prioritizing renewal projects over new construction in many cases therefore
represents another significant challenge. An IAMS that supports long-term
forecasting and risk assessment of renewal versus new construction projects is
urgently needed. The latter would sustain the much needed shift in the current
focus of the academia and the industry on “design” to a focus on “renewal”.

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6.6 A Proposed AM System

A framework for an ideal IAMS, aimed at municipalities and

organizations across Canada, is proposed in Figure 6.1. It is important that the
system can be easily customized to incorporate the considerable local variations,
and that some features be standardized. Furthermore, it is essential that such a
program be developed, maintained, and managed by a central focus group, an
interdisciplinary group of experts who would act as a central source of
information for practitioners across Canada and who would be responsible for
updating the system at regular intervals.
The system has been divided according to the three main system features
presented earlier: software, management and technical. These have further been
sub-divided into sub-features, modules (groups of data manipulation and analysis
functions that are accessed through multiple views) (Halfawy et al, 2006) and
sub-modules (multiple-view features, where functions are limited in comparison
to those in a module). Each has been numbered, as a brief review of the
usefulness and importance of each component of the proposed system follows.

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Table 6.1 Main highlights of common North American IAMSs (data from Halfawy et al, 2006).

System Highlights System System Highlights System

Extensive modeling capabilities:

ƒ asset valuation
ƒ deferred maintenance
ƒ RIVA
Web-based ƒ Synergen ƒ remaining service life
ƒ Infrastructure2000
ƒ condition assessment
ƒ rehabilitation and maintenance
prioritization

GIS-based ƒ City Works (2005) Extensive reporting capabilities ƒ MIMS

System contains its own GIS ƒ Municipal Infrastructure

Availability of pre-formatted reports ƒ MIMS
functionality Management System (MIMS)

Ability to modify GIS viewing to ƒ MIMS Contains standard structural

ƒ MIMS
show desired features condition ratings

Work orders and assets can be

ƒ City Works (2005) Production of deterioration curves ƒ Infrastructure2000
spatially linked to street addresses

Browser-based Internet access to Capability to compare funding

ƒ City Works (2005) ƒ Infrastructure2000
the asset geo-database scenarios based on pre-defined
deterioration models
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Table 6.1 (Continued)
System Highlights System System Highlights System

Models the impacts of various

Program installation on a server or ƒ Real-Time Asset Valuation maintenance and rehabilitation
ƒ RIVA
hosted by the supplier Analysis (RIVA) (2005) project options on deferred
maintenance

Project prioritization based on

Interfaces with external ƒ Synergen
various criteria:
applications (e.g., GIS systems, ƒ RIVA
ƒ funding ƒ Harfan
email, Supervisory Control and ƒ Hansen
ƒ condition rating ƒ Hansen
Automatic Data Acquisition ƒ Harfan
ƒ available renewal options
Systems – SCADA)
ƒ remaining service life, etc

Models and formulas can be

Possibility to email work order and
ƒ City Works (2005) altered and their outputs are ƒ RIVA
service requests to personnel
automatically changed

ƒ Synergen
Includes a search engine ƒ MIMS Supports asset valuation ƒ Hansen

ƒ Synergen
ƒ MIMS Asset valuation based on
Data import/export capabilities ƒ RIVA
ƒ RIVA integrated economic factors
ƒ Hansen
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Table 6.1 (Continued)

System Highlights System System Highlights System

Capability to customize
ƒ Synergen Deferred maintenance calculated
ƒ Asset classes
ƒ City Works (2005) based on pre-defined best ƒ RIVA
ƒ Viewing options
ƒ RIVA practices
ƒ Schemas

System design is flexible – Determines extent of deferred

ƒ Harfan (2005) ƒ Hansen
therefore easily subject to change maintenance

ƒ RIVA
Supports long-term planning Generates event priority lists ƒ RIVA
ƒ Harfan

Includes condition assessment

ƒ Harfan Estimated remaining service life ƒ Infrastructure2000
protocols, but these can also be
defined by the user

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 6.5.1 Software

6.5.1.1 6.5.1.2 GIS 6.5.1.3 6.5.1.4 Search 6.5.1.5 Pre-

Web-based functionality Application Engine formatted reports
integration

6.5.2 Management

6.5.2.1 6.5.2.2 6.5.2.3 Manual of 6.5.2.4

Instructions Definitions Best Practices Protocols

M6.5.2.1 M6.5.2.2 M6.5.2.3 M6.5.2.4

Data - Assets Data – Finance Data – Projects Project Planning

M6.5.4.1
Reporting

6.5.3 Technical

S6.5.3.1 Level of S6.5.3.2 S6.5.3.3 S6.5.3.4

deferred maintenance Condition Performance History
A t Assessment

S6.5.3.1 Remaining S6.5.3.2 S6.5.3.3 Safety S6.5.3.4

service life Condition rating rating Events

M6.5.3.1 M6.5.3.2 M6.5.3.3 M6.5.3.3

Asset valuation Risk Life-Cycle Failure analysis
assessment analysis

M6.5.4.2 Modeling

M6.5.4.3 Project
Prioritization
Figure 6.1 Proposed IAMS framework (M – Module, S – Sub-module).

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6.6.1. Software

6.6.1.1. Web-Based

ƒ Economical and time-efficient: the system can be hosted/maintained by the supplier and
managed/updated by the central focus group.
ƒ Initial investment may be high, yet smaller municipalities and organizations in particular, do
not have to worry about the time, costs and headaches associated with installing of the
software on their servers.
ƒ Internet access facilitates project management: designated personnel have access to the system
at any time and place (e.g., in the field).
ƒ Work assignments or other data can easily be e-mailed to clients or personnel.

6.6.1.2. GIS Functionality

ƒ Spatial and non-spatial data is combined in one database, eliminating the need for data
duplication or verification. One can simply place their cursor over a road-map and select the
asset for which data is to be displayed, using different modules of information for this
particular asset.
ƒ Links street addresses to various assets for convenience of the administrators. For example, in
the event of a watermain breakage, one can easily identify which addresses are serviced by the
pipe, enabling quick identification of the households that must receive notifications and boil-
water advisories (Halfawy et al, 2006).

6.6.1.3. Application Integration

ƒ Import-export and interfacing capabilities with the most commonly used software supporting
data spreadsheets, financing and other present management practices.
ƒ Equipped for digital photo storage and interface capabilities with multimedia applications
(e.g., Windows Media Player, QuickTime Player, etc.) that can support video storage for
improved visual information sharing.

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 6.6.1.4. Search Engine

ƒ Enables rapid searching for asset or project information that fulfills certain criteria (e.g.,
searching for all roads with a specified condition rating, which will help in transportation
project prioritization).

6.6.1.5. Pre-Formatted Reports

ƒ Ready-made and customizable report layouts assist in the standardization of practices.
ƒ Ensures uniformity of data-keeping and modeling.

6.6.2. Management

6.6.2.1. Instructions

ƒ Provides detailed instructions and “help” features, similar to those available in Microsoft
Office.
ƒ Useful for encouraging IAMS use and for training of new personnel.

6.6.2.2. Definitions

ƒ Enables uniformity of definitions of terms. For example, infrastructure renewal projects are
clearly classified as ‘maintenance’, ‘repair’, ‘rehabilitation’ or ‘replacement’ in the inventory
system. These distinctions should clearly be defined and based on the extent of the asset’s
modification.
ƒ The main infrastructure categories and sub-categories are clearly defined for accurate
classification.

6.6.2.3. Manual of Best Practices

ƒ Complements the IAMS, supporting standard practices.

ƒ Must be maintained and updated with new protocols, legislations and best-practices.
ƒ Available online through the IAMS, enabling easy access to all users and online updating by
the central focus group, eliminating the need for installation of new software or the publication
of new manuals.

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 6.6.2.4. Protocols

ƒ The regular maintenance and updating of the protocol directory is essential given the
dependence of subsequent modules on the defined protocols.
ƒ All of the standardized practices, e.g., condition ratings, historical and financial records, and
minimum specified service levels (engineering and environmental) are specified in this
directory for consultation and guidance.

M6.5.2.1 Data – Assets

ƒ Sections are labeled as physical attributes (age, materials, size, photos, videos, etc.), condition
(i.e., assessment details), construction specifications (year, contractors and relevant contact
information), upgrade specifications (year, type, details of contractor), etc.
ƒ Pre-formatted data entry tables encourage and assist practitioners in keeping a detailed
inventory of all assets, but are customizable.
ƒ All data are spatially linked and easily accessed from a GIS map.
ƒ Data may also be viewed from a list for convenience, with multiple viewing options (e.g.,
viewing of all infrastructure categories/sub-categories, specific categories, infrastructure
networks, criteria-based viewing).

M6.5.2.2 Data – Finance

ƒ Similar to the Data – Assets module: financial data consists of general infrastructure financial
reports and budget history, but also data that was input in the asset valuation and life-cycle
costing module and sub-module, respectively.
ƒ Includes different views: full budget, operating expenditures and maintenance budget views;
financial data by infrastructure type, sub-type, asset type, etc.; financial data by project; etc.

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 M6.5.2.3 Data – Projects

ƒ Assists project managers in keeping abreast of project details (e.g., procurement and
scheduling sub-modules).
ƒ Can view upcoming projects by date, type, priority level, location, etc.

M6.5.2.4 Project planning

ƒ Focuses on the preliminary phases of project planning, feasibility studies and tendering
process.
ƒ Considered a basis for the Data – Projects module.
ƒ Through the system’s email capability, the user is notified of upcoming projects (e.g., routine
inspection and maintenance needed) and deadlines.

6.6.3. Technical

S6.5.3.1 Level of deferred maintenance and remaining service life

ƒ Methods of determining deferred maintenance exist: The RIVA model involves pre-defining
best practices and measuring the level of deferred maintenance based on the extent for which
the practices were followed (Halfawy et al, 2006), while the more accurate NACUBO model
consists of ranking an asset with a facility condition index (FCI), equal to the cost of deferred
maintenance divided by the capital replacement value (CRV). An FCI should normally remain
below 0.15 (Vanier and Danylo, 1998). Other possible models should be investigated, though
the last has been efficient for many municipalities.
ƒ Based on the level of deferred maintenance and data from the asset valuation module, the
remaining service life of the asset can be determined.

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 M6.5.3.1 Asset Valuation

ƒ Comprises valuation procedures and spreadsheets for various asset types (more research is
required in this area and in incorporating depreciation into this process).
ƒ As in other modules comprising spreadsheets, formulas for automated calculation of values
can be incorporated into the system and altered at any time by the central focus group (e.g.,
change inflation rates within formulas), which automatically changes existing values and data
modules.

S6.5.3.2 Condition Assessment and Rating

ƒ The best practices manual will include condition assessment techniques and standard condition
ratings for each asset type. Protocols for condition rating are provided in the management
framework.
ƒ The City of Edmonton’s rating scheme considers physical rating, demand/capacity and
functionality - this can be used as an ideal example (Cloake and Siu, 2002).
ƒ Data updates in the condition rating modules automatically generate changes in the level of
risk posed by an asset on the society, environment, etc.

M6.5.3.2 Risk Assessment

ƒ The risk of a system failure is based on probability and statistics related to the technical data.
ƒ Considers the impact of such a failure on the society in terms of safety, health, productivity,
the economy, the environment and international competitiveness.
ƒ Evaluates the risks of the various projects and life-cycle assessments.

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 S6.5.3.3 Performance Assessment and Safety Rating

ƒ Analysis of the asset’s level of performance based on condition assessment and rating, present
worth, public complaints (an inventory would be maintained here) and safety ratings, based on
the number of accidents, deaths and illnesses caused by an asset’s condition.

M6.5.3.3 Life-Cycle Analysis

ƒ Must include life-cycle costing and risk analysis.

ƒ An asset is analyzed from the preliminary phases of project planning to the decommissioning
of the asset.
ƒ Supports the definition of sustainable development. Future generations would not be left with
a backlog of deterioration and an escalating infrastructure deficit if routine maintenance is
specifically included for in the initial project planning phase.
ƒ Research and information sharing for the development of associated protocols are needed.

S6.5.3.4 History and Events

ƒ Includes detailed performance records of the assets when subjected to natural or man-made
disasters over the course of its service life.
ƒ Extreme weather patterns are recorded to help in evaluating the risk of associating
infrastructure damage, or failure to one of these extreme events.
ƒ The need for such a module will increase with the looming climate change.

M6.5.3.4 Failure Analysis

ƒ Includes analysis and evaluation of the probable cause(s) of failure, along with the
recommendations for improved risk mitigation.
ƒ Recommendations can be used to improve the best practices manual and, consequently, the
IAMS protocols.

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6.6.4. Decision-Making Tools

ƒ Decision-making will be made simpler with the use of the reports, modeling and project
prioritization modules.

M6.5.4.1 Reports

ƒ Includes report templates: financial, technical, environmental, etc.

ƒ Data may be drawn from the various modules for report formulation.

M6.5.4.2 Modeling

ƒ Comprised within the ‘technical’ portion of the system’s framework to enable forecasting,
comparisons, or further analysis of the various assessments within the modules such as, risk,
life-cycle performance and failure;
ƒ Enables modeling of the impact of various renewal options on deferred maintenance renewal
and new construction options on funds, society/business productivity, the environment, etc., of
alternative funding allocations on deterioration, etc;
ƒ Deterioration forecasts are modeled based on the present levels of deferred maintenance,
minimum acceptable service levels, projected funding, increased use, etc.;
ƒ The user is required to specify whether the data being modeled pertains to an existing asset, or
a new structure, which in turn would present the user with appropriate modeling options and
access to the relevant data. Upgrading the existing needs and keeping new needs separately
will permit improved project prioritization.

M6.5.4.3 Project prioritization

ƒ Is improved considerably because of the extensive inventory, and the report/analysis and
modeling capabilities;
ƒ Is based on all of the modules presented in this chapter;
ƒ Priority lists can be generated automatically using sophisticated software.

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6.7 Summary and Recommendations

An IAMS for municipalities and organizations in Canada should comprise standardized

practices and customizable features that would improve project prioritization and related funding
allocations at the national level. The development of best practices, a complementing manual and
a supporting information system requires extensive work of an interdisciplinary group of
professionals dealing with different areas of infrastructure management. These tools would
provide municipalities and organizations with a structured approach to tackling their local
infrastructure issues and associated deficits. Such a system would be more comprehensive than
any current system because it comprises all of the modules necessary for the development of a
detailed inventory of all assets and all management practices. This IAMS would also support the
much needed shift to a ‘design, build and maintain’ philosophy, which is a more sustainable
long-term infrastructure AM approach.

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 CHAPTER 7

FINANCING OF INFRASTRUCTURE

“Infrastructure policy should require the fair allocation of costs among all
levels of government and users. Federal investment in public infrastructure
has declined substantially in over the last three decades, so that state and
local governments now spend nearly three times as much as their federal
counterpart on infrastructure […] A national infrastructure financing facility
is needed to serve as the window through which states and localities may
obtain financing or grants for specific projects. A federal investment vehicle
of this kind would address many wasteful tendencies in infrastructure
provision and redirect policy towards promoting overall returns on
investment” (Dodd and Hagel, 2007).

7.1 Common Funding Mechanisms

The revised 2007 estimate of the municipal infrastructure deficit of $123.6

billion for upgrading needs and $115.2 billion for new needs has proven that
investment in infrastructure has been highly insufficient (Mirza, 2007).
Maintenance of Canada’s infrastructure assets at acceptable levels of safety and
serviceability has been neglected and, very often, new needs have been ignored
due to insufficiency of funds. Considerable new investments must be made in
infrastructure to support a superior quality of life for all Canadians. The three
orders of government are beginning to feel this financial pressure, as is the public
who fears the many possible negative consequences that the present state of
infrastructure may pose. At this crucial time, it is essential to re-evaluate the way
infrastructure has traditionally been financed and to begin to turn to more
innovative and sustainable sources of financing. With innovative funding
techniques, it is hoped that:

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ƒ More money will be diverted towards infrastructure needs;
ƒ That more money will be available to finance not only maintenance and
upgrading activities, but that sources will be available to promote and begin
implementing initiatives to improve and standardize asset management
practices across the country, including life-cycle costing and analysis; and
ƒ That an initial significant investment will be made to establish infrastructure
financing facilities as sustained funding sources, which will also promote
permanent adoption of innovative funding practices, even in times of
prosperity.

The traditional and most common infrastructure funding mechanisms are

reviewed in Table 7.1, and the main advantages and disadvantages of each are
outlined in Table 7.2.

Table 7.1 Review of traditional infrastructure funding mechanisms

(information retrieved from Slack, 1996 unless otherwise noted)

Funding Mechanism Details

Taxes Property taxes, which can vary from one community
to another make up the largest source of income for
municipalities.
ƒ General tax rates: revenues fund general
expenditures
ƒ Special rates: while applicable to all taxpayers,
revenues are allocated to specific projects or
purposes
ƒ Local improvement charges (or special
assessments): collected from properties who will
benefit from a particular project or service in its
vicinity
ƒ Special area rates: in areas receiving a particular
service
Special Finance Districts An organized – governmental – autonomous entity
(other than a municipality) that offers services (e.g.
boards, authorities, commissions, etc.). Revenues
come from user fees, property taxes, special
assessments and provincial grants; depending on the
type:
ƒ Tax increment financing (TIF): Taxes increase
with increased property value and these are used to

140
 pay for capital projects (improvements or new)
ƒ Special benefit assessment: Taxes are collected
from property owners that will benefit from the
infrastructure, or service improvements
ƒ Local improvement: Similar to the previous item,
but in addition to taxes, debt financing is also used
to pay for the infrastructure

User Fees The user of the infrastructure is charged for its use.
Fees go towards the operating costs of the facility or
service. Different types of pricing exist:
ƒ Marginal cost pricing: to ensure efficient allocation
of funds and that the use of the infrastructure is not
excessive, the price equals marginal cost
ƒ Increasing block pricing: price increases or
decreases with an increase or decrease in use,
respectively. For example, with increasing water
use, the charge per unit of water increases. The
opposite is true.
ƒ Decreasing block pricing: price decreases with
increased use of a commodity. The opposite is
true.
ƒ Two-part tariffs: a monthly or annual fee that does
not change with consumption, in addition to a flat
rate per unit of consumption.
(CMHC, 1992)
Bond Financing The municipality issues bonds to finance the
infrastructure. The bonds are secured with user fees
or property taxes.
Development charges The developer is charged for infrastructure that is
needed as a result of a development or
redevelopment – or growth.
Pure Privatization A private company design, builds, owns, operates
and finances the infrastructure
Public-Private A joint venture between the government and one or
Partnerships (P3) more private companies; costs, risks and income are
shared depending on the partnership aggreement1
Borrowing Also known as debt financing; municipalities borrow
funds to pay for major capital projects and repay
funds with operating revenues (e.g. property taxes,
user fees)
1
There exist different forms of public-private partnerships. These are described in
Section 7.2.1.

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 Table 7.2 Advantages and disadvantages of common funding techniques
(information retrieved from Slack, 1996 unless otherwise noted)

Advantages Disadvantages
Property Tax
ƒ A “visible” tax: paid directly to the ƒ Capital projects are competing with
government by the taxpayer and other essential service (e.g. police,
projects/services financed by the tax fire) for funding allocation
are visible ƒ Unfairness of commercial/industrial
buildings paying higher property
taxes, when they benefit from fewer
services
Special Assessment and Local Improvement Charges
ƒ New or renewed infrastructure near a ƒ Lengthy process: involved
property increases the property’s negotiations and lengthy paperwork
value
Special Area Rates
ƒ Land value capture taxes: increases ƒ Difficult to estimate public
property value, often without expenditure and changes in property
improvements to the property values
Special Financing Districts
ƒ Equality: the person ƒ Limited to areas undergoing rapid
paying/demanding for the growth
improvement is benefiting from the ƒ Governmental fragmentation
improvement ƒ Public confusion due to possibly
ƒ Long-term financing, as opposed to numerous agencies, authorities, etc.
up-front payments
ƒ Do not have to rely on revenues of
local governments
ƒ A way of targeting certain services
to specific groups
Fees
ƒ Fees are linked to the use of the ƒ Over-consumption, overuse and abuse
infrastructure, thereby maintaining of infrastructure and services provided
adequate levels of serviceability ƒ Possible negative effect on consumer
ƒ More efficient use of resources and behavior (e.g. suburban sprawl or
less “over-consumption” of services urbanization with tolls)
and facilities ƒ Rarely reflects marginal costs, which
ƒ Reduce the demand for certain is considered more efficient
services (e.g. water and
bridges/highways)
Bond Financing
ƒ More effective for large ƒ Small communities typically have
municipalities that have a good bond higher interest rates, because they are
rating and low interest rates, thereby typically not rated
attracting more investors (CMHC, 1992)

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ƒ Inversely related to interest rates:
during periods when interest rates
are high, short-term bonds are a
better alternative than long-term debt
financing
(CMHC, 1992)
Development Charges
ƒ Money is spent efficiently: new ƒ Cover construction costs, but not
infrastructure is only built if there is maintenance costs (these are collected
a demand through user fees, or general revenues)
ƒ Equity is affected: some consumers ƒ Double taxation for new property
may not be in a position to pay for owners (paying for new infrastructure
the service with development charges and for
(CMHC, 1992) existing infrastructure with property
taxes)
ƒ May limit growth in a community
(CMHC, 1992)
Pure Privatization
ƒ Faster project completion ƒ Possible difficulty in acquiring initial
ƒ Cost savings (idea that private firms financing
are more cost-efficient than the ƒ The private sector bears all risks (risky
public sector) for the public sector when considering
ƒ Economic development the regulations that govern the private
ƒ The user pays for the service sector, for example environmental
ƒ The private sector bears all risks regulations, etc.)
(good for the public sector) (CMHC, 1992)
(CMHC, 1992)
Public-Private Partnerships (P3)
ƒ Take advantage of public funds; no ƒ Risk posed by depending on private
need for up-front capital costs from sector; potential quality control
government problems
ƒ Use of tax benefits (which the public ƒ Loss of control by the public sector
sector cannot use) by the private ƒ Possible union problems
sector ƒ Cutbacks in government jobs
ƒ Use of private sector resources, skills
and expertise
Borrowing
ƒ Enjoy the benefits of new projects ƒ Paying interest
that are not always possible with ƒ Revenues are not available for use
existing funds other than for debt repayment
ƒ Avoid large fluctuations in yearly tax ƒ The amount of debt can affect the
rates municipality’s credit rating –
ƒ Cost is spread over future increasing capital costs
beneficiaries

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7.2 Innovative Financing Alternatives

7.2.1. Public-Private Partnerships

Public-private partnerships or P3s were described in Table 7.1: they are

joint ventures between the public sector and one or more private sector
companies. P3s can take many forms; the main ones are briefly described in Table
7.2, as are the various risks and responsibilities shared by each party for each of
the various types. The main benefit of a P3 is the ability to take advantage of what
each party has to offer, whether it is funds or skills and expertise. Furthermore,
there is greater opportunity to plan for one party’s involvement with the asset
maintenance costs throughout its life-cycle. Lastly, P3s can be used to finance the
various infrastructure types, whereas financing through tolls or other user fees, for
example, are better suited for particular infrastructure types.
While P3s are increasingly being considered in Canada, they have not yet
become common practice, as they have in many other countries, especially in
Europe. The Confederation Bridge spanning between New Brunswick and Prince
Edward Island is one example of a recent Canadian P3 project, of the form of
Design-Build-Operate-Transfer (DBOT). The bridge was designed and built by a
private international firm, which will also operate and maintain the bridge for a
35-year period with revenues collected from the tolls during that period. Initial
capital for the project was provided by the public sector: a New Brunswick Crown
Corporation funded the project by issuing bonds and the Government of Canada
will continue to secure these bonds with annual payments of $41.9 million over
the 35 year period, after which the bridge will then be transferred to the Canadian
Government (Loxley, 1999).
As described in Section 5.3 – The $33 billion Building Canada Plan,
$1.25 billion will be spent over the next seven years to help promote increased use
of P3s as a funding technique in Canada. This Public-Private Partnership Fund
will also aim to establish a federal P3 office to support and provide the knowledge
and expertise needed to facilitate the integration of this funding technique into
municipalities and private companies who have had little or no experience with

144
this type of funding. The Netherlands similarly uses a P3 Knowledge Centre,
where advisers are available to help guide government agencies who are
interested in this alternative funding source (Grimsey and Lewis, 2004).

Table 7.3 Forms of public-private partnerships (Slack, 1996).

Public-Private Partnership – Parties’ Responsibilities

Type Public Private
Operate ƒ Capital costs ƒ Facility operation
(for a fee)
Lease/Purchase and Operate ƒ Initial ownership ƒ Purchases/leases
facility from the
public
ƒ Facility operation
ƒ Charges user fees

Lease/Purchase, Build and ƒ Initial ownership ƒ Same as previous,

Operate plus builds/develops
new facility or
enlarges/renovates
existing facility
Build (turnkey partnership) ƒ Gives specifications ƒ Is paid a fixed fee to
for the facility’s build the facility
construction according to public
ƒ Assumes ownership sector specifications
after construction ƒ Turns over facility
to public sector after
construction
BOT (Build, Operate, Transfer) ƒ Assumes ownership ƒ Develops and builds
after construction required facility
and after private ƒ Facility operation
sector operated the for specified time
facility for a period
specified period ƒ Transfers facility
back to government
Build and Operate ƒ Regulates and ƒ Capital financing
controls operation ƒ Construction and
operation
Build and Transfer ƒ Assumes ownership ƒ Construction
after construction ƒ Transfers ownership
to the public sector

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 7.2.1.1. Shadow Tolling

In the United Kingdom, a concept called “shadow tolling” has been used
for numerous road construction projects. Here a private company is responsible
for the design, construction, financing and operation of a road/highway. The
public sector reclaims ownership of the road/highway between a pre-defined 15-
25 year period. As the name implies, users are not expected to pay a toll, but
instead, the government pays a “shadow toll” or a sum equivalent to what would
have been generated with the use of tolls that is dependent on traffic volume. This
method is therefore favored by the public, who are not expected to pay tolls, takes
advantage of expertise from the private sector for all aspects of the project, and
helps the local governments (and therefore other orders of government) save
money due to transferred risk, use of increased expertise by the private sector and
the additional time given to pay off the project (MIT, 2008).

7.2.1.2. Concessions or Franchising

In France, Public-Private Partnerships (P3s) are not a new concept, but are
said to date back to the 1600s when railway, water and lighting, among other
services, were first developed under P3 programs; the technique is used widely
and is considered to be quite effective. Although the concept is not new, it is still
widely used and deemed effective. The concession or franchising system is one of
the most common forms of P3 financing for the construction and
management/operation of municipal infrastructure in France. In 1995, 75% of the
population was serviced with water under such a P3 contract. A long-term
concession contract is signed between the public sector and one or more private
companies, and the infrastructure is then returned to the public sector at the end of
the contract. The private company is responsible for supplying a service to the
consumer directly; the revenues coming from the service charges, or user fees.
The contract clearly stipulates laws and regulations that must be followed in
providing the service (Grimsey and Lewis, 2004). The use of a franchising
contract thereby limits or controls the number of companies providing a particular
service.

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 Franchising infrastructure has also been experimented with in the U.S. for
toll roads and wireless communications (MIT, 2008). Bulgarians were responsible
for an award winning concession project: the Sofia Water and Wastewater
Concession Project. The city of Sofia’s water supply system, which serves over
1.2 million residents was severely deteriorated and old, it was managed with
outdated techniques, resulted in low revenue, generated high volumes of wasted
water through leaks and, finally, was subject to very little investment. Capital
investments greater than US$150 million are the result of the concession project.
Figure 7.1 shows the structure of the concession program. The European Bank of
Reconstruction was the primary lender to the concessionaire, which together with
the shareholders were designated 75% of the shareholding and management
responsibilities. The project, which began in 2000, has been successful due to a
long list of factors, which include:

ƒ Its organization since the start of the project;

ƒ The time taken to carry out feasibility studies to evaluate the risk of a
concession program;
ƒ The detailed contract documentation prepared by the municipality and its
advisers;
ƒ The multi-stage procurement process that ensured dedicated interest by
bidders;
ƒ A competitive bid with a 15% increase in the price of water;
ƒ Clearly defined objectives;
ƒ A balanced contract;
ƒ Structured negotiations; and
ƒ A strong commitment from the municipality (Grimsey and Lewis, 2004).

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 Advisers:
PricewaterhouseCoopers
Grantor:
CMS Cameron McKenna
Municipality of Sofia
Legacom
Hyder Consulting Ltd

Regulation:
Concession
Monitoring Unit

Shareholders:
Customers: Concessionaire: International Water Ltf
Citizens of Sofia Sofisjka Voda AD (75%)
ViK Sofia (25%)

Senior lender:
European Bank of
Reconstruction &
Development

Figure 7.1 Structure of the Sofia Water and Wastewater Concession Project
(Grimsey and Lewis, 2004).

7.2.2. Sponsorship

It is considered difficult by some to convince a private company to

sponsor the public sector for maintenance of infrastructure, in exchange for
publicity. However, with increased fear and aggravation from the public, a
company who initiates such a program would be recognized for its civic duty and
commitment to the improved asset or service infrastructure, possibly in the
company’s area of expertise. For example, automobile manufacturers could
sponsor a high traffic and deteriorated stretch of highway, in exchange for
publicity along the highway that highlights the company’s commitment to
improving automobile ridership in more ways than just through the manufacturing
of exceptional automobiles. GE, for example, who over time has been a leader in
purification technologies can sponsor the maintenance in an area with severely
affected water distribution systems. Other eco-friendly firms who have jumped on

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the sustainability bandwagon and are keen on promoting green practices could
sponsor improvements in the area of transit, in exchange for advertisements on the
subway platform and on the sides of buses, for example. The idea of sponsorship
may seem idealistic and far-fetched to some: how long would such a program be
successful in creating community service recognition of sponsors? Would the
investment made by sponsors be really worthwhile?
The American Adopt a Highway Maintenance Corporation (AHMC) and
other corporations of its kind in various states are responsible for promoting
funding of this type. Sponsors such as Disneyland, Sony Corporation, Verizon
and the United States Postal Service have been involved in the Sponsor-a-
Highway/Adopt-a-Highway program. The program has been successful in various
states; sponsors claiming that old and new customers recognize and comment on
the good citizenship being exposed fom the program. The Corporation cleans and
maintains a section of highway for a regular fee provided by the sponsor, whose
donation is based on the location and the service mandated by the Department of
Transportation in the particular state (AHMC, 2008).
Other corporations exist, which hold the same responsibilities as the
AHMC in different states. In some states, companies prefer that their own team of
employees go out to perform clean-up of highways on a regular basis, rather than
paying a fee to an organization who will perform the work for them (hence the use
of the term “adopt-a-highway” as opposed to “sponsor-a-highway”). In this case,
the Department of Transportation supplies these teams with safety jackets and the
other tools needed to perform the work. Again, the company is recognized for
their work with a billboard along the highway that they cleaned. The term
“maintenance” when discussing this program does not refer to actual extensive
road repairs, but primarily to the act of removing litter from the sides of the
highway. Therefore, while this particular sponsorship program does not take care
of the needed road repairs and upgrading activities, it ensures that litter cleanups,
which can be expensive in some states, do not take away from the funds available
for these more extensive repairs needed.

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 Such an example of adopting a sponsorship program for the improvement
of infrastructure can be extended to the various infrastructure categories, and
incentives for participating sponsors can be improved as well. To promote the use
of public transportation, for example, a company can offer incentives to the users.
For example, a cellular telephone service provider sponsors a subway system for a
particular month, then all users who have a subway pass as proof of usage may
present that pass throughout the entire month at one of the retail location of the
service provider and receive a discounted rate on the purchase plan. This type of
incentive would attract subway users into one of the provider’s stores. The latter
is but one example of how marketing, besides the common billboard, can be used
in combination with the sponsorship program to create a greater incentive for
sponsors and help generate needed funds by promoting the sponsors image as a
“dedicated citizen”.

7.2.3. Infrastructure Banks

One alternative to the funding mechanisms introduced thus far is the

infrastructure bank, which has already made some headway in the U.S., primarily
in the area of transportation and transit infrastructure. Figure 7.2 illustrates the
functioning of a U.S. state infrastructure bank (SIB) that finances transit and
transportation infrastructure. The bank is initially established and capitalized with
federal and other government contributions. After a project application and
selection process, the selected projects are funded from the capitalization reserve
through low-interest loans and credit enhancements. Loan terms typically range
from 10 years to 30 years (U.S. DOT FHWA, 2008). In some states, bonds are
issued in addition to financing with loans. Repayments are recycled in the SIB
accounts for future projects, thus making this funding alternative a “revolving
loan fund”.

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 Federal Non- Federal Non-
Seed Capitalization Funds federal Funds federal
(Transit) Match (Highway) Match

Capitalization Capitalization Capitalization

Reserve Reserve Reserve
SIB Accounts
Transit Repayment Highway Bond
Account Account Account Market

Project Assistance 1st Round Re-cycled funds for 1st Round

Projects future projects Projects

Figure 7.2 Structure of state infrastructure banks (reproduced from U.S. DOT
FHWA, 1997)

In 1996, 10 states adopted SIBs under the SIB Pilot Program established
under the 1995 National Highway System Designation Act: Arizona, California,
Florida, Missouri, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, South Carolina, Texas and Virginia.
Initial capitalization by the Federal government was $150 million, which was
allocated in varying amounts to each participating state. In only five years since
the start of the pilot program, loans were issued and helped meet project
objectives for 245 projects. The obvious success of the pilot project has extended
this financing alternative to a total of 32 states (U.S. DOT FHWA, 2008), but the
structure and governance of each state’s infrastructure bank may vary. For
example, accounts may be housed in the state’s department of transportation or in
another transportation agency, so long as the required financial expertise is
available (U.S. DOT FHWA, 1997). Furthermore, the SIB in some states extends
further than for the sole financing of highways and transit systems. For example,
Figure 7.3 illustrates the main structure of the Pennsylvania Infrastructure Bank

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(PIB), which helps fund highway/bridge, transit, aviation and rail freight
infrastructure.

Figure 7.3 Main structure of the Pennsylvania Infrastructure Bank (U.S. DOT
FHWA, 1997).

In August 2007, Senators Dodd, Chairman of the Senate Committee on

Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, and Hagel introduced legislation to create a
National Infrastructure Bank in the U.S. to help finance major infrastructure
projects of regional and national importance that are not adequately financed by
other programs or means, in the various infrastructure categories (i.e. water
supply, transportation, transit, etc.). The legislation – the National Infrastructure
Bank Act of 2007 - was coincidently introduced the same day as the Minnesota
Bridge collapse. The bank acts independently of U.S. government and is led by a
board of directors, comprising five members; a group of civil service staff; and
one member is appointed inspector general, responsible for overseeing the daily
operations of the bank (WaterWeek Staff, 2007).

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 7.2.3.1. A Canadian Infrastructure Bank

Development of an infrastructure bank poses many benefits:

ƒ Provides a low-cost funding alternative when funds are unavailable through

other sources;
ƒ Enables more rapid project planning and project completion, particularly for
emergency repairs, maintenance, rehabilitation and replacement projects;
ƒ Funds are recycled for future projects;
ƒ There is increased investment by all orders of government;
ƒ Helps restructure the role of the federal government in infrastructure financing
(Dodd and Hagel, 2007);
ƒ There is a tendency for more private investment due to funding security and
increased federal investment (U.S. DOT FHWA, 1997);
ƒ In the long-run, minimizes the funding needed by all orders of government;
ƒ If managed properly and the application/approval process taken seriously, there
is stricter control of funding allocations;
ƒ Leads to little political interference in funding allocation and project selections;

Finally, as discussed earlier, one of the major disadvantages to present

government programs are their duration and short-term vision. An infrastructure
bank would, therefore, ensure a sustained funding source by complementing
traditional funding programs, which typically only last for a government parties’
tenure.
Therefore, it is not only in the best interest of federal, provincial and
territorial governments to provide equal initial capital investment to establish an
infrastructure bank in Canada, but with the incentive of increasing the nation’s
international competitiveness, private companies and organizations should be
persuaded to invest their money as well. A Canadian infrastructure bank can help
the public and private sectors finance upgrading (maintenance, repair,
rehabilitation and replacement) and new infrastructure projects. These projects
need not be limited to transportation needs, but to all infrastructure types.

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7.3 Assessing Financing Methods

There are many financing techniques available for consideration. It is,

therefore, important to be able to assess which technique is most appropriate for a
given project, activity or planned long-term investment. Many sources have
presented the main criteria used to assess and evaluate the different financing
mechanisms. The seven main criteria are introduced in Table 7.4.

Table 7.4 Main criteria for evaluating financing alternatives (sources vary).

Criteria Details
Efficiency ƒ A measure of the impact the funding mechanism
poses on society: is the situation improved for people
or not?
ƒ A funding mechanism is efficient when it does not
alter the “economic decisions” made by individuals.
For example, people will not move away, change job
or withdraw from using a particular service due to a
new imposed tax, toll or other enforced form of
payment.
ƒ In some cases, a change of lifestyle and “economic
decision-making” is advantageous. For example,
where fees are imposed to reduce water
consumption, garbage per home, etc.
(Slack, 1996)
Equity ƒ Refers to the fairness of charges on individuals of
different classes (i.e. the less wealthy should not be
deprived of certain services). Individuals should pay
according to their income bracket.
ƒ Refers to the fairness of charges on individuals of
different generations. For example, charging for the
use of an asset over its service life is fair, as opposed
to charging one generation and then removing fees
for the service for later generations.
ƒ Refers to the fairness of charging people according
to the benefits they receive (i.e. one should not pay
significant amounts for a service he will never
benefit from)
(CMHC, 1992)
Effectiveness ƒ A measure of the revenues collected and their ability
to cover the service costs.
(CMHC, 1992)

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Table 7.4 (Continued)
Environmental ƒ A financing mechanism that considers the costs to
Sensitivity the environment imposed by the service (e.g.
watermeters are used to collect funds for
maintenance of water supply systems, but
simultaneously reduce consumption of a natural
resource).
(CMHC, 1992)
Innovation ƒ Measured in relation to past uses and experiences
locally and on an international scale
ƒ Is evaluated in terms of legal, institutional and
technological constraints on use of the funding
mechanism
(CMHC, 1992)
Accountability ƒ Is whoever is providing/funding the service being
held accountable for those who are paying for the
service?
(Slack, 1996)
Administrative Costs ƒ It should not be too costly to administer the
financing technique in question
(Slack, 1996)

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 CHAPTER 8

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

8.1 Introduction

The most common and generally used definition of “sustainable

development” by the United Nations is: “Development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”. There are some other definition from the various groups that bring in
specific reference to the environment (including energy, pollution, climate
change, etc.), ecosystems, natural resources, financial resources, the elimination
of poverty and deprivation, social equity, etc., but all definitions state the common
objective of maintaining and improving the quality of life of future generations.
The various definitions of infrastructure include terms as “basic services”,
“facilities”, “components of a network” or “the foundation”, all for the
development of a community. With an escalating deficit, increasing levels of
degradation and lack of inventories in the different communities, it is obvious that
the development provided by infrastructure in Canadian cities and elsewhere has
not always been sustainable.

8.2 Sustainability: Considerations in Infrastructure Planning

Canada’s infrastructure crisis, and related issues were reviewed in the

previous chapters along with the recommendations for mitigation. In all cases, the
proposed recommendations are aimed at steering practices away from an
unsustainable way of thinking, planning and implementation for all aspects of
infrastructure.

ƒ Short-term infrastructure programs that provide funding for a limited

timeframe. A proposed infrastructure bank has provided many American cities
with a sustained funding source, thereby making short-term government

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 programs complementary to this source of available and recyclable funds.
Creating availability of funds on a long-term basis will facilitate overcoming
the high infrastructure deficit, instead of leaving future generations with a much
greater deficit to overcome, at a time when funds will be needed to meet
expected future upgrading and new infrastructure needs.
ƒ Years of neglect in maintaining a detailed inventory of all assets: their
properties, construction and maintenance/rehabilitation/repair practices. With
the proposed GIS –based inventory accompanying an infrastructure asset
management system, future maintenance/rehabilitation/repair and replacement
practices will be much simpler. Future generations will have the information
needed to make informed decisions about which upgrading activities need to be
performed and having a complete detailed list of all assets will permit effective
project prioritization. The latter will lead to more sustainable funding
allocations.
ƒ Design, Build and Forget. Life-cycle costing and analysis ensures that the
current philosophy design, build and forget, thereby guaranteeing that routine
maintenance is considered in initial project studies and costs. Planning for
routine future upkeep will diminish the chances of unexpected project costs and
will make certain that future generations have the funds needed to meet
maintenance needs, rather than taking funds from capital budgets planned for
meeting new needs, or neglecting maintenance all together, which has led to the
current situation.
ƒ Design-focused civil engineering curricula. Changes are needed in the curricula
to include renewal and maintenance strategies, which will prepare future
engineers with the tools and training to place importance on upgrading existing
infrastructure, as opposed to the higher focus on new construction.

It is clear that there is much more to the above examples that need to be
considered in infrastructure planning to ensure sustainable development in
different infrastructure categories. The following sections comprise initiatives and
considerations that are making headway increasingly to “green” infrastructure

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planning and construction. Each of the infrastructure categories are applicable to
the considerations suggested. In other words, the following considerations should
be made in the design, construction, maintenance, management and operations of
all infrastructure types:

ƒ Life cycle costing and analysis;

ƒ Waste reduction;
ƒ Quality control;
ƒ Environmental considerations; and
ƒ A shift to “greener” design and construction

Each consideration will be presented by sampling only of the main infrastructure

categories, thereby presenting one example of how such a consideration can be
made a common practice to increase sustainable development in the field. The
following can, therefore, be considered a sample presentation of best practices
highlighting how different municipalities in Canada and around the world are
acting to implement the various sustainable development considerations. The
initiatives presented are also aimed at demonstrating how considerations for
sustainability in infrastructure projects do not only arise in changes in planning,
design and in construction practices, but they may also come in the form of
marketing, education, and community involvement strategies.

8.3 Life-Cycle Cost Analysis

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) defines value engineering

(VE) as “the systematic application of recognized techniques by a multi-
disciplinary team which identifies the function of a product or service, establishes
a worth for that function, generates alternatives through the use of creative
thinking; and provides the needed functions, reliably, at the lowest overall cost”
(Tufty, 1996). Therefore, a critical part of value engineering is life-cycle analysis
(LCA) and life-cycle costing (LCC), which are performed in the development
phase of VE to immediately aid in selecting the optimal (or cost-effective) project

158
alternative (Tufty, 1996). LCA thus includes LCC, but it is more general in
describing the analysis of the various alternatives in terms of quality,
performance, environmental impact and cost throughout the asset’s useful service
life. Together, these are also often referred as life-cycle costing analysis (LCCA).
Without these steps in infrastructure planning, it is not possible to accurately
compare the costs of design alternatives, for implementation of the project in the
present dollar values.
As the name implies, LCC involves considering the costs of all activities
throughout the useful service life of the asset, from the initial planning stages to
its final decommissioning after its useful life. Therefore, by bringing LCC into
project planning, the owner and project engineers are immediately aware of not
only the initial costs of procurement, construction, etc., but also the costs of
inspecting, maintaining, rehabilitating/repairing, operating and decommissioning
or replacing the asset. LCC involves accounting for depreciation, varying interest
rates and equivalent costs for different time periods. Therefore, LCC diminishes
the risks of cost overruns and ensures that future generations have the awareness
and the resources necessary for future upkeep and management of an asset.
An important aspect of LCA involves both analyzing the asset as an entity
and analyzing its components separately. Considering a new highway project for
example, it is clear that the life-cycles of the various components of the highway
will be quite different. The asphalt bridge deck would typically have a shorter
life-span than say the abutments, due to wear and tear, and on the environment
and exposure to any aggressive agents. Risk engineering is an essential
companion of LCA, requiring that each component be considered separately to
accurately determine the risks of deterioration, physical damage, etc. In turn, one
can determine the maintenance and upgrading needs for each component, which
may be quite different, requiring that maintenance and upkeep are appropriately
suited to the life cycle of the component. The example of transportation
infrastructure will continue to be used to give examples of applications of LCCA.

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8.3.1. Transportation Infrastructure

8.3.1.1. Heavy Lift Rapid Replacement Technology

The Queensway Bridge in Ottawa, Ontario was the first bridge in Canada
to be built overnight. The technique used to replace the bridge is known as “heavy
lift rapid replacement technology” and has already been adopted in the U.S. and in
Europe. Replaced in the summer of 2007, the old Queensway bridge deck was
removed with a flatbed hydraulic lift and a new deck constructed off-site was
brought on-site and inserted over the existing abutments (Piunno, 2007). Some
people have stated that the technique is analogous to building legos. Costing close
to $9 million, the bridge saved the government $2.5 million and obviously
eliminated two years of construction, which would have been needed to replace
the bridge using conventional methods (Lurie, 2007). The use of heavy lift rapid
replacement technology is an example of a technique that promotes long-term
planning and, thus sustainability:

ƒ Considerably cutting on-site construction time eliminates many of the socio-

economic impacts related to transportation projects, such as the inconveniences
and costs of high congestion on highways;
ƒ Lowering congestion levels further helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and productivity losses; and
ƒ Impacts on nearby ecosystems are considerably reduced.

The few benefits listed here bring up other costs that need to be considered for an
accurate LCCA. These are the socio-economic impacts and user costs that result
from construction, maintenance/repair/rehabilitation and replacement activities
that will be implemented throughout the bridge life cycle, which are often
neglected because it is sometimes difficult and cumbersome to identify and
evaluate them.
This technique is not suited for all bridge types, particularly the many
bridges that need complete replacement due to their age and high levels of

160
degradation. However, this type of technique should be considered in suitable
situations, e.g., for short-spans on steel girders. Additionally, new bridges should
be constructed with the intention of being able to implement this technology
during their life-cycle. This method of construction would therefore address the
fact that the bridge deck will need to be replaced long before the end of the useful
service life of the other bridge components. In turn, this would permit future
generations to more easily replace the deck without affecting the other structural
components, or without demolishing and replacing the entire structure, which
would cost considerably more.

8.3.1.2. Life-Cycle Management Model

The New York City (NYC) Department of Transportation in collaboration

with Columbia University has implemented a life-cycle cost-benefit assessment
for varying bridge maintenance strategies. The New York State DOT’s inspection
system involves rating each bridge component on a scale of 1 to 7 (where 7 means
the component is new and 1 means that the component is close to failure) and
these ratings are then considered in assessing 13 bridge components in terms of
the impacts of their condition on the overall quality and performance of the entire
bridge. Past experience, and 20 years of annual/biannual bridge condition ratings
and inspection records of NYC bridges were used to help quantify the effect of
varying maintenance strategies on structural performance of the bridges (Yanev et
al, 2003). Table 8.1, for example, shows an assessment of the costs of repairing 13
bridge components (upper left corner of the table), the costs and effectiveness of
15 different maintenance tasks if fully recommended maintenance levels were
considered (upper right of the table) and the bridge data input that must be entered
(bottom left) to obtain results of the costs that these repair/replacement and
maintenance levels would impose on NYC and the user (bottom right).

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 Table 8.1 Example of a LCCA adopted in NYC for a bridge undergoing
recommended maintenance levels (Yanev et al, 2003).

8.4 Waste Reduction

Between 25% and 33% of the waste generated in Canada comes from the
construction industry, including the waste generated by renovation and demolition
practices (Catalli, 1999). The waste hierarchy re-use, reduce, recycle – and the
often forgotten fourth “R” that is rethink may seem like common sense to many,
but is only drawing the deserved attention now with the present environmental
concerns. The following are what some companies and municipalities are doing to
encourage the three “Rs”, and thus reducing the amount of waste directed to
landfills. Waste reduction does not only have to comprise solid wastes, but can
consist of minimizing wasted resources, such as potable water. In Montreal alone,
it is estimated that close to 50% of treated water is lost through leaking pipes,
highlighting the demand for rehabilitation and quality control in avoiding loose

162
joints during construction. In Canada, this number appears to be less, but
nevertheless worrisome at approximately 30% (Environment Canada, May 15
2008). Minimizing water consumption can at least help counteract the resources
wasted from treated water that is lost through leaking pipes. Waste reduction in
infrastructure considerations need not be limited to the areas of water supply and
materials, which have been selected for demonstration in the following sections,
but energy conservation, municipal solid waste programs and landfill
management can also be added to the list.

8.4.1. Waste Management

8.4.1.1. Materials Recycling

Use of waste materials and recycling in the materials industry is quite

broad, ranging from the use of supplementary cementing materials in cement
production to using certain wastes in asphalt pavement binders. The example
given here pertains to recycling of materials on-site during demolition activities
using portable crushers, however, few contractors have invested in portable
crushers for demolition practices. These portable units can crush concrete and
asphalt, which can be reused as backfill, and wood, glass, ceramics and plastics
among other materials that often require long and frequent transportation off-site
to dumps during the demolition process. Asphalt can also be reused in new
pavements. While reluctance to change is again the culprit to common use of
these devices, more contractors are noticing that companies who have adopted
this environmentally-friendly alternative to debris and fill transportation are being
granted projects due to lower bidding. Furthermore, on-site crushing does not
require additional labor, as only one worker is needed to operate and supervise the
crusher. This practice is thus economical, environmentally sound, and easy to
implement. Greenspoon Brothers Ltd. of Brampton, ON has used a portable
crusher for years now. In 1989, they crushed approximately 50,000 tons of
concrete in the demolition of the Good Year Tire Plant in Toronto, ON. They feel
that their investment in this technology has been extremely profitable since then
(Johnson, 1999).

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 8.4.1.2. Water Conservation

The United Nations (UN) recommends that a minimum of 50L of water is

sufficient for one person’s daily needs, including drinking, sanitation, cooking and
washing. More than one billion people around the world did not even have that
minimum provision in 1990 (Kirby, 2004). Figure 8.1 shows the average
consumption (litres/day) for different continents, with reference to the UN’s
minimum requirement. Canadians are up to par with the American average, which
is 12 times greater than what is deemed sufficient by the UN. While many
Canadians believe that Canada has 20% of the world’s freshwater sources, only
about 7% of this supply is “renewable”. The rest is retained in glaciers,
underground aquifers and lakes, and more than half flows northward, away from
the bulk of the population (85%) that resides in the south of Canada (Environment
Canada, May 15 2008).

Figure 8.1 Average water consumption (litres/day) in different continents

(Kirby, 2004).

164
Municipal water conservation strategies and supporting innovations include the
following:

ƒ Water metering: In 1999, 56% of Canada’s urban population had watermeters.

A study during this time showed that citizens metered with a flat rate consumed
70% more water than those metered using volume-based costs. Including a
consumption-based fee for sewage treatment also further reduced residential
and industrial consumption (Environment Canada, May 15 2008).
ƒ Water-saving home appliances: Considering water savings in new construction
and renovations can significantly aid the consumer in conserving water. Low
pressure showerheads and toilets that reduce the amount of water consumed per
flush are some examples. Greywater systems are also emerging in some new
green buildings in Canada. These systems enable the reuse of water from baths,
showers, washroom sinks and laundry for toilet flushing.
ƒ Leak detection and repair programs: Municipalities who are aware of large
losses of treated water through leaking pipes are encouraged to adopt a leak
detection and repair program. Environment Canada studies have shown that up
to $3 can be saved for every $1 spent in a leak detection program (Environment
Canada, May 15 2008).
ƒ Public education: Informing the public of conservation strategies and their
benefits, and the consequences if the strategies are not implemented, is again a
needed task, particularly in districts where conservation strategies are
implemented. Educating the public would tend to increase approval of such
strategies and policies.

Environment Canada has grouped these strategies and others into four
fundamental categories. These are structural (metering, greywater systems,
treatment plant improvements, efficient sprinkling/irrigation technology),
operational (leak detection and repair programs, elimination of combined sewers,
restrictions on water use), economic (innovative/efficient pricing, incentives

165
through tax credits), and socio-political (codes, standard, regulations, education
and knowledge-sharing) (Environment Canada, May 15 2008).

8.5 Quality Control

The inquiry into the De La Concorde Bridge Collapse in Laval, QC

determined that there was lack of quality control, or more precisely, insufficient
and poorly placed steel reinforcement at critical locations. The inquiry into the
tragedy in Walkerton, ON in 2000 also showed that lack of quality control was a
major cause of the E. Coli contamination of the town’s water supply. These are
only two examples of the consequences of taking quality assurance lightly, yet the
consequences of each have emphasized the need for stricter standards and
improved quality control.

8.5.1. Water Treatment

The town of Walkerton has implemented many new initiatives in response

to the recommendations listed in the results of the inquiry. A new inspection
program was implemented in 2002 to comply with new legal requirements that a
system with a detected deficiency should be inspected at least once a year; this
would ensure quality control. In addition to these inspections, other planned and
unannounced inspections are carried out by the Ministry of the Environment
(MOE), which has also implemented an information data system to stay abreast of
the water reports and test results, besides helping to monitor the quality of source
water. Since 2002, MOE requires continuous chlorine and turbidity monitoring of
all groundwater sources that may be affected by surface waters, or that supply
water to a large population. The latter would have helped to avoid the
contamination of a well that did not have the required chlorine disinfection, and
which was contaminated by surface runoff. Another cause of the tragedy was
negligence by the water managers who were not knowledgeable of the
consequences of water test results and did not see the seriousness of acting on
identification of a contaminant. As a result, water system operators must now be
recertified periodically. Certification must follow an examination which not only

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emphasizes technical subject matter, but also health risks, regulations and the
procedures to follow when a risk to public health is identified. A more extensive
training is included in this procedure as well (Ontario MOE, 2007).
Other Canadian cities have improved and created more stringent water
quality control regulations, treatment methods and stricter training of personnel as
a result of the Walkerton case. It must be emphasized that it should not take
another tragedy to get others to change their quality assurance methods. If a
municipality is to provide safe, good quality water to its residents with treatment
methods that have little environmental consequences, then procedures and
standards should be updated periodically and treatment monitored continuously
for a safe water supply.

8.6 Environmental Considerations

The example of transit systems will be used to demonstrate how some

municipalities, transit agencies and departments of transportation are acting to
relieve congestion, thereby decreasing pollution and greenhouse gas emissions.
The latter will also be addressed separately to deal with the impact of climate
change on infrastructure.

8.6.1. Transit

Canada is the only G8 country with no federal policy for long-term transit
investment. In 2007, the Big City Mayors’ Caucus proposed a National
Infrastructure Strategy to increase investment in public transit systems ($2 billion
a year) among other needs, such as research and innovation for more efficient
transit systems. There is also a strong need to increase transit ridership and
decrease vehicular traffic, particularly with single passengers, to relieve
congestion and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The Canadian Urban Transit
Association (CUTA) and the Federation of Canadian Municipalities (FCM) have
stressed the need for incentives for the public to increase the use of transit for
travel pusposes in preference to the car. In Canada, transit user fees pays for 60%
of the operating costs and the remaining costs come from local property taxes.

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The user costs are higher than in any other Western country, and they continue to
increase every year due to the consistently increasing upgrading needs (CUTA,
2007). This is the exact opposite of the incentive needed at a time when
environmental issues and congestion are of concern.
Since 2006, Canadians began benefiting from a federal tax credit on transit
passes, but this incentive is not enough. Canadian cities lag behind many
American cities who have developed various strategies to increase transit
ridership. CUTA and the FCM are urging politicians to look at innovative and
sustainable strategies, and policies and regulations that support the use of transit.
In particular, these groups have recommended the use of employer tax-exempt
transit passes (CUTA, 2007). This strategy has proved successful in some
American cities.

8.6.1.1. Marketing: The Direct Mail Campaign

In southeastern Wisconsin, a marketing approach was adopted by the

Wisconsin Department of Transportation through four public transit service
providers in 1998, to increase public transit ridership in areas with low-or-
declining ridership. Citizens in these areas were sent promotional mail, providing
information about transit services in the community and advertisement for a
promotional offer of 10 free trial rides - an offer promoted by famous local
football stars, as the campaign’s spokespersons. Newspaper and radio
advertisement complemented the campaign. A total of 58,156 citizens were sent
the promotional mail and 5,191 returned reply cards to redeem their 10 transit
tickets, which were each identified by a serial number to track the new users. Of
the coupons mailed, 53% were used, providing over 27,000 free rides. A
subsequent telephone survey of those who had redeemed the tickets, showed that
“non-riders” (or previously infrequent riders) who redeemed the tickets used an
average of four tickets each; 14% of the non-riders used all 10 tickets,
significantly increasing the ridership. The results showed that riding frequency
also increased after the promotional campaign had ceased. The non-riders

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increased by an average of 2 rides per month, as opposed to the “couple of times a
year” that they used the transit system prior to the campaign (Bush, 2000).
It is clear that such a promotion would be more effective and beneficial for
some communities than others, as the costs of conducting the campaign may
outweigh the long-term revenues obtained from increased ridership, particularly
in larger municipalities. In particular, such a campaign cannot be introduced in a
municipality where the current services do not meet the standards envisaged by
the residents. One of the criteria for selecting target areas in the community
described above was to ensure that the levels of transit service in these areas were
at, or above the acceptable levels. Municipalities would certainly benefit if the
transit system has outstanding services to offer, and in particular, the large
municipalities can benefit from such a campaign upon introduction of a new
service, or updated or modernized facilities (e.g., a new subway station).

8.6.1.2. Employer-Based Transit Pass Programs

In Denver, Colorado, Salt Lake City, and Santa Clara, California all
employees of a company who wish to participate in the program receive a free
transit pass, which is paid partly by the employer. It is more beneficial to the
employer and more effective at increasing the transit use, to distribute the
universal transit passes to all downtown employees. This program was
implemented in Boulder, Colorado, and was also made available to students and
staff at over 30 colleges and universities (White et al, 2002).
The Go! Pass was first introduced in November 1999, in Ann Arbor,
Michigan, to encourage the use of public transportation by employees working in
the downtown area. The City of Ann Arbor, the Ann Arbor Transportation
Authority (AATA), the Downtown Development Authority (DDA) and the
chamber of commerce undertook this joint venture because of the high
congestion, with many employees traveling to work alone by car. The AATA
applied for Congestion Mitigation/Air Quality funding (CMAQ) to help pay for
program admiistration and to pay for a portion of the $25 passes (the remaining
$5 portion was to be paid by the employer). For the first two years of the program,

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it was decided that the employer’s portion of the costs would be paid by the DDA
and the city. Subsequently, the employer participation in the program was high, as
was the increase in transit ridership. After two years, the employers were expected
to pay $5 per employee for transit passes, thereby decreasing the number of
participating employers, but nevertheless increasing the number of riders who got
used to commuting to work (White et al, 2002). A 2006 study showed that the
number of daily cars entering the downtown area decreased by approximately 112
cars per day, and between 2001 and 2005, there was a six percent increase in the
number of employees regularly taking the bus to work. People who benefit from
the Go! Pass claim it to be a huge perk in their job and the main reason for those
who do not use the Go! Pass is that free parking is provided by their employers
(Levine et al, 2005).

8.7 Greening Construction

Green construction practices are making headway in a variety of forms.

Trenchless technologies, for example, have provided municipalities with an
alternative approach to open cut operations in maintaining and rehabilitating
underground infrastructure. There is hesitation to experiment with this new
technology because of perceived high initial costs and a need to educate and train
existing personnel to use these new methods. However, trenchless technologies
have reduced the environmental and social costs that traditional methods of full
excavation pose on communities who complain for months of dust,
inconvenience, damage/killing of greenery along property lines, noise and
pollution caused by the use of more trucks and machinery on site, pollution
caused by transporting backfill and excavated earth/waste, etc.
In the case of transportation infrastructure, some communities are using
recycled materials from the old pavement as materials for the new asphalt
pavement. Grey County eliminated a scrap tire problem by using crushed tires in
their asphalt mixtures (Details later in Chapter 11). Therefore, more
environmentally-friendly alternatives to the traditional practices are emerging in
different areas of infrastructure.

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8.7.1. Buildings

Buildings “account for 37 percent of the total primary energy use in

Canada, and roughly 30 percent of the total greenhouse gas emissions” (CaGBC,
2006). The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) certification
is a green building standard providing designers and builders with guidelines for
“greening” facilities, and a rating system or indicator for sustainability. The
prerequisites and credits set out by the Canada Green Building Council (CaGBC)
fall under the following categories: sustainable sites, water efficiency, energy and
atmosphere, materials and resources, indoor environmental quality and innovation
and design process. Standards in these categories include the various
considerations that will provide more sustainable building components (e.g.,
green roofs, energy efficiency, solar power, maximized natural light, water
savings, greywater systems, indoor and outdoor environmental quality, materials
selection, reuse of recycled materials, etc). A project is then assigned a total point
score based on the criteria satisfied and the prerequisites in each category, finally
leading to one of four certification levels (i.e., certified, silver, gold or platinum)
(CaGBC, 2008).
Since the founding of the CaGBC in 2002, there have been 100 LEED
certified projects in Canada, 34 in British Columbia, 22 in Alberta, two in
Saskatchewan, two in Manitoba, 31 in Ontario, five in Quebec, two in New
Brunswick, one in Nova Scotia, and one in the Northwest Territories. These
consists of five platinums, 39 golds, 32 silvers and 24 certified (CaGBC, 2008).
Hundreds of other projects have registered to be certified. This indicates that some
provinces have made considerable progress in the area of green building. Initial
costs of following LEED standards and obtaining LEED certification is one factor
that turns many municipalities and private companies away from the idea,
especially since this involves many companies from changing the construction
practices they have used regularly in the past. However, the life-cycle costs of
such facilities show that initial investment is worth it, due to many resulting
benefits. For example:

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ƒ Considerable energy savings;
ƒ Increased indoor air quality;
ƒ Increased productivity in the building as the environment is new, airy and
bright
ƒ Reduced sick leaves due to improved indoor air quality and working
conditions;
ƒ Lower costs due to recycled water in greywater systems, energy savings, etc.

The City of Austin, Texas also uses a LEED standard for existing
buildings (LEED – EB) to evaluate the performance of buildings under its
jurisdiction. This provides an effective method of evaluating the city’s operations
and maintenance program (Stansberry, 2008). In Canada, LEED-EB is expected
to be launched in 2009 (CaGBC, 2008). This will provide municipalities with
guidelines for more sustainable maintenance and operation of community, social
and recreational facilities, or other buildings under their jurisdiction. However, an
education program should be enforced by provincial governments, to educate
municipalities about the LEED standards, thereby reducing the initial costs and
hesitations in adopting a useful sustainable practice.

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 CHAPTER 9

CLIMATE CHANGE
9.1 Introduction

“Climate change is the shift in the average weather occurring in a given

region, normally based on the average weather pattern for a specific region.
Global climate change implies change in the climate of the earth and it occurs
naturally, gradually and very slowly” (Gaudreau et al, 2005). Climate change is
raising concern around the globe. “Sometimes referred to as global warming,
climate change is the process by which human emissions of greenhouse gases
(GHG) are believed to be causing changes in the Earth’s climate system” (IDeA,
2008). Changes, to the effect of temperature increases and abnormal precipitation
patterns, are already being experienced. Canada has been very active in climate
change research, in the development of extreme climate change scenarios, and has
been among leading countries to cooperatively establish targets to reduce GHG
emissions. In 2002, the Government endorsed an agreement under the Kyoto
Protocol to eliminate greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions to 6% below 1990 levels
by 2012 (Barrow et al, 2004). In 2007, this target was raised; GHG emissions
should decrease by 20% below 1990 levels by 2020 (Environment Canada, 2008).
The climate change impacts can be advantageous or simultaneously
disadvantageous. Melting glaciers, for example, will open water channels to the
North which can be beneficial in creating new channels for trade and
development. However, these new open channels and the easier access into the
country from the North can also be a national threat, requiring the construction of
new infrastructure for security measures. Also, some species e.g., polar bears, are
facing extinction because of changes to their natural habitats and their inability to
survive in the changed habitat. At the same time, northern populations are being
required to learn to adapt to a new way a life, which is not always simple. Warmer
temperatures can mean longer seasons of tourism which can be both pleasant and
profitable for tourist areas. These warmer temperatures, however, are causing
changes in evaporation and precipitation patterns, leading to changes in water

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chemistry, sea levels and soil moisture levels, negatively impacting the agriculture
and fishing industries. Shorter winters and longer summers would mean a
decrease in heating demands, yet this benefit would be counteracted by an
increased demand for air conditioning in the projected warmer summer months. A
shorter duration of ice covered waters would mean that shipping seasons would be
extended, which would again be beneficial due to profitability, international
competitiveness and nation building.
It is clear and well understood that the consequences of the climate change
crisis far outweigh the advantages. While climate change is a worldwide problem,
the extent of its effects will be experienced differently by different countries. The
same is true for Canada, where different regions will face different risks and will
need to cope with the climate change effects in a variety of ways, to shift from
“remediation, response and recovery to mitigation and prevention” (Briceno,
2008).The abilities of some communities to adapt to climate changes will be much
more difficult than others. Similarly, different industries will encounter their own
set of related issues. A brief review of the issues affecting civil engineers and
infrastructure planners follows.

9.2 Engineering Considerations

For engineers and infrastructure planners, climate change means a variety

of things:

ƒ Climate extremes that are currently being considered in design are

representative of past climate data and are thus no longer representative of
predicted weather patterns. Climate extremes will promptly need to be modified
to represent future conditions if assets are to be designed for efficiency
throughout their service lives.
ƒ As weather data is an important environmental loading factor in design, the
codes and standards will similarly have to change to reflect the risk that climate
changes pose and should be reviewed and updated periodically to account for

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 the progress in weather extremes research. Present loading factors still reflect
out-of-date weather patterns (Steenhof, 2008).
ƒ Disaster management should be considered a priority. There should be a backup
plan ready if any infrastructure assets important to the functioning of a
community are damaged.
ƒ Links should be drawn between extreme weather events and an infrastructure’s
threshold (Auld, 2008). These forensic studies can already be performed in the
North where damage to infrastructure due to climate changes is readily visible.
These can provide valuable information for further preventive action.
ƒ Existing assets will have to be evaluated in terms of the risks that climate
changes pose on their structural integrity and performance levels;
ƒ With a detailed inventory of all existing assets, it would have been easier to
accurately prioritize the assets that are most at risk. From the list of at- risk
assets, engineers should assess whether these can be retrofitted for preventive
action against the impact of climate change (Auld, 2008).
ƒ There is a need to develop specialized agencies to assist municipalities for the
recommended condition assessments and to incorporate adaptation planning
into their infrastructure management practices (Ness, 2008).

Lastly, modifications will be required in the design and construction of different

infrastructure asset types. Similarly, risk assessments of existing assets are
necessary to help establish optimal alternatives when planning to retrofit the
existing assets or mitigate the effects of the predicted climate changes. For
example, if stormwater pipes are found to be under-capacity for the predicted rise
in precipitation, then not only should the size of the existing pipes be re-evaluated,
but more green spaces could also prevent the rapid draining of water into catch
basins. Therefore, not only should the infrastructure be retrofitted, but engineers
need to work closely with urban planners to plan for alternative and economical
solutions to ensuring that existing assets remain serviceable. While much work is
obviously required to consider climate change in the civil engineering profession
and curriculum, as well as in the construction industry, Auld (2008) from

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Environment Canada has stated a positive aspect of the climate change crisis on
engineers and planners. She stated that overcoming the infrastructure crisis is a
challenge, however, the much needed infrastructure rehabilitation and
reconstruction is creating the opportunity to plan for new infrastructure so that it
is adapted to future climate change extremes (Auld, 2008).

9.3 Climate Change in Different Canadian Regions

Strategies to overcome the impact of the climate change would vary in

different regions, where varying climatic changes are anticipated. Figure 9.1
shows the different climatic regions in Canada and Table 9.1 summarizes the
main climatic events that have already affected certain regions and those that are
expected to amplify in upcoming decades. Increasing temperatures are common to
all regions, though temperatures are expected to increase the most in the Arctic
regions. In most cases, milder winters with increased precipitation are not only
expected, but existing data show that they are already occurring in some regions.
Other impacts such as increased flood events and increased periods of drought, on
the other hand, are particular to few regions (in this case coastal regions and the
Prairie, Lower Great Lakes and South Laurentian regions, respectively). What are
common to all regions are the needed changes and improvements in the way
infrastructure is planned, designed, and constructed to prevent and mitigate the
impact of these climatic changes.

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Figure 9.1 Climatic regions of Canada (Stanford, 2004).

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Table 9.1 Expected climate change events in Canada’s main climatic regions (information retrieved from Environment Canada,
2004).

Climate Change Event

Pacific Coast
North & South
Mountain
West & East
Arctic
Prairie
North Interior
North
Laurentian
Lower Lakes &
South
Laurentian
Atlantic

Increased storm severity 9

Intense rainfall events 9
More sheet runoff 9
Less sheet runoff 9
Increased flood events 9 9 9
Increased evaporation 9
Increased evapotranspiration 9
Increased periods of drought 9 9
Decreased duration of lake ice cover 9
Lower lake water levels 9
Less snow 9
Increased winter precipitation 9 9 9 9 9 9
Shorter winters 9 9
Increased fall precipitation 9 9 9
Shorter winters 9
Rising temperatures 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Melting permafrost 9 9 9
Increased sea levels 9 9 9
Increased incidence of storm surges 9
Possible differences in ocean circulation and wave patterns 9
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(Table 9.1 Continued)

Climate Change Event

Pacific Coast
North & South
Mountain
West & East
Arctic
Prairie
North Interior
North
Laurentian
Lower Lakes
& South
Laurentian
Atlantic

Possible frequency of tropical storms 9

Decreased snow cover 9 9
Increased aridity 9
Possible elimination of wetlands and sloughs 9 9
Decreased water levels 9 9
Decrease in duration of snow cover 9
Decreased summer soil moisture 9 9 9
Earlier snowmelt and ice breakup 9
Less thick and less permanent sea ice 9 9
Milder winters 9 9 9
Longer summers 9 9 9
Increased snowfall 9
Increased rain-on-snow events 9
Increased risk of avalanches 9
Increased rate of snowmelt 9
Decreased summer stream flows 9 9
More severe spring flooding 9 9 9
More risks of landslides 9
Glacier retreat and disappearance 9
Higher impacting river flows 9
Risks of forest fires 9 9 9
More insects and possible spread of disease 9 9
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9.4 Impact of Climate Change on Infrastructure

Consequences of the climate change events listed in Table 9.1 are

numerous. Lower soil moisture levels and higher evaporation rates due to
increased temperatures, for example, will lead to decreased surface runoff in the
Lower Lakes and South Laurentian regions. In turn, this will decrease the water
levels in the lakes, where the quality is already jeopardized by industries in the
surrounding areas. The 8 million Canadians that live in the Great Lakes and St.
Lawrence basin and the electric power industry, that depend on the lakes for
drinking water and power generation, respectively, will thus be affected by these
low water levels. It is predicted that the St. Lawrence river outflow could decrease
by as much as 20% (Environment Canada, 2004).
Most of the negative impacts can be mitigated, or prevented with new, or
improved infrastructure. For example, higher levels of treatment may be required
to counteract the effects that lower water levels could have on water quality.
Water temperatures are typically higher at lower levels, which promote growth of
algae and bacteria. Also, dredging will be required in some areas to offset the
decreasing water levels for shipping and other activities, leading to re-suspension
of toxic chemicals (Environment Canada, 2004). Furthermore, dams may need to
be retrofitted, or new infrastructure for alternate sources of power generation may
need to be constructed to compensate for the low levels of hydroelectric power
generation. Periods of drought may also require that infrastructure be constructed
to transport water to affected regions, which can be quite expensive if water is
transported over large distances. Increased water levels, on the other hand, would
require the construction of dikes and other flood protection schemes in coastal
regions. Other examples of how some of the consequences that the expected
climate changes listed in Table 9.1 will have on infrastructure in various regions
are summarized:

Predicted Change: Periods of drought

Impact on Infrastructure: Decreased water levels can lead to reduced water
quality, as “lower water levels and higher temperatures could increase levels of

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bacterial, nutrient and metal contamination […]” (NRC, 2004), causing a need for
more stringent and innovative water treatment practices. Table 9.2 shows the 2001
climatic data of different regions that have already begun to experience the effects
of droughts.

Table 9.2 The 2001 drought records of four Canadian regions (NRC, 2003)

REGION CONDITIONS IN 2001

BRITISH COLUMBIA ƒ Driest winter on record, with
precipitation being half of historic
average across the coast and southern
interior
ƒ Snowpacks in southern regions were at
or below historic low
PRAIRIES ƒ Saskatoon was 30% drier than the
previous 110-year record
ƒ Many areas experienced lowest
precipitation in historic record
ƒ Parts of the Palliser Triangle
experienced second or third
consecutive drought
GREAT LAKES/ST. ƒ Driest summer in 54 years
ƒ Southern Ontario (Windsor-Kitchener)
LAWRENCE BASIN
experienced the driest 8 weeks on
record
ƒ Montreal experienced driest April on
record and set summer record with 35
consecutive days without measurable
precipitation
ATLANTIC ƒ Third driest summer on record
ƒ Large regions experienced only 25% of
the normal rainfall in July and August;
it was the driest on record
ƒ July, with 5 mm of rain, was the driest
month ever recorded in Charlottetown

Predicted Change: Increased precipitation

Impact on Infrastructure: While some regions may experience droughts, others
may experience the opposite and see increased rainfall patterns. This would
require new infrastructure for flood mitigation. Also, increased flooding “could

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increase the flushing of urban and agricultural waste into source water systems”
(NRC, 2004), which would again affect the levels of adequate water treatment
needed. Figure 9.2 shows the areas at risk of flooding across Canada.
Furthermore, the capacity of many existing stormwater systems may not be
adequate to carry large amounts of rainwater, which may cause an overflow,
leading to high levels of untreated water by-passing the water treatment plant and
being disposed of in freshwater sources without treatment. In the case of
combined sewer overflows, sanitary wastes may be disposed in the various water
sources. Many existing transportation systems may not have been adequately
designed for proper drainage required for extreme precipitation patterns. Drainage
problems on bridges and highways can help accelerate the corrosion process.
During winters, this increased precipitation along with the de-icing salts would
accelerate corrosion of the embedded reinforcing steel in the bridge deck.

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Figure 9.2 Canadian flood risk areas (Stanford, 2004).

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Predicted Change: Sea level rise due to thermal expansion of ocean waters,
melting glaciers, or increased precipitation (NRC, 2004)
Impact on Infrastructure: Canada has the most coastal land in comparison to
any other country. Figure 9.3 shows the sensitivity of different Canadian regions
to rise in sea levels. More specifically, Figures 9.4 and 9.5 show the Atlantic
Provinces’ and the Western Arctic’s sensitivity to sea level rise. The increased sea
level rise will require infrastructure for flood mitigation, to ensure protection of
communities. There may be a need to abandon many offshore structures, such as
offshore oil platforms, which were designed for lower sea levels. “Dykes
enclosing areas lying below current high tide [levels] would have to be raised to
avoid inundation by storm surges” (NRC, 2004). There will be an increase in
spring runoff, placing a “greater demand on reservoirs to even out electricity
supply” (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1998). Also, this increased
precipitation may exceed the retention capacity of existing tailings ponds, spilling
toxic compounds into local water systems (Environment Canada, 2002). New
tailing ponds must be designed accordingly, and a protective barrier should be
constructed around the existing ones to prevent spilling of hazardous substances
into freshwater sources.

Predicted Change: Increased runoff

Impact on Infrastructure: Due to high levels of precipitation, increased levels of
runoff may be greater than the infiltration ability of the land, which leads to high
levels of sediment, nutrient, pesticide and other possible waste being carried into
surface waters. Existing water treatment techniques may not be adequate to treat
these waters, therefore investments in additional water purification systems may
be necessary. Larger green spaces should also be considered where appropriate.

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Figure 9.3 The sensitivity of Canada’s coastal regions to sea level rise
(NRC, 2004).

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 Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-level
Rise
Low (0 - 4.9)
Moderate (5.0 - 14.9)
High (15 and up)
Present-day Submerging of
Coasts
Present day submerging
areas

Figure 9.4 The Atlantic Provinces’ sensitivity to sea level rise (NRC, 2007).

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 Coastal Sensitivity to Sea-level
Rise
Low (0 - 4.9)
Moderate (5.0 - 14.9)
High (15 and up)
Present-day Submerging of
Coasts
Present day submerging
areas

Figure 9.5 The Western Arctic’s sensitivity to sea level rise (NRC, 2007).

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Predicted Change: Shorter winters and increased winter precipitation
Impact on Infrastructure: This will lead to an increase in spring runoff, placing
a “greater demand on reservoirs to even out electricity supply”
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 1998). Also, this increased
precipitation may exceed the retention capacity of existing tailings ponds, spilling
toxic compounds into local water systems (Environment Canada, 2002).

Predicted Change: Changing water flow patterns

Impact on Infrastructure: Potentially more erosion along offshore and
waterfront infrastructure and increased risk of scour of pile foundations of these
structures. Scour countermeasures which should be considered are: hydraulic
countermeasures, structural countermeasures and monitoring. Hydraulic
countermeasures are designed to modify existing flow conditions or to improve
the bed’s resistance to scouring caused by these flow conditions. Riprap is a term
used to describe a layer or facing of rock, stone, concrete or other coarse
aggregate that is placed or dumped around a structure to prevent erosion of the
bed material around it. Riprap is one of the most common hydraulic scour
countermeasures due to the availability of local materials previously mentioned,
their low cost and the facility of placement. However, sheet-pile protection can
also be used. As the name implies, structural countermeasures involve modifying
a structure that has already been affected by scouring or that can potentially be
affected in the future due to its environment. Pile geometry and alignment, and
reinforcement of the foundation are examples. Lastly, monitoring should be
achieved by visual inspection, or with the use of portable and fixed
instrumentation and this should become the common practice in all inspections of
structures that may be affected by scour.

Predicted Change: Increased temperatures and humidity

Impact on Infrastructure: Warmer temperatures in the summer months could
lead to increased rates of deterioration of pavements and possible buckling of

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railway tracks. In the former case, higher temperatures will lead to increased
softening of asphalt pavements, and deeper rutting under high traffic loads (NRC,
2004). Furthermore, the rate of chemical reactions increases in higher
temperatures, leading to faster degradation of construction materials, thereby
requiring greater maintenance and preventive measures. The physical
deterioration of concrete, however, will decrease with a rise in temperature, as
freezing and thawing cycles will decrease in the southern parts of Canada. In the
Northern parts, the number of freezing and thawing cycles will increase, causing
more deterioration due to scaling and disintegration of concrete. When
considering freshwater source, higher temperatures reduce dissolved oxygen,
which causes longer stratification leading to algal bloom and, hence, affecting
taste and odor of the water (Krantzberg, 2007). Modifications in treatment levels
may be required. Existing building HVAC systems may not be adequate to
maintain comfortable temperatures and would need to be designed accordingly.

Predicted Change: Precipitation-triggered slope instability and landslides

Impact on Infrastructure: This could be a serious problem on the Pacific coast,
which can damage many transportation systems in mountainous areas and other
infrastructure in nearby communities. This will cause many road closures, leading
to inadequate service and reduced water quality due to silt and clay entering
reservoirs, thereby reducing the disinfecting capabilities of the chlorination
process (NRC, 2005). There is a great need in the area of geotechnical
engineering to analyze alternative slope stabilization and soil reinforcement
techniques, and earth retaining structures, and hydrogeological mitigation
strategies that are most suitable for areas at risk.

Predicted Change: Water levels “in ponds, lakes and dugouts are forecast to
decline, in some regions, leading to changes in water chemistry, which will mean
less available drinking water in some rural regions” (Environment Canada, 2003).
Impact on Infrastructure: The decreased water content can lead to increased
algal bloom, which in turn can lead to lower quality level water and increasing

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salinization, necessitating improved water treatment (Environment Canada,
2002). Additionally, existing water storage facilities may not be able to support
long periods of drought and municipal water distribution and sewage disposal
system may not be able to meet the demands of communities. This predicted
change primarily affects the Prairies provinces.

Predicted Change: Ice jams

Impact on Infrastructure: The ice jams can have damaging effects on the region
hydrology, and offshore and waterfront infrastructure. Dams, bridge piers, and
other assets along the waterfront could possibly erode, or experience greater
damage due to impact of large icings. Protection, such as fender systems should
be installed on the existing and new assets that may be affected by the impact of
these large icings.

Predicted Change: Increased ice-on-snow duration

Impact on Infrastructure: Will place heavier loads on buildings and other
assets. A differential roof load can be detrimental to the structure and lead to high
risk of roof collapse under the high load. Snow loads should be modified to
account for this eventuality.

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9.5 Impact of the Infrastructure Crisis on Climate Change

Deteriorated assets are helping to contribute to climate change, examples

include:

ƒ Extensive emergency road repairs, potholes and transportation systems, that do

not meet the capacity needed to satisfy service demands, are all contributing to
congestion. Consequently, greenhouse gas emission levels from vehicular
traffic are constantly increasing.
ƒ Transit systems of low capacity and with deteriorated assets that cause frequent
service interruptions and decreased service are not encouraging the use of
transit, thereby not decreasing vehicle use, particularly in congested areas such
as downtown cores.
ƒ Leaking pipes means that much treated water is being lost before it reaches
faucets in homes. As a result, many treatment plant operations are being
performed very inefficiently and energy is being lost in the process.
ƒ Landfills are one of six different sources of atmospheric methane. While
methane emissions are lower than carbon dioxide emissions, it is nevertheless a
contributor to global warming. It is estimated that, in comparison to carbon
dioxide, methane produces about one-third the amount of global warming
(Enzler, 2008). High waste generation by the construction industry is not
helping to reduce waste disposal here.
ƒ Failure to recycle materials where it is often a feasible and an economical
solution poses demands on the cement, steel and plastic industries. Emissions
from the production of these materials are, therefore, often unnecessary.
ƒ Social, recreational and cultural facilities that the latest FCM-McGill
Infrastructure Survey (2007) proved to be in greatest need of repair have old
and faulty building components that do not comply with the sustainability
standards. Energy and water saving technologies are typically not part of these
older structures.

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9.6 Case Study: Arctic Canada

Emphasis is placed on the impacts of climate change in Arctic Canada, as

this region will experience higher temperature increases than the southern
Canadian regions. It is also the region which has begun to experience the negative
effects of climate change, because most of the existing infrastructure has been
built on permafrost, which has begun to melt, causing soil instability and
consequential negative impacts on local infrastructure. Melting permafrost is also
expected to cause landslides and release additional greenhouse gases into the
atmosphere.

9.6.1. Climate Change and its Effect on Permafrost

Permafrost is defined as soil, rock or sand below the surface of the earth,
which remains frozen for at least two successive years. Permafrost is found
beneath approximately 20 percent of the earth’s land surface and, by definition, it
is found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, where the cold climate maintains the
ground in its frozen state for prolonged periods of time. Records prove that some
areas of permafrost have existed for periods of tens of thousands of years (Muller,
1947). The top layer of permafrost - the active layer - undergoes freeze-thaw
cycles due to the yearly changes in seasonal temperatures. A thinner active layer
will therefore be found in colder regions, or at higher latitudes, where the winters
will have a longer and more considerable freezing effect than the summer
thawing. In this case, new frozen ground resists the summer thawing due to a
longer freezing period and larger frost depth. In turn, the permafrost beneath the
active layer thickens as new frost layers accumulate each winter (Brown, 1970).
The average permafrost thickness ranges from less than one meter to 600 meters
or more, and for the active layer, between a few centimetres to approximately 10
meters (Davis, 2001). Although permafrost layers have reached over 1000 meters
in thickness, it is the heat from the earth’s core that stabilizes permafrost thickness
by thawing any sub-layer not being affected by the winter freezing. Insulation
from snow cover has a similar effect as it increases the permafrost temperature.

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Layers of ground that have thawed within permafrost are called taliks (Esch,
1996) (Figure 9.6).

Figure 9.6 An illustration of the different states of permafrost

(Pidwirny, 2006).

Permafrost can be discontinuous, where as the name implies, it is found in

“patches” surrounded by larger regions of unfrozen ground. Similarly, sporadic
permafrost consists of larger dispersed islands of permafrost in regions of
unfrozen ground. On the contrary, a constant layer of frozen ground underlies
regions of continuous permafrost (Pidwirny, 2006). Half of Canada’s land area
lies on permafrost, the northern part being continuous and the southern parts
discontinuous (Figure 9.7). Even though terrain factors such as vegetation, soil
type and snow cover affect permafrost, temperature is once again the primary
factor that defines its state and sets apart the two zones (Johnston, 1981).
An increase in the active layer thickness, caused by melting permafrost
will cause ground movement in what was once assumed to be strong, frozen,
stable ground. Talik zones, ice-rich areas, and other regions where water can
accumulate also contribute to this instability because of the change from a frozen
to a liquid state. Knowing which areas of permafrost contain ice, or are poorly
drained and can become ice-rich, is an essential part of construction engineering
in permafrost regions due to the different types of damage that ice is causing to

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the surrounding infrastructure because of thermokarst and differential settlement.
Thermokarst is a land area with an irregular ground ice content, and consequently
uneven thaw settlement throughout. An irregular surface with water filled
pothole-like cavities is characteristic to such a terrain (Davis, 2001) (Figure 9.8).
Other common effects include ground swelling, frost-heaving, damage due to
icing, as well as landslides and other unexpected ground movements.

Figure 9.7 Permafrost distribution in Canada (Harris, 1988).

Figure 9.8 Thermokarst terrain (ANWR, 2006).

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 According to the temperature trends for the last 50 years, the average
annual temperature has increased by two to three degrees Celsius in the Western
Canadian permafrost zone and by one to two degrees Celsius in the Central and
Eastern permafrost regions. Future projections estimate that during the next
decade, temperatures in these regions will increase by four to seven degrees and
three to five degrees Celsius, respectively (Arctic Council, 2004). Consequently,
the active layer thickness will increase and the permafrost layer will decrease,
eliminating it completely from some areas (U.S. Arctic Research Commission
Permafrost Task Force, 2003).

9.6.2. The Impact of Melting Permafrost on Infrastructure: Primary

Problems and Engineering Considerations

Presently, there are 18 highways (Government of the Northwest

Territories, 2006) and 11 airports in the Northwest and Yukon Territories alone
(Transport Canada, 2006). The construction materials and methods have changed
since the late 19th century, and in addition, the knowledge of permafrost has
evolved considerably. Many researchers had already noted engineering
considerations required in these regions. Building and design methods have
changed considerably to reflect the knowledge gained from the problems
experienced with some of the earlier infrastructure. Reduction of the ground
strength, stability, and therefore ability to support infrastructure is the main
concern associated with construction in areas of melting permafrost. Ice-rich
permafrost zones - areas underlain by discontinuous permafrost - and regions
where taliks are present are of particular concern, as they are most sensitive to
temperature increases. Possible impacts on different types of infrastructure
include:

Airfields and Roads

ƒ Soil type, water content and ice content of the subsurface, vary from one
location to another along the pavement length. Therefore, different locations on
one roadway may thaw or be subjected to larger loadings than others. As a

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 result, differential settlements are one of the main consequences of melting
permafrost, resulting in uneven surfaces that require prompt remedial measures
(Esch, 1996). A paved road in an ice-rich zone, for example, would require
regular maintenance or reconstruction before the end of its planned service life.
ƒ Longitudinal cracking is another reoccurring problem on roadways and
airfields, because of the differences in the albedo (the radiation reflectivity of a
surface) and insulation from the middle to the sides of the road embankment.
The albedo, or the ratio of reflected to absorbed light of the side slopes, is lower
than that of the flat top portion of the road. In addition, ploughed snow on the
sides of the road insulates the side slopes from cold temperatures, subjecting the
underlying permafrost layers to more heat and greater thawing (Freitag and
McFadden, 1997). Consequently, cracking and settlements occur on the
sideslopes, where talik zones form in most cases (Esch, 1996) (Figure 9.9) and
increase in size each year due to the climate change. Therefore, knowledge of
the type of terrain and climate of the region is vital and will be a good basis for
choice of the pavement.

Figure 9.9 Differential settlement of a roadway (left). Longitudinal cracking

of roads and airfields (right) (Esch, 1996).

Bridges
ƒ Frost heaving is a phenomenon where ice formation causes an increase in soil
volume, which if prevented or restrained partially, leads to upward and outward
forces. The causes include unequal load distribution and differences in water
content in one particular area (Muller, 1947). These conditions are considered

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 in bridge design, since load patterns and water content can differ from that
directly beneath and surrounding the bridge piers, which are usually made of
concrete. More heat is generated in the soil beneath the bridge piers because
concrete has a higher thermal conductivity than water or snow in between the
piers. Consequently, the water from thawing beneath the piers flows to the
surrounding areas. In cold temperatures, considerable ice can accumulate,
causing heaving, which affects the surrounding piers (Ferrians et al, 1969).
ƒ An increase in air temperatures will help thaw the large ice formations, yet they
will also cause large icings to break, resulting in the rise of water levels. Water
flowing in newly opened channels under the bridge will move the large pieces
of ice at faster speeds. Consequently, large forces and erosion will deteriorate
the piers in the way of the moving ice (Freitag and McFadden, 1997).

Buildings
ƒ Buildings often generate enough heat to contribute to the thawing of the
underlying permafrost. Therefore, selecting a suitable spread, buried or pile
foundation is a critical decision and depends on the intended use of the
structure. Buried foundations should be considered for permanent structures
with heavy loading and should be constructed sufficiently deep into the ground
to prevent excessive heat exchange with the underlying soil. The spread
foundation is a good choice where foundation movement will not be a great
concern, and should therefore be considered for smaller structures with lighter
loads. Facilities that are used temporarily throughout the year, such as certain
businesses or research centres, would also be constructed with this type of
foundation because temporary heating would not be significant enough to
contribute to excessive thawing. Lastly, piles are useful where poor drainage is
characteristic to a site (Brown, 1970) (Figure 9.10).

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 Figure 9.10 Use of piles as a structural foundation (NRC, 2006 on left and
KlimaNotizen, 2006 on right).

ƒ Here, the effects of water content are considered since frozen ground is
impermeable. Consequently, water may not be able to flow naturally and may
accumulate around or between the permafrost where it will undergo freezing
and thawing cycles, which can lead to settlement (Davis, 2001) (Figure 9.11).
Choosing the right type of foundation is therefore important if, in addition to
permafrost thawing due to climate change, heat from structures leads to thawing
as well.

ƒ As in this case, locating bedrock for the structural foundation and steering clear
of ice-rich zones would be an ideal solution.

Figure 9.11 Examples of buildings destroyed by melting permafrost. Apparent

uplift of the right side of building due to frost heaving (left – GSC,
2006). Differential settlement followed by extreme cracking of
buildings (centre and right - Brouchkov and Himenkov, 2006).

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Hydraulic Structures

ƒ The impounded water from these structures will play a role in thawing
subsurface soils over time, but thawing of ice will have an immediate effect.
The structure would severely crack in case of large settlement, or it may be
completely destroyed in the event of a landslide.
ƒ Settlement or slumping of the ground beneath the structure may also provide a
passage for water to divert beneath the dam. With time, this flow will erode the
foundation (Ferrians et al, 1969).

Municipal Services

ƒ The scarcity of available sources of water in cold regions is quite troublesome

in the planning of municipal services. The fact that services are normally buried
underground adds to the challenge, since pipes in permafrost regions cannot be
buried beneath a frost depth. The word “normally” can in fact be used in the last
sentence, since water distribution and sewage disposal systems may be built
above ground in Arctic climates (Figure 9.12).

Figure 9.12 Water and sewage distribution pipes placed in surface utilidors
(Town of Inuvik, 2006 on left and Photo Mondiale, 2006 on right).

ƒ Other distribution methods can be seen in Arctic regions: trucked systems,

where trucks deliver water that will be stored in storage tanks at each individual
home and central watering points, where residents must pick their water supply
at a local storage tank (Freitag and McFadden, 1997).

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ƒ Buried or aboveground systems are more common in larger, more developed
communities; they are more prone to cracking as a result of the climate change.
Choosing between a buried or aboveground system is an important
consideration in the design process and depends on the climate fluctuations and
the soil types found in a given locality. Buried systems are generally found
within approximately 5 meters from ground surface, in areas with well-drained
soils. In other words, an aboveground or surface system should be constructed
where fine soils exist. Here, excess water is impeded from flowing freely and as
a result ice lenses can form during the frost season (Brown, 1970). Excessive
freezing and thawing of ice surrounding the pipe system, due to temperature
increases and heat from the pipes themselves could cause cracking and
eventually breakage of the pipe.

ƒ Figure 9.13 shows a pipe being uplifted, which is another problem faced in
these regions. Surface systems are preferred and usually built on piles to
prevent further contribution to the heat already being exchanged at ground
surface, from increased air temperatures.

Figure 9.13 Pipe uplift due to frost heaving (Brouchkov and Himenkov, 2006).

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 CHAPTER 10

A NATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE POLICY FOR CANADA

10.1 Introduction

Most of Canada’s infrastructure was built between the post-World War II

period and the 1970’s, and most of it has already reached the end of its useful
service life. In 2003, more than half (59%) of the infrastructure in Canada was
more than 40 years of age; an astounding 28% between 80 and 100 years (Figure
1.2) (TRM, 2003). While many of these older infrastructure assets are in urgent
need of rehabilitation and replacement, there are also many newer facilities, along
with the older ones, that are deteriorating quite rapidly due to lack of adequate
maintenance and repairs over their service lives, which has resulted in a serious
backlog needing urgent attention. There are many factors which have contributed
to this serious situation, primarily inadequate levels of funding in the area of
municipal works, government’s failure to acknowledge the looming infrastructure
crisis and its failure to act quickly to provide funding for maintenance, and other
needs.
There is an urgent need to recognize Canada’s serious infrastructure crisis
and to regulate and standardize infrastructure management practices across the
country. Some professionals have suggested the need for a National Infrastructure
Policy (NIP) aimed at addressing the various issues that have caused rapid
deterioration of assets and the resulting large infrastructure deficit. A National
Infrastructure Policy would ensure a commitment by all levels of government to
tackle the present challenges. It will also encourage practitioners and academia to
shift from the current ‘design’-focused curriculum to one emphasizing “proper
maintenance and renewal” of infrastructure.
The issues that have led Canada to the current infrastructure crisis are
presented along with a summary of the reasons for the much needed infrastructure
policy. Some related examples are briefly reviewed and appropriate mitigation

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steps are suggested, along with a brief review of the existing recommendations for
a National Infrastructure Policy.

10.2 Present State of Infrastructure

In recent years, several infrastructure-related tragedies have occurred in

Canada and elsewhere in the world; which include bridge collapses, pipe breaks,
water supply contaminations and resulting outbreaks, and transit, rail accidents,
etc. The most recent Canadian tragedy was the de la Concorde Overpass collapse
in Laval, Quebec on September 30, 2006, causing five deaths and six injuries and
considerable socio-economic loss and inconvenience to the community. All of
these infrastructure-related tragedies reflect the unacceptable levels of
deterioration that have accumulated gradually; this situation must change
immediately to ensure adequate and safe functioning of the communities. Many of
these tragedies resulted from poor quality control and safety measures during
design and construction, and inadequate management and maintenance practices
throughout the asset’s service life. Consequently, many of these assets are failing
well before the end of their expected service lives, posing serious threat to public
health and safety, necessitating urgent improvements in Canada’s transportation,
transit, water supply, sewage disposal and other infrastructure systems. These
repair, rehabilitation and replacement activities are needed to augment Canada’s
productivity, international competitiveness and economic development of the
cities, regions and the country, and to improve the quality of life of all citizens.
Public health and safety, and the environment are presently at risk due to
the severely deteriorated state of assets and management practices. The
infrastructure in the United States is in an equally bad state; the overall state of
their infrastructure having been given a failure grade ‘D’ in the last ASCE
(American Society of Civil Engineers) infrastructure report card in 2005. The
municipal infrastructure deficit in Canada - the difference between the available
funding and the funding needed for maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and
replacement of existing deteriorated infrastructure assets - is normally used to
evaluate the overall state of assets and to quantify the infrastructure crisis.

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10.2.1. Infrastructure Deficit

The 2007 FCM-McGill Municipal Infrastructure Survey estimate of the

deficit is $123.6 billion for the existing infrastructure owned by the Canadian
municipalities to upgrade it to an acceptable performance level. The survey
estimated the new infrastructure needs arising from population growth, or
replacement of older infrastructure which has deteriorated excessively and cannot
be rehabilitated efficiently, to be $115.2 billion. The municipalities who
participated in the survey felt that aging of infrastructure, population growth and
new environmental regulations are the factors that are contributing most to the
compounding of the infrastructure deficit. It should be noted that these estimates
are considerably higher than the 2003 upgrading by the Technology Road Map
($57 billion) of an earlier FCM-McGill (1996) deficit estimate of $44 billion to
upgrade Canada’s municipal infrastructure.
The sub-deficit estimates in the areas of water supply, wastewater and
stormwater, transportation, transit, waste management and cultural, social, and
recreational facilities are summarized in Figure 10.1; these have increased
considerably from the 1996 FCM-McGill Survey findings. The need to upgrade
existing cultural, social, community and recreational facilities is the greatest at
$40.2 billion, up from the 1996 estimate of $7.55 billion. Most of these needs
related to the larger municipalities, such as Toronto and Montreal. The large
increase can be attributed to the limited funding available to the municipalities in
recent years, which was spent on the more urgent infrastructure categories, other
than the cultural, social and recreational assets. The survey results confirmed that
water and wastewater systems, transportation and transit infrastructure categories
also require significant financing, consistent with the findings of the Canadian
Water Network (CWN, 2003-2013), the Canadian Water and Wastewater
Association (CWWA, 1997-2012) and the Canadian Urban Transit Association
(CUTA, 2008-2012). The financial needs for new infrastructure were not assessed
in any past surveys, and therefore, a direct comparison was not possible.

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 Figure 10.1 Sub-deficits for each main infrastructure category in
1996 and 2007 (Mirza, 2007).

10.2.2. Needs of the Municipalities

Canadian municipalities require much more than just the obvious funding
that is needed to bring the existing deteriorated infrastructure up to acceptable
levels of safety and serviceability, and to ensure that facilities are upgraded, or
that new assets are built to satisfy the new needs. The municipalities, the
provincial and federal government, and other public and private organizations
could possibly benefit from a National Infrastructure Policy, including some
recommended, and innovative funding alternatives, but also scientific asset
management practices and implementation strategies.

10.3 Existing Recommendations for an NIP

A series of articles in the 1998 Manitoba Heavy News of the Western

Canada Roadbuilders and Heavy Construction Association recommended that a
National Infrastructure Policy target three main areas: rehabilitation of municipal

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infrastructure, the national highways system under a National Highways Program
(NHP) and strategic infrastructure investments (SII). At the August 1993 Annual
Premiers’ Conference (APC), Provincial Premiers and Territorial Leaders
supported the idea of a National Infrastructure Policy, urging the federal
government to agree with the initiative. However, the literature on the subject
suggests that the Premiers and Leaders were in favor of a multi-year policy
similar to the 1993 $6 billion shared Canada Infrastructure Works Program
(Hengen, 1998). Extending the duration of existing government infrastructure
programs would not be sufficient to ensure sustained funding for the country’s
infrastructure needs, besides being unable to address the many issues that have led
to the current crisis.
The Infrastructure Council of Manitoba (ICM) was formed in 1994 to
address issues of investment and maintenance of municipal infrastructure, while
working in partnership with the various government bodies and public
organizations. In 1998, the ICM promoted the need for a National Infrastructure
Policy with the major objective of addressing “strategic infrastructure investments
from within existing revenues in a sustainable manner which levers matching
contributions from other levels of government and/or the private sector” (Hengen,
1998), emphasizing the need for initiatives between both the public and private
sectors. In 2000, the ICM recommended to the Canada Transport Act Review
Panel that a National Highways Policy be adopted by the federal government, to
include minimum design and engineering standards for the national highway
system (Infrastructure Council of Manitoba, 2000).
Mirza (1998) urged the adoption of a National Infrastructure Policy of a
much wider scope. As stated by Mirza “it is imperative that the public and private
sectors realize that a National Infrastructure Policy is as important to the future of
Canada as our present and projected needs in areas of health, education, social
safety net, youth training, research and development and debt/deficit reduction at
all levels of government” (Mirza, 1998). He has continued to make the case for a
National Infrastructure Policy (Mirza, 2006).

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 The Canadian Council of Professional Engineers have backed the idea of a
National Infrastructure Strategy and sustained funding (2006); the Canadian
Automobile Association strongly supported the need for a National Highway Plan
(CP Wire, 2006). In summary, there is a broad support among professionals and
professional organizations for a policy to address the infrastructure shortfalls and
future needs in Canada. However, the support and action by the political leaders
has been missing and infrastructure issues have not been on the platform of any
political party, contesting the national or provincial elections over the past several
years, excepting for the Federal Liberals in 1993, and the Ontario Liberals in
2008.

10.4 Developing a Policy Framework

According to Howes and Robinson (2005), the following issues need to be

resolved to successfully implement an infrastructure policy:

ƒ Goals and objectives must be defined in developing the policy, followed by

their effective implementation by all parties involved;
ƒ Institutions to ensure coordinated implementation and a central source of
information for public and private sectors;
ƒ Needed Resources - monetary and professional personnel - engineers, planners,
legal and financial specialists, environmental and safety specialists, etc.
ƒ Knowledge: expertise in different areas, including political, technical, financial,
etc.;
ƒ Information and communication systems to improve communications and
provide an organized framework between the various parties involved.

Finally, an environment must be created where professionals, and related groups

and organizations evaluate and understand the economic, social, environmental
and political influences driving the needed policy, and ensure that these are
reflected in its development along with the needs related to sustainable
development. In other words, besides technical issues, socio-economic, political

206
and environmental impacts of the current crisis should be addressed in the
infrastructure policy.

10.5 Basic Issues

Some examples highlighting the shortfalls in the planning and

management of infrastructure are summarized in Table 10.1. The issues needed to
be addressed in the policy are briefly presented and appropriate techniques are
recommended in each case.

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 Table 10.1 Issues for consideration in a proposed National Infrastructure Policy.

Basic Issues Examples Needs/Proposed Mitigation

ƒ Primary causes of bridge collapses that have occurred since ƒ An urgent need to ensure that, under no
the 1970’s circumstance, should maintenance ever be
ƒ De la Concorde Overpass (Laval, Quebec) collapse in 2006: deferred
ƒ Collapsed after only 36 years in service ƒ Applies to all infrastructure - large-scale
ƒ Deferred maintenance partly to blame deterioration noted on many asset types across
Deferred maintenance ƒ Also collapsed due to quality control issues the country
ƒ Minnesota Bridge collapse in 2007: ƒ Accumulated degradation of the aging assets has
and non-routine
ƒ Failed after 40 years led to rapid escalation of the infrastructure deficit
inspections ƒ Officials warned as early as 17 years prior that the
bridge was “structurally deficient”
ƒ In those 17 years, only small scale repairs and
inspections were performed.
ƒ Two years prior to the collapse, the Department of
Transportation had repeated these warnings, urging
more frequent and more detailed inspections of the
bridge trusses (Keen, 2007)

Lack of life-cycle
ƒ The lack of available funds for the present routine ƒ Adopting legislation and policies that require life-
performance and cost
maintenance of assets is partly to blame for the severe cycle performance and costing to be considered:
analysis in the initial infrastructure degradation, and for the escalation of the ƒ In the bidding process
infrastructure deficit over the years. If life-cycle costing had ƒ In the planning stages of all projects
project planning
been implemented, funds would have been reserved for ƒ Such practices should be supported by an
stages, complete with these much needed practices infrastructure asset-management system (IAMS)
ƒ Will prevent cost overruns and ensure that funding
valuation,
is available for future routine upkeep, rehabilitation
depreciation and risk and replacement of the assets when needed, to

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Table 10.1 (Continued)
assessments comply with the definition of sustainable
development
ƒ Will shift the current mentality of “design, build and
forget” to one of “design, build and maintain”

ƒ The $33 billion Building Canada Plan (2007-2014): ƒ It is essential to re-evaluate the infrastructure
ƒ $17.6 billion, will be allocated to the municipalities; financing
over seven years, the municipalities will receive ƒ More innovative and sustainable sources
approximately $2.5 billion per year – it is not specified of financing are needed
whether this is to meet upgrading or new needs ƒ A significant highlight of the $33 billion
ƒ The latest FCM-McGill Municipal Infrastructure Survey plan is that a P3 office will be established,
estimates the municipal infrastructure deficit to be encouraging the use of P3s as an
$123.6 billion, in addition to the $115.2 billion needed alternative
Insufficient levels of
for new infrastructure. Therefore, ƒ Strategic investment in infrastructure in
investment in the area ƒ the funding available under the seven year plan is upcoming government budgets and
highly inadequate allocation of funds from the yearly surplus
of infrastructure,
ƒ In addition, an Infrastructure Bank should be
particularly for established, similar to those already established in
some States
maintenance and
ƒ Repayments are recycled in the
upgrading needs infrastructure bank for future projects
ƒ Would ensure a sustained funding source
ƒ Short-term infrastructure programs are
only complementary. Therefore, if a
government program expires, funds are
always available to meet the upgrading
and new needs
ƒ Operation of the bank would include
project application and selection process
to fund selected projects from the

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Table 10.1 (Continued)
capitalization reserve through low-interest
loans and credit enhancements

ƒ The $6 billion Federal Infrastructure Works Program (1993- ƒ An infrastructure bank for Canada
1998):
ƒ A joint partnership between the three levels of
Short-term Government that ran only for six years
ƒ Helped fund 12,000 projects and created 10,000 jobs
government funding
(Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, 1997)
programs ƒ While the program did have its faults (i.e., 60% of spending
was related to new infrastructure, though one of the initial
objectives was to upgrade the municipal infrastructure), the
general consensus among municipalities was that the program
helped to improve the state of infrastructure in Canada
(Siddiqui, 1997)
ƒ The success of this program was unfortunately short-lived

ƒ Projects have been prioritized and funding has been allocated ƒ Municipalities should be required to keep a
inadequately in many cases, due to lack of a complete complete inventory of all assets, which would
inventory of all assets. For example: enable more accurate and effective funding
Lack of a complete ƒ The Highway Improvement Program (1993-1998) allocations and project prioritization
inventory of all assets ƒ Funding was proposed in 1997 under this program, to ƒ Inventory should be complete with condition
upgrade segments of the National Highway System assessment information, construction
in Canadian that were initially recorded as being “acceptably specifications and upgrading/maintenance history
municipalities smooth” and “over the acceptable engineering ƒ All of the above information should be provided to
standards for surface roughness” – information that planners during budget allocations
was obviously not provided to investment planners
ƒ Funds were being allocated to improve stretches of
highway that already had funds approved for them
ƒ The Auditor General expressed concern that allocated
funds may have been used to meet cost overruns

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Table 10.1 (Continued)
rather than to achieve new program objectives (Ruta
et al, 1998), which could have been prevented, if
information about the segment’s maintenance and
financing history, and its condition were available

ƒ If one municipality groups sewer systems and stormwater

systems in one classification, it is difficult to compare the ƒ Use of a common Infrastructure Asset-
needs of other municipalities who keep records of both asset Management System (IAMS) that should:
types separately. This increases the difficulty of adequately ƒ Support standardized data
prioritizing needs recording/inventory tracking across the
ƒ The City of Edmonton has addressed this issue as follows: municipalities and facilitate long-term
ƒ The City applies a condition rating scheme based on planning
letter grades (A – Very Good, B – Good, C – Fair, D – ƒ Support essential practices in long-term
Poor and F – Very Poor) planning: life-cycle costing and analysis,
The need to
ƒ The physical condition, functionality and condition tracking, valuation and
implement demand/capacity are rated with these letters depreciation of assets, the calculation of
ƒ The City “translates” asset-specific condition ratings remaining service life, risk and
standardized AM
already employed by specific departments (e.g., the performance assessments, project
practices across the use of a Pavement Quality Index by the Transportation prioritization based on numerous factors,
and Streets Department), by defining conversions etc.
country and focus on
between ratings within a computer application (Cloake ƒ Be customizable in some ways to account
long-term planning and Siu, 2002), providing for more integrated planning for varying demographics, environmental
between the infrastructure categories and the various conditions and new regulations, population
departments growth, activities/lifestyles, local needs,
ƒ The City of Edmonton is also a leader in long-term planning etc. For example,
approaches. Through its Office of Infrastructure (2000), the ƒ The system should support the
City of Edmonton maintains a complete inventory of all assets management of different types of assets in
and financial data, and has developed a risk assessment different Canadian regions (e.g., trams,
methodology and a life cycle costing protocol, among other ferries, a metro system, etc.)
practices that should be adopted nation-wide ƒ Include a condition rating module that is
ƒ The Australian literature also reveals that, state manuals and able to convert the municipality’s condition
information systems vary as for the U.S.A., making it difficult to ratings to a standard rating used across

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Table 10.1 (Continued)
co-ordinate management practices at the state and the the country, like the City of Edmonton
national levels (PSAB, 2007)

ƒ Failure to account for sustainable development can come in ƒ Incorporate the four ‘R’s – reduce, reuse, recycle
Failure to consider
a variety of ways: and rethink – in all practices
sustainability in all ƒ Not performing life-cycle costing analysis (LCCA) ƒ Sharing best practices to encourage the
ƒ Not trying to cut down on wastes in the construction implementation of sustainable practices in the
phases of project
and decommissioning of assets is another example, as design, construction, maintenance, management
planning (feasibility around 30% of the waste generated in Canada comes and operations of all infrastructure types:
from the construction industry, including the waste ƒ LCCA
studies, design,
generated by renovation and demolition practices ƒ Waste reduction
construction, (Catalli, 1999) ƒ Quality control
ƒ Failure to account for energy saving alternatives or to ƒ Environmental considerations
maintenance,
consider options for water conservation in the design of ƒ A shift to “greener” construction practices
decommissioning, facilities
ƒ Failure to seek “greener” construction practices where
etc.).
possible (e.g., trenchless technologies)

Little consideration for ƒ New stormwater sewers should be designed with greater ƒ Further research and development of the impacts
climate change in the capacity to be able to remain serviceable in periods of intense of the climate change crisis on infrastructure
rainfall and for the predicted increase in winter precipitation ƒ Environment Canada has made tremendous
design of new ƒ Otherwise if the stormwater system reaches over-capacity, progress in modeling predicted future weather
infrastructure and in sewage can overflow, by-pass the water treatment plant and extremes. There should be more communication
be discharged into freshwater sources without the required between civil engineers and environmentalists to
the retrofitting of levels of treatment highlight how these weather patterns can impact
existing infrastructure the different infrastructure systems
ƒ There should be documents made available to
practitioners, highlighting the needed design
considerations

212
Table 10.1 (Continued)
ƒ Climatic data used to calculate wind, rain and
snow loads, and temperature design values in the
design codes should be modified to represent
predicted weather patterns

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10.6 National Infrastructure Policy

A National Infrastructure Policy for Canada must be aimed at:

ƒ Acknowledging and alleviating the infrastructure crisis and its associated social,
economic, political and environmental impacts;
ƒ Repairing, rehabilitating and replacing existing severely deteriorated assets and
establishing routine maintenance plans for all future construction;
ƒ Eliminating the infrastructure deficit and the associated sub-deficits for the
main infrastructure categories;
ƒ Establishing a commitment by the three levels of government to overcome the
infrastructure crises at the municipal, provincial, territorial and national levels;
ƒ Ensuring that the private sector implements the recommended best practices
and conform to associated legislation;
ƒ Shifting the industry towards more sustainable practices and ensuring that these
practices continuously adapt to the emerging environmental and climate change
issues;
ƒ Encouraging the Universities and technical schools to make changes to the civil
engineering curricula, to place increased importance on educating future
graduates on aspects of deterioration, renewal, infrastructure management and
more sustainable practices;
ƒ Providing practitioners across the country with updated, standardized best
practices;

A National Infrastructure Policy for Canada would ensure that:

ƒ The infrastructure crisis be acknowledged as a critical, national problem that

must promptly be addressed;
ƒ All three levels of government increase their level of investment in
infrastructure;
ƒ Maintenance and inspections shall never be deferred;

214
ƒ Quality control be of utmost importance in all aspects of infrastructure design,
construction, maintenance, operation, etc.;
ƒ A detailed inventory of all assets be maintained to include technical, financial,
and maintenance and other construction-related information;
ƒ Scientific AM becomes common practice;
ƒ An IAMS that supports long-term planning in addition to routine management
practices, be available for implementation of AM techniques;
ƒ That the IAMS, standardized inventory tracking and long-term assessments
(risk assessments, value engineering, LCCA) support fair and strategic project
prioritization and funding allocations;
ƒ All government funding programs are to be complementary to a sustained
funding source, available through an infrastructure bank;
ƒ Technical, socio-economic, environmental and health risks be considered, in
addition to population, when allocating project funds;
ƒ LCCA be made mandatory prior to the approval of all projects;
ƒ LCCA should include asset valuation and depreciation, and risk assessments;
ƒ The appropriate financing alternative be selected based on the criteria of
efficiency, equity, effectiveness, environmental sensitivity, innovation,
accountability and administrative costs;
ƒ Sustainable development be encouraged in all phases of a project;
ƒ The repair and rehabilitation of existing assets be considered an opportunity to
retrofit existing assets to resist the expected climate change extremes, and that
climate change be similarly considered in the construction of new assets;
ƒ Funds not only be directed towards improving the state of infrastructure assets,
but that they be used to help develop and implement standardized practices,
develop offices to aid in the implementation of a national policy, education and
awareness campaigns and establish the recommended IAMS and infrastructure
bank;
ƒ Further research and development in each of the above-mentioned areas;
ƒ Increased collaboration and interdisciplinary group work to be undertaken
among engineers, urban planners, social scientists, politicians, economists and

215
 environmentalists to progress in eliminating the infrastructure deficit and the
crisis, while catering for the present-day issues such as climate change,
escalating oil prices, etc.;

10.7 National Benefits

There are several, obvious benefits of dealing with each of the above-
mentioned issues. It must be emphasized that nation-building, international
competitiveness and a superior quality of life cannot be maintained without safe
and serviceable infrastructure to support everyday activities and the services
essential to sustainable development and human survival. Addressing these issues
with a National Infrastructure Policy poses its own benefits, namely:

ƒ Assurance that changes are made across the country, thereby equitably
promoting development nation-wide;
ƒ Facility for the public and private sectors to adapt to a policy that incorporates
the various issues, rather than adapting to the different policies that may be
developed at different times, especially when many of these issues are inter-
related and should be dealt with simultaneously. For example:
o The need for improved AM practices encompasses the needs for
LCCA, inventory tracking, risk assessments, etc.
o In turn, funding allocations will be ameliorated with the
information provided by a complete inventory of all assets and the
information provided by these AM practices;
o Eliminating the common trend of deferring maintenance goes hand
in hand with performing LCCA and considering innovative
funding alternatives, which in turn promotes sustainability;
o Developing AM practices that support long-term planning would
be incomplete without climate change considerations, which
promote a longer asset service life and ensure that new assets will
not need to be retrofitted in the future to meet the demands of the
predicted climate changes;

216
 o Finally, innovative funding mechanisms would not only help
provide funds for upgrading and new infrastructure needs, but
would also ensure that funds are available to perform each of the
above-mentioned AM practices.

Most importantly, without legislation to ensure that needed practices are

performed, assets will continue to deteriorate, age rapidly and pose serious threats
to communities. The society does not need any more infrastructure-related
tragedies for the lack of implementation of a national infrastructure policy.

10.8 The Role of Infrastructure Canada

Infrastructure Canada was established in 2002 by the Government of

Canada, to work with the different levels of government and the private sector to
improve communities across the country by improving safety and serviceability of
their infrastructure. Infrastructure Canada continues to aim at improving
investments in infrastructure, supporting management and knowledge-sharing with
new management technologies and online publications, and through on-going
research to identify the infrastructure gaps and priorities, and to propose mitigation
strategies and suitable infrastructure programs. With the collaboration of other
public and private organizations, industry and academia, Infrastructure Canada
continues to move forward with its Research and Analysis Division “to ensure that
a more comprehensive knowledge foundation is in place to support and inform
policy and decision making” (Infrastructure Canada, June 3, 2008). The main
departments within Infrastructure Canada are summarized in Table 10.2.
The list of partial responsibilities provided in Table 10.2 does not
highlight several of the contributions made by Infrastructure Canada. A prominent
contribution involving Infrastructure Canada, the Federation of Canadian
Municipalities (FCM) and the National Research Council is the InfraGuide, a
compilation of best practices and guidelines comprising case studies from Canada
and internationally. The InfraGuide introduced decision makers and practitioners
in the public and private sectors to innovative tools for more effective decision-

217
making, financial planning, and technical expertise, through various publications
for the different infrastructure categories. However, this program, which began in
2001, was abandoned in 2007 due to funding being discontinued for this program;
the government has turned this into yet another program with short-term vision,
similar to the many unsustainable government funding programs.

Table 10.2 The main branches of Infrastructure Canada (information

summarized from Infrastructure Canada, June 1, 2008).

Department Primary Responsibilities

ƒ Issue identification and assessment

ƒ Research
ƒ Knowledge sharing
ƒ Communication of mandate
Policy and Communications
ƒ Coordination of federal communications of
infrastructure
ƒ Assistance to the Deputy, who provides policy advice
to the minister
ƒ Program implementation
ƒ Management of infrastructure funding agreements
ƒ Program evaluations complete with risk management
Program Operations
and environmental considerations
ƒ Management of the Federal Gas Tax transfer to
municipalities
ƒ Support and service to procurement, IT, human
resources, finance, security, and planning and
administration departments
Corporate Services
ƒ Internal audits and evaluations
ƒ Support and service to the Shared Information
Management System for Infrastructure (SIMSI)
ƒ Newest department
National Transit Strategy ƒ Development of a National Transit Strategy in
collaboration with Transport Canada

10.9 Infrastructure Australia

While different in many ways (especially in climate), the diversity, size,

and activities of Australia and Canada make both countries quite similar in many
respects. The fact that both countries are experiencing a looming infrastructure
crisis adds to the list of commonalities. The way both countries are dealing with
this crisis, however, is quite different, as the Australian Government has adopted a
sustained plan to help eliminate the infrastructure crisis.

218
 The example of the Australian Government’s latest initiative –
Infrastructure Australia – serves as a perfect model of a framework that addresses
the various needs in Australia: interdisciplinary infrastructure planning, a
commitment to rehabilitating severely deteriorated assets based on established
priority levels and guidance for the politicians when it comes to making
infrastructure-related decisions. Many of these issues are common with Canada.
Infrastructure Australia, a statutory advisory council established in January 2008,
comprises 12 members from industry (5 members are from the private sector),
government and local government. The objectives of the council as promoted by
the Hon Anthony Albanese, Minister for infrastructure, transport, regional
development and local government, and the Hon Kevin Rudd, Prime Minister are
to:

ƒ Conduct audits of transportation, water, communications and energy

infrastructure assets among other main infrastructure types, to help
determine which assets have the greatest needs. Australia has an estimated
$90 billion infrastructure deficit, as established in 2007 (Dunlop, 2008);
ƒ Develop an Infrastructure Priority List from the audits, which will help
prioritize major projects and help appropriately allocate funds;
ƒ Provide advice and guidance to government and private investors
regarding innovative funding sources, allocation of funds, planning,
project prioritization, future needs, etc. (The Hon Anthony Albanese MP
and the Hon Kevin Rudd MP, 2008); and
ƒ Standardize project approval techniques, tender processes, and planning
and approval processes across the nation (The Hon Anthony Albanese
MP, 2008); etc.

219
10.10 Implementing an NIP in Canada

The Government of Canada must ensure that Infrastructure Canada has the
resources needed to develop and manage sustained infrastructure programs and
that they are given greater authority in making infrastructure related-decisions,
particularly funding allocations and project prioritizations. Discontinuing the
InfraGuide, which was a step in improving and standardizing practices across
Canada, shows that this is currently not the case. As mentioned earlier,
Infrastructure Australia (IA) is an example of good governance, which if
appropriately adopted in Canada, could result in improving infrastructure
management and the state of Canada’s assets. Although it may take years to
successfully operate and produce visible results, IA is also an example of an
initiative that was taken by the Government of Australia immediately after its
election to help alleviate the severity of their country’s infrastructure crisis.
Development and implementation of a National Infrastructure Policy
(NIP) would be a useful first step in developing a national commitment among all
levels of government and the private sector to standardize fundamental aspects of
infrastructure management (i.e. condition assessment, inventory keeping, project
prioritization, maintenance practices, etc.) and to eliminate Canada’s large
infrastructure deficit, which concur with the objectives of Infrastructure Canada
and the work of the FCM and the NRC among others. Creating a statutory council
such as Infrastructure Australia would be a first step in the implementation of a
national policy and could be an added branch in Infrastructure Canada’s
hierarchy. An ideal hierarchy is depicted in Figure 10.2. The proposed
modification to the current structure of Infrastructure Canada would be to develop
a National Infrastructure Policy (NIP) Implementation Office as an additional
branch to those listed in Table 10.2.
In addition to ensuring that the National Infrastructure Policy is integrated
with the public and private sectors, this branch could be responsible for
overseeing funding allocations and project prioritizations. These should be based
on a detailed priority list of the assets established through audits of the different
infrastructure categories, similar to the procedure being carried out by

220
Infrastructure Australia. The needs should be prioritized based on life-cycle
performance and costing, and risk assessments, records of maintenance and
upgrading activities and information related to the socio-economic impact posed
by the assets (e.g., breakage rate in pipes, or the rate at which the state of a
transportation system has been the cause of an accident). The challenge will be to
introduce such practices to the public and private sectors while trying to establish
a more complete and detailed inventory of the assets. Another implementation
strategy could be to present the public and private sectors with an incentive to
implement policy guidelines, such as considering the municipality’s or private
firm’s commitment to implementing policy guidelines during funding allocations
for new projects. This not only provides an incentive, but also honors their civic
duties.
The proposed branch would immediately resolve some of the major issues
that are currently placing a barrier on successful infrastructure management,
which include:

ƒ Limited interdisciplinary planning and decision-making between parties

such as engineers working for the public and private sectors, politicians,
urban planners, economists, social scientists, environmentalists, etc;
ƒ Uninformed politicians who often base their infrastructure planning and
decision-making on economic and political factors as well as the opinions
of society, rather than principally taking technical data and risk analysis
into consideration;
ƒ Inequitable funding allocations, as rural communities are often in the
position of competing with larger communities for funds, since
allocations are not based on the detailed criteria proposed above;
ƒ Short-term vision when developing funding programs, which leaves local
governments with limited long-term planning capabilities; and
ƒ The lack of standardized practices, such as project planning and
prioritization, etc., across the country.

221
 The proposed NIP Implementation Office would hold responsibilities
similar to Infrastructure Australia, by guiding the federal government in all
infrastructure planning and financing decisions. This Office would therefore be
the link between Government and each of the proposed Provincial/Territorial
Implementation Offices, which would also consist of interdisciplinary groups of
professionals. These Offices would therefore be representative bodies for the
provincial and territorial governments, acting as sources of communication
between the first proposed Office and the local governments of each of the
provinces and territories. Figure 10.2 provides additional details of the
responsibilities of each Office, along with the addition of regional offices, as the
Provincial/Territorial offices need to ensure that local governments follow the
standards outlined in the National Infrastructure Policy.
Figure 10.3 shows the breakdown of the NIP Implementation Office into
two separate branches:

ƒ An Implementation department to provide an information source and support

centre for practitioners;
ƒ A Statutory Council that provides guidance to the politicians and makes
decisions based on the information received by the other offices;

Figure 10.3 also shows the relationship needed between the above two groups and
the following:

ƒ The existing Research and Development team at Infrastructure Canada to help

the NIP Implementation Office make factual and relevant decisions, and also to
ensure that the Research and Development team’s work remains coordinated
with the needs of practitioners.
ƒ Lastly, it is suggested that a strong liaison should be established between the
proposed Canada Infrastructure Bank and the NIP Implementation Office,
though it is recommended that the bank be a separate entity from this Office
and Government.

222
 Infrastructure Canada

NIP
Implementation
Office

ƒ An interdisciplinary group responsible for all infrastructure decision-

making at the national scale
ƒ Provides support to provincial/territorial and regional offices ensuring
implementation of the NIP
ƒ Establishes priority lists for upgrading of existing assets and for
construction of new infrastructure
ƒ Allocates funds based on priority lists and commitment to the NIP
ƒ Approves projects to be financed under the Canada Infrastructure Bank
ƒ Provides assistance to governments in establishing the goals and
targets of future government programs

Provincial/
Territorial
Offices

ƒ Make the NIP Implementation Office aware of provincial, territorial and

local needs, and policy commitment
ƒ Act as a link between the NIP Implementation Office and Regional
Offices;
ƒ Monitor the implementation, by the public and private sectors, of
legislation and regulations highlighted in the policy
ƒ Are responsible for funding allocations to the municipalities within the
province or territory

Regional
Offices

ƒ Consist of designated officials within each municipality who, in addition

to their usual responsibilities within the public works departments, have
been trained and are aware of the details of the National Infrastructure
Policy;
ƒ Provide guidance to staff designated to perform AM and recommended
practices within the policy (i.e. inventory tracking, condition assessment
tracking, etc.)
ƒ Lobby the needs of the municipality to the Provincial/Territorial Office;
ƒ Provide the Provincial/Territorial Office with the information that the
policy highlights as being needed to make equitable, economical and
informed decisions for funding allocations and project prioritization;
ƒ Ensure that all policy regulations are being implemented within the
municipality (e.g. keeps up-to-date with maintenance schedules, etc.);

Figure 10.2 A proposed hierarchy for successful NIP implementation under

Infrastructure Canada.

223
 NIP Implementation Statutory Council:
Office Political Guidance and
Decision-Making

ƒ Similar to a customer service department

Implementation ƒ Acts as a central source of information to all
Guidance and Support for practitioners seeking information about the
practitioners policy or seeking help in implementing the
proposed IAMS (Chapter 6)
ƒ Able to provide municipalities, the private sector
and educational institutions with additional
documentation to help implement new practices
in their departments
ƒ Establish training programs and awareness
campaigns

Research and ƒ Similar to the existing research team at

Development Infrastructure Canada – with some modifications
ƒ Provides the continual updating of practices;
ƒ Stays abreast of new environmental legislation
and government programs;
ƒ Provides specialized advice to the
Implementation Office for improved decision-
making
ƒ Comprises various departments that look into
innovative practices in all areas: innovative
financing, AM, innovative maintenance
techniques, green practices, etc.
ƒ One department should be responsible for the
upgrading of the proposed IAMS

Infrastructure Bank ƒ A separate governing body with liaisons to the

statutory council to ensure coordinated
funding allocations and project prioritizations
ƒ Comprises a body of financial and
infrastructure experts
ƒ As in the U.S. Infrastructure Banks, a
manager monitors all projects: payments, loan
security funds, etc.
ƒ Provides customer support to burrowers

Figure 10.3 Proposed structure breakdown of the NIP Implementation Office

and its affiliation to other proposed branches.

224
10.11 Implementation Needs: Where Do We Go From Here?

It is understood that to simply eliminate the infrastructure deficit can take

many years. Similarly, the needs in adopting an infrastructure policy can only be
accomplished over several years, with the following tools.

10.11.1. Best Practices

It is essential that the required tools are available to practitioners to

effectively manage infrastructure. Organizations such as the National Research
Council, Natural Resources Canada, Infrastructure Canada, the Federation of
Canadian Municipalities, the Canadian Public Works Associations and the
academia have expertise in the various areas of infrastructure, such as the best
practices for AM, condition assessments, etc. However, resources and supporting
legislation are needed to have these experts develop the protocols necessary for
improved infrastructure management practices. The InfraGuide can be considered
a stepping stone from which researchers can develop updated and new best
practices and the modeling of information systems to support these practices. The
best practice guidelines and the associated protocols would have to be continually
updated to fulfill the new needs imposed by the population growth, climate
change, new environmental regulations, suburban sprawl, etc.

10.11.2. Resources

As mentioned earlier, strategic investments are needed in the near future to

ensure that more funds are being directed to the upgrading of the severely
deteriorating assets, and to help improve the technical expertise and practices that
support sustainable infrastructure management. Establishing the proposed NIP
Implementation Office and its affiliated departments and institutions would
require a considerable investment and effort. Funds will also be needed for
implementation, training and education of the needed new personnel and the
municipalities. This initiative can have many long-term economical benefits:

225
ƒ Tens of thousands of jobs will be created due to the establishment of the
proposed Offices and the Infrastructure Bank, and in the related areas of public
works;
ƒ Strategic allocation of funds will be encouraged with improved project
prioritization and a detailed inventory of all assets;
ƒ Routine maintenance will prevent deterioration from reaching unacceptable
levels that often require the asset to be replaced at much higher costs at an early
age than the costs needed to perform maintenance on an annual basis;
ƒ Development of a GIS-based inventory and implementation of the needed
maintenance and rehabilitation programs will lead to considerable savings of
resources and time, and to eliminate or at worst minimize infrastructure-related
tragedies;

10.11.3. Education and Awareness

The initial development stages of a National Infrastructure Policy and an

Infrastructure Bank can only be successful with the support from all sectors,
including the public and academia.

10.11.3.1. Public Awareness

Grey County, Ontario, with a population of 60,000 residents, is one

example of a community which has attempted to ensure that the public stay
abreast of infrastructure rehabilitation projects around the county. In particular,
Grey County initiated the Closed Loop Tire Recycling Project in 1993, a program
that utilizes used tires as a recycled material in asphalt pavements. Grey County
discovered many advantages of rehabilitating severely deteriorated roads by
adding recycled tires in the asphalt mixture, while counteracting the
environmental and health threats of the county’s scrap tire problem. Of course, the
project would help any residents wishing to discard their tires, however, the local
residents committed to such an initiative.

226
 The end product encourages this commitment: joggers feel less impact on
rubberized asphalt, horses are said to speed up when they reach the stretch of this
new road and this initiative is highly supported by those who realize that there are
many safety, health and environmental concerns posed by severely cracked roads
and the scrap tire problem. The Closed Loop Program represents an excellent
example of communications, however, the public needs to be convinced of the
benefits of the solution.
Informing politicians, landfill owners, dealership owners and residents
was an essential part of this program. When it was first introduced, the
community was made aware of the details of the project, as well as its benefits
through advertisements and public presentations. Reluctant tire dealers were soon
persuaded to become committed contributing companies and were highlighted on
posters showing their environmental commitment. Billboards now line the streets
constructed under this program, leaving no unanswered questions pertaining to the
costs and other specifications of the rehabilitation projects. This project has
measured the commitment of the community in making it more sustainable.
Implementing a National Infrastructure Policy is a task that is more
complex than formulating a pavement rehabilitation program, and will certainly
have its share of sceptics – especially with the inclusion of an infrastructure bank.
As seen in Section 4.1.1.4 – User Pay Models, even after the recent infrastructure
tragedies in Quebec, opposing views from Quebecers about user pay models such
as tolls and watermeters still exist. The comments provided by the respondents of
the 2008 Municipal Infrastructure Public Questionnaire show that this is due to
lack of trust in the Government’s willingness to appropriately allocate funds from
these user pay models to the principal causes. Public awareness campaigns at all
stages of policy implementation would be needed to convince the population that
their tax-dollars and the Government commitment are heading in the right
direction.

227
 10.11.3.2. Academia

Presently, unless a specific course on the subject matter is taken by

students, different forms of deterioration, condition assessment, and repair and
rehabilitation techniques are barely covered in the civil engineering curricula of
some universities. Similarly, unless students take a specific course which deals
with the design of water supply systems, for example, they will not be introduced
to the software necessary for the design and inventory tracking of the system.
Even if they are introduced to the software, there is no guarantee that the students
as future practising engineers will use similar software due to the variability of
management systems across the country, or even across a city, and the fragmented
and slow process of updating the curriculum. If a national policy would introduce
standardized condition assessments and other practices, universities would have to
include these in the civil engineering curricula and that of other associated
professions dealing with public works. It is recommended that additions should be
made to the civil engineering curriculum:

ƒ Deterioration sciences, standardized condition assessment, and repair and

rehabilitation techniques for the various infrastructure categories should
be taught to the students in an undergraduate infrastructure course;
ƒ The National Infrastructure Policy should be included in addition to
regular course material to familiarize the students with its contents;
ƒ Students should be introduced to standard management systems that
incorporate the various management sub-systems for different
infrastructure types;
ƒ Important economic and political concepts should be taught, in addition to
life-cycle performance and costing, depreciation and valuation techniques
and optimization strategies, and risk assessments;
ƒ Students should be exposed to the socio-economic, environmental and
sustainable development considerations that should be considered in
practice; and

228
ƒ Finally, a special graduate level program dealing with different fields,
related to infrastructure, could be quite beneficial, if it is designed to train
students to aid in NIP implementation and developing the associated
strategies, through an appropriate internship program.

Developing the proposed offices with each level of government will

require a high number of trained personnel. The latter program would have to
continuously be updated to stay abreast of current political, economic and
legislative changes. The program will additionally prepare students from different
fields by educating them in fields, other than their own. For example, the curricula
would be designed so that all students would learn about the political science,
economics, management and engineering issues associated with infrastructure,
regardless of their original field of study. While someone who has studied in an
engineering program would be better suited to tackle more technical problems in
the future, introducing these students to basic fundamentals and concepts from
other fields will provide the student with the tools and knowledge needed to
cooperate with council members and others in a more informed and decisive
manner.

229
 CHAPTER 11

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

A National Infrastructure Policy (NIP) needs to be developed in Canada as a

national commitment by the three levels of government and the private sector, to
eliminate the infrastructure crisis and the associated infrastructure deficit. The policy
must address the issues that have caused severe deterioration and aging of assets,
escalation of the infrastructure deficit and a history of infrastructure-related tragedies in
Canada over the past several decades. The policy must also address infrastructure
financing, asset management, sustainable development, climate change and, more
specifically, the technical, political, socio-economic, and environmental aspects of
infrastructure planning.
Section 10.4 – Developing a Policy Framework outlined the recommended
criteria that must be met to successfully implement an infrastructure policy, according to
Howes and Robinson (2005). These criteria have been met with the proposed policy:

ƒ Goals and objectives: A National Infrastructure Policy is aimed at eliminating the

infrastructure crisis and deficit by rehabilitating severely deteriorated assets that pose a
risk to society and by turning towards more strategic investments and sustainable asset
management, among other specified goals.
ƒ Institutions: An NIP Implementation Office is proposed as an additional branch under
Infrastructure Canada to ensure the coordinated implementation of the policy and to
provide public and private practitioners, scholars, politicians and decision-makers with
a central source of information. Provincial/Territorial Offices and Regional Offices are
also suggested to ensure successful implementation. An Infrastructure Bank, such as
those established in some States, is proposed to provide a sustained funding source.
ƒ Resources: The proposed policy encourages the use of innovative financing techniques
and the Implementation Offices encourage decision-making between an
interdisciplinary group of professionals. Modifications to University curricula have
been proposed for better training of future graduates entering the domain of public
works.

230
ƒ Knowledge: Further research and development is needed to address the policy issues.
The proposed Offices are encouraged to work hand-in-hand with the existing
researchers at Infrastructure Canada, the Federation of Canadian Municipalities,
Transport Canada, the National Research Council and other infrastructure-related
organizations in establishing the infrastructure needs and priority lists. Recommended
improvements to the civil engineering curricula include shifting to a focus on
infrastructure renovation and upgrading needs and management practices, as opposed
to focusing solely on design of new facilities.
ƒ Information and communication systems: A proposed asset management information
system is aimed at improving communication between the various parties involved in
infrastructure planning, design, construction, maintenance, management, operation and
decommissioning.

Finally, the economic, social, environmental and political influences that are driving the
need for a National Infrastructure Policy have been reviewed; the related issues are
addressed and suitable mitigation strategies are proposed.
Only small steps are being taken in acknowledging the infrastructure crisis. Much
more is needed to ensure that the development of Canadian communities is safe,
productive and sustainable, and that, as a whole, Canada’s international competitiveness
remains high. “If we do not maintain our infrastructure, do not upgrade it, we’ll continue
to have spectacular collapses” (Mirza, 2007). Without a significant shift from the current
philosophy of design, build and forget to one of design, build and maintain, there is no
doubt that the recent, frequent infrastructure-related tragedies will continue to be a
common trend. The proposed National Infrastructure Policy and related implementation
techniques should be considered urgently if Canadians are to move forward to a
sustainable and prosperous future.

“The 21st century holds great promise for our nation. But you can’t journey to a
brighter tomorrow by relying on yesterday’s infrastructure” - American Senator Chris
Dodd, Chairman of the Senate Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, and
co-founder of the 2007 National Infrastructure Bank Act.

231
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252
Appendix A
Table A.1 Transportation infrastructure-related tragedies: Canada

Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
de la Concorde Overpass Collapse, 6/0/5 36 ƒ Design/Construction errors: insufficient reinforcement
2006 and improper placing of rebars
Laval, Quebec ƒ Deterioration: degraded concrete in an area with no rebar
ƒ Lack of quality control: use of low quality concrete
ƒ Poor design from a maintenance point of view: joints lie
above deck support leaving room for ingress of water and
de-icing agents at these critical points (Versace, 2007)
Peace River Bridge, 1957 0/0/0 14 ƒ Poor construction practices: inadequate foundation
Alcan Highway, British Columbia design. North abutment began moving in 1952.
ƒ Inadequate geotechnical investigation: investigation into
the cause of the collapse proved that a landslide of the
shale bedrock beneath the bridge led to instability of the
foundation
ƒ Lack of experience: little was known about building on
shale rock of the region when the bridge was constructed.
It is now known that with time this shale may turn back
into mud when exposed to water (APEG BC, 2007)
- 5 ƒ Poor planning and design flaws: bridge was poorly
Second Narrows Bridge, 1930
located – often hit by ships. The last barge to hit took away
Vancouver, British Columbia
centre span during high tide, pushing the barge up under
the span (Bouton, 2008)

253
Table A.1 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Under Construction or Rehabilitation Work
0/0/0 - ƒ Deficiencies in the design plans
Big Nickel Road Bridge Collapse, at
ƒ Failure to implement approved plans during
Lorne Street, 2004
restoration
Sudbury, Ontario
ƒ Unsafe/Negligent construction practices
(NorthernOntario.org, 2007)
Laval Bridge Collapse, 2000 2/0/1 - ƒ Unsafe construction practices/inadequate inspections:
Laval, Quebec concrete beams not properly secured and fell on a passing
car (Couvrette, 2006)
Heron Road Bridge Disaster, 1966 57/0/9 - ƒ Inadequate construction practices and use of materials:
Ottawa, Ontario lack of diagonal bracing on the wooden support forms and
use of green lumber (Laucius, 2006)
Ironworkers Memorial Second 20/0/18 - ƒ Unsafe construction practices and lack of experience:
Narrows Bridge, 1958 the weight of the unfinished bridge span was
Vancouver, British Columbia underestimated and not adequately supported (Bouton,
2008)
Quebec Bridge, 1907 11/0/75 4 ƒ Design errors: preliminary calculations not re-checked in
Near Quebec City, Quebec final stages – dead load too large
ƒ Lack of experienced supervision: on-site inspections by
experienced supervisor minimal, recent graduate on-site
ƒ Lack of quality control: some installed members had
defects (Ricketts, 2007)
254
Table A.2 Transportation infrastructure-related tragedies: International

Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Pakistan Bridge Collapse, 2007 - One ƒ Investigation in progress
Karachi, Pakistan month

Minnesota Bridge Collapse, 2007 79/0/12 40 ƒ Rated “structurally deficient in 1990”: fatigue cracks,
Minneapolis, Minnesota high levels of corrosion and other forms of deterioration
(rated by the U.S. government). The latest inspection rated
the bridge a four out of nine, where nine is perfect and zero
requires shutdown (Wald and Chang, 2007)
ƒ Design flaws: gusset plates were half the size they should
have been, sixteen were fractured in the central span
(McCarthy, 2008)
ƒ Negligence: The extra weight of construction added
additional load to the bridge, and thus to the inadequately
designed gusset plates (McCarthy, 2008)
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, 0/0/1 71 ƒ Careless driving: gasoline tanker crashed into a guardrail
2007 on a curving part of the interchange. A fire spread
San Francisco, California (2,750°C) causing supporting steel beams to buckle and
melting connecting bolts (Wohlsen, 2007)
Guinea bridge Collapse, 2007 - /0/65 - ƒ Inadequate design: bridge was unable to support the load
Gueckedou, Guinea of a passing truck full of passengers and merchandise
(Thomson Reuters, 2007)
Interstate 80 – Nebraska highway 0/0/1 36 ƒ Careless driving and possibly inadequate design: a
Collapse, 2003 tractor-trailer slammed into a bridge support and the bridge
Western Nebraska collapsed (Peterson, 2003)

255
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Toki Messe Sky Bridge, 2003 0/0/0 0.42 ƒ Design flaws: local buckling of a steel frame, concrete
Bandaijima, Niigata City, Japan inadequately reinforced, flexural failure of the PC
floorboards, etc. (Japan Science and Technology Agency,
2008)
Daman Bridge Collapse, 2003 20/0/25 - ƒ Lack of maintenance and needed upgrades: the bridge
Daman, India (23 were had been in a state of disrepair for some time (BBC News,
children) 2003)
Interstate 40 – Collapse, 2002 0/0/14 - ƒ Lack of safety system on the towboat: towboat’s pilot
Webbers Falls, Oklahoma fainted, other crew members were unaware, and the boat’s
two barges crashed into the bridge pier
ƒ No alert system on bridge: some deaths could have been
prevented if an alert system was set up to warn drivers that
the bridge collapsed – some kept driving (Curtis, 2007)
Collapse of the Queen Isabella 13/0/8 47 ƒ Inadequate reinforcement and protection of support
Causeway, 2001 columns: currents drove four barges into a bridge support
Cameron County, Texas ƒ Needed upgrades: Navigation lights on the causeway were
not working (BridgePros, 2008)
Portugal Bridge Collapse, 2001 - /0/70 116 ƒ Deferred replacement due to political inaction: ministers
Lisbon, Portugal were warned that the 116 year old bridge was unsound and
needed to be replaced; bridge pier gave way (BBC News,
2001)

256
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Pedestrian Bridge Collapse, 1999 14/0/40 3 ƒ Poor management and construction practices: company
Sichuan, China was awarded the contract to construct the bridge after a
local party secretary (a childhood friend of the company
manager) was bribed. The company may not have been the
best option for the job (International Herald Tribune, 2007)
Maccabiah Bridge Tragedy, 1997 60/0/4 - ƒ Bridge was built for the Maccabiah games – a pedestrian
Tel Aviv, Israel bridge for the athletes to enter the opening ceremony
ƒ Project not contracted to an engineering firm:
Contracting companies had never built a bridge before, nor
did they have a permit – they specialize in sets for theatre,
and stages for indoor and outdoor events
ƒ Sub-standard materials: bridge was built of rusted pipes
held together by wire – considered a “joke” by experts
ƒ Carelessness/criminal negligence: organizing committee
should have never awarded the contract to these
inexperienced companies
ƒ Design standards not checked nor met (Zycher, 1997)
Koror-Babeldaob Bridge, 1996 4/0/2 19 ƒ Primary cause not determined
Palau ƒ Speculations involve construction flaws: concrete deck
inadequate
Walnut Street Bridge, 1996 - - ƒ Inadequate foundation design: failure due to scour
Harrisburgh, Pensylvania caused by flooding (Northwestern University ITI, 2007)

257
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Seongsu Bridge Collapse, 1994 17/0/32 15 ƒ Deterioration: highly corroded due to use of de-icing
Seoul City, Korea agents
ƒ Deferred maintenance: low budget for the bridge
ƒ No standards: no technical standards outlining the
maintenance and inspections that would have to be carried
out on the bridge
ƒ Poor management: contract to construct the bridge was
awarded without a tender contract system – there may have
been better companies suited for the job
ƒ Construction/design flaws: Poor welding of the I-
members (Kunishima, 2007)
Collapse of the Santa Monica Freeway - - ƒ Earthquake: failure of the support columns
(Interstate Highway 10) and other ƒ Inadequate earthquake resistance: built prior to 1971;
highways in area, 2004 subsequently, earthquake resistance design became stricter
Northridge, Los Angeles (Cooper et al, 1994)
Winkley Bridge, 1989 18/0/5 77 ƒ Vandalism/Abuse: Approximately 40 young adults and
(“The Swinging Bridge”) children on the bridge began to make the suspension bridge
Heber Springs, Arkansas “swing” from side to side – leading the bridge cables to
give way (Swinging Bridge Village, 2008)

258
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Cyprus Street Viaduct, 1989 - /0/42 32 ƒ Lack of needed upgrades: not retrofitted to account for
Oakland, California significant changes in the design code for earthquake
resistance
ƒ Inadequate earthquake resistance: braces holding the
upper level to the lower level of the double-decker freeway
failed. In some parts, the upper deck was not properly
connected to the lower deck
ƒ Poor foundation design: some portions built on fill and
not on solid bedrock. The foundation shook side to side, but
also up and down during the earthquake (Law, 1999)
San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, - /0/1 53 ƒ Design flaws: Collapsed during the Loma Prieta
1989 earthquake. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers then found
San Francisco, California that the bridge had not been designed for the required
earthquake magnitude; Richter 8.0 or 7.25 (OBB
International Open Forum, 2001)
Hatchie River Bridge Collapse, 1989 0/0/8 53 ƒ Inadequate inspection: inspections performed without
Tennessee plans, therefore, the extent of scouring was not recorded
and monitored (Haestad Methods Inc., 2007)
ƒ Deferred maintenance due to lack of funding
ƒ Insufficient feasibility studies/planning: two obstructions
in vicinity of bridge and channel constriction caused
considerable scouring of the foundation (Kolstad, 1990)

259
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Schoharie Creek Bridge Collapse, 1987 0/0/10 30 ƒ Inadequate foundation design: not properly designed to
Schoharie Creek, New York resist scour
ƒ Inadequate inspection and maintenance: extent of scour
not detected or dealt with (Storey and Delatte, 2003)
Sunshine Skyway Bridge Collapse, -/0/35 31 ƒ Inadequate protection of piles and lighting on bridge:
1985 Failure due to ship collision with a central pier during
Tampa Bay, Florida foggy period (Nordheimer, 1985)
Mianus River Bridge, 1983 3/0/3 25 ƒ Structural flaw: a faulty pin-hangar found in river
Greenwich, Conneticut Deferred Maintenance: bridge was severely corroded –
corrosion caused displacement of the pin-hangar,
displacement caused shearing of pin and fatigue crack
ƒ Inadequate bridge inspections (Johnson, 1986)
Almö Bridge Collapse, 1980 - - ƒ Failure due to ship collision
Tjörn, Sweden ƒ Poor choice of design: It is still questioned whether
another design would have been more suited for that site,
where weather conditions and fog caused difficult
navigation. A suspension bridge design was considered and
would have provided larger clearance, but this choice was
disregarded due to cost.
ƒ No alert system on bridge: some deaths could have been
prevented if an alert system was set up to warn drivers that
the bridge was collapsing – some kept driving in the fog
(Jennings, 1995)
260
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Silver Bridge Collapse, 1967 9/0/46 49 ƒ Poor quality control during construction: one of the eye-
U.S. Highway 35 bridge connecting Point bar suspension chains had a small crack
Pleasant, West Virginia and Kanauga, Ohio ƒ Lack of maintenance: crack grew due to stress corrosion
and corrosion fatigue
ƒ Inadequate inspection: no thorough inspection for a 16
year period
ƒ Neglect of needed upgrades: built in 1928, bridge was not
designed for the loads it was carrying in later years
ƒ Poor design from maintenance point of view: only way
to have spotted the crack was to disassemble the eye-bar,
but chains were inspected using binoculars (advanced
inspection techniques unavailable at that time) (Corrosion
Doctors, 2007)
King Street Bridge, 1962 - 1 ƒ Poor steel selection: did not respond well to high loading
Melbourne, Australia combined with high temperature fluctuations – brittle
failure (International Institute of Welding, 2008)
Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse, 0/0/0 0.4 ƒ Poor design/lack of experience: extreme oscillations of
1940 the centre span of this suspension bridge – inadequate
Tacoma, Washington stiffness, unable to resist high wind loads, instability during
a moderate wind (Washington State DOT, 2008)
Falls View Bridge, 1938 0/0/0 40 ƒ Inadequate design and stability of foundation: structural
Niagara Falls, Ontario damage due to the weight of large amounts of ice (CBC
Digital Archives, 1938)
261
Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
While Under Construction or Rehabilitation Work
Tuo River Bridge, 2007 22/46/22 - ƒ Investigations in progress
Fenghuang, Hunan, China ƒ Collapsed as scaffolding was being removed from the
façade
California Bridge Collapse, 2007 2/0/0 - ƒ Collapse of wood and steel formwork
Oroville, California ƒ Safety Violations: construction company already had 5
reports of safety violations (Lagos, 2007)
Yekaterinberg Bridge Collapse, 2006 - - ƒ Primary cause uncertain at this time
Yekaterinberg, Russia
Motorway Bridge Collapse in 3/1/6 - ƒ Steel formwork buckled during concrete pour (The Seaside
Almuñécar, 2005 Gazette, 2005)
Province of Granada, Spain
Henan Bridge Collapse, 2002 2/0/10 - ƒ Collapsed while scaffolding was being removed (The
Henan, Central China Associated Press, 2002)
East Chicago Bridge Ramp Collapse, 17/0/13 - ƒ Poor construction practices: concrete pads supporting
1982 steel towers under the ramp were not constructed as thick
Chicago as they should have been (The Associated Press, 1982)
West Gate Bridge Collapse, 1970 17/0/35 - ƒ Design and construction errors: miscalculations and poor
Melbouorne, Australia judgment in the design of the steel spans (Flint, 2001)
Cleddau Bridge, 1970 5/0/6 - ƒ Design errors: steel box girders had design flaws (Flint,
Between Neyland and Pembroke Dock, 2001)
Wales

262
 Table A.2 (Continued)
Injured/
Age
Event Missing/ Principal Causes
(years)
Dead
Sandö Bridge, 1939 - / - /18 - ƒ Poor construction practices: Poor design and timber
Sandö, Sweden forms - scaffolding collapsed under the weight of the fresh
concrete (University of Cambridge, 2008)
During Decommissioning
Bhagalpur Pedestrian Bridge Collapse, 18/0/34 150 ƒ Railway industry largely to blame: train was passing
2006 under the bridge as it was partly demolished (two of the
Bihar, India three arches were already demolished)
ƒ Demolition practices questioned (The Associated Press,
2006)

(-) Values are unknown, unavailable in the literature or are not applicable.

263
Table A.3 Transit infrastructure-related tragedies: Canada

Injured/
Event Details and Principal Causes
Dead
Toronto Subway Tunnel Accident, 2007 2/1 ƒ A subway car was crushed by pieces of metal used as scaffolding
Toronto, Ontario for asbestos removal in the subway tunnel, killing a Toronto
Transit Commission maintenance worker operating the car
ƒ The subway cars were being used to push a flatbed car carrying
heavy metal, when the metal fell onto the car behind it
ƒ Lack of safety standards and precautions (CBC, 2007)
Toronto Subway Tragedy, 1995 36/3 ƒ “The Worst Subway Tragedy in Canadian History”
Toronto, Ontario ƒ Moving train collided with a stationary one
ƒ Inadequate training of personnel: new driver ran three red lights
ƒ Inadequate disciplinary measures: drivers should be penalized
for running red lights
ƒ Faulty machinery: a fail-safe trip arm failed, not enabling
emergency breaks (Craig, 1995)
Montreal Metro Tragedy, 1971 35/1 ƒ A moving train crashed into a stationary one causing a fire that
Montreal, Quebec lasted for 17 hours
ƒ $7 million in damage!
ƒ Faulty machinery: a jammed throttle prevented the brakes from
working
ƒ Inadequate fire prevention and ventilation: since the accident,
the city has adopted preventative measures, safety and evacuation
procedures, and rapid ventilations instructions (Halton, 1971)

264
Table A.3 (Continued)

Injured/
Event Details and Principal Causes
Dead
Victoria Streetcar Accident,1896 -/55 ƒ “The worst streetcar accident in Canadian history”
Victoria, British Columbia ƒ Negligent operations: a streetcar designed to hold 60 passengers
was packed with 142 passengers, causing the underlying wooden
bridge - the Pointe Ellice Bridge in Victoria – to collapse
(Ingbritson, 2007)

(-) The numbers are unknown, unavailable in the literature, or are not applicable.

265
Table A.4 Major outbreaks of pathogenic bacteria due to water contamination: Canada

Event Costs to Society Principal Causes

North Battleford ƒ 6000-7000 cases of illness ƒ Design error: water treatment plant built 2km
Cryptosporidium parasite ƒ $3.2 million compensation to 700 downstream of the sewage treatment plant, not
contamination, 2001 persons infected with cryptosporidium able to cope with the high level of contamination
North Battleford, Saskatchewan parasite ƒ Inadequate treatment: untreated water with vast
ƒ $15 million required to build a new amounts of cryptosporidia oocysts released in the
sewage treatment plant, downstream waterway from the sewage treatment plant
of water intake. ƒ Inadequate maintenance: The treatment plant’s
“solids contact unit” encounters problems after
scheduled maintenance
ƒ Political inaction and negligent operations:
several warnings, starting in 1997 that the treated
effluent discharged was not in compliance with
the environmental standards of the plant permit.
The plant foreman’s memos showed the poor
condition of the plant before the event occurred:
“This plant is obsolete, potentially hazardous….”
ƒ Inadequate training of operators and poor
management: There was greater importance on
saving money than on dealing with the plant
problems (Hnatyshyn Gough Barristers and
Solicitors, 2002)

266
Table A.4 (Continued)

Event Costs to Society Principal Causes

Walkerton Tragedy: ƒ 1286 cases of illness ƒ Poor planning: Contamination of a shallow well
Outbreak of E-coli bacteria ƒ 7 deaths located in close proximity of a cattle farm during
and Campylobacter, 2000 ƒ Approximately 2300 cases are a period of heavy rains
Walketon, Ontario associated with the outbreak including ƒ Design error and deficient/obsolete
people living outside of Walkerton, infrastructure: the water treatment plant could
exposed to the contaminated water on not deal with the levels of turbid water and the
a limited basis (McQuigge, 2000). water chlorination system plant had not been
ƒ 500 chronic cases of diarrhea working properly for some time.
ƒ 100 permanent kidney failures ƒ Negligent operations and unqualified
ƒ Estimated cost of the outbreak: over personnel: water managers were unaware that E-
$155 million coli was harmful, therefore citizens were not
promptly notified about the problems
ƒ Political inaction and inadequate levels of
treatment: The Environment Minister had
previously shown concern that chlorination was
insufficient (CBC, June 10 2007)
Cryptosporidium parasite ƒ 2000 cases of illness ƒ Poor planning and inadequate treatment:
water contamination, 1996 Source of livestock feces around the watershed
Cranbrook, British Columbia (CBC, 2004)
Cryptosporidium outbreak, ƒ 10,000 – 15,000 cases of illness ƒ Poor planning and inadequate treatment:
1996 Kelowna, British Water contamination with Cryptosporidium
Columbia parasite from animal feces
(CBC, 2004), (Rowe S., 1998)
267
 Table A.4 (Continued)
Event Costs to Society Principal Causes
British Columbia, 1980-1998 - ƒ Negligent operations and unqualified
(cases in Victoria, Valemount, personnel: Ineffective management of watershed
Princeton, Cranbrook, Creston, infrastructure to minimize contamination of
Revelstoke, Kelowna, source water (Rowe S., 1998)
Pentincton) ƒ Princeton: 88% of the population caught beaver-
fever (a beaver in the watermain!)
Cleaning solvent - ƒ Negligent operations: Wells contaminated with
contamination, 1983 dry cleaning solvent
Amherst, Nova Scotia

Toxoplasmosis outbreak, 1995 - ƒ Negligent operations and inadequate

Victoria, British Columbia treatment: Domestic cat or cougar feces
contaminated a surface water reservoir (Aramini
et al, 1999)

(-) Values are unknown, unavailable in the literature or are not applicable.

268
Table A.5 Major outbreaks of pathogenic bacteria due to water contamination around the World

Event Costs to the society Principal Causes

E. coli outbreak ƒ (First recorded outbreak of pathogenic E. coli due to

Sweden, 1965 - drinking water contamination) (Rice, 1975)

Jejuni enteritis outbreak ƒ Approximately 3000 persons in ƒ Inadequate treatment methods: municipal system
Vermont, 1978 Bennington, Vermont, developed with inadequately chlorinated water
C. jejuni enteritis ƒ Negligent operations: the water system was
contaminated with water from an unfiltered source
(U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1991)
Several epidemics outbreaks ƒ 7700 cases of illness ƒ Inadequate water treatment
Finland, 1980-1992 ƒ 24 reported waterborne outbreaks ƒ Main cause - contaminated groundwater rather than
surface water
ƒ Generally, Finnish groundwater is distributed in the
water supply network without any treatment or only
with alkalization (water source are very clean) (Lahti
et al, 1995)
Cryptosporidium outbreak, ƒ 13,000 people affected ƒ Poor planning: Source of livestock feces around the
1987 watershed
Carrollton, Georgia ƒ Inadequate treatment methods: “Current standards
for the treatment of public water supplies may not
prevent the contamination of drinking water by
cryptosporidium” (Hayes et al, 1989)

269
Table A.5 (Continued)
Event Costs to the society Principal Causes
E. coli outbreak, 1989-1990 ƒ 243 cases of illness ƒ Inadequate water treatment and severely
Missouri ƒ 4 deaths deteriorated water pipes: No water chlorination
(Swerdlow et al, 1992)
Cryptosporidium outbreak, ƒ 403,000 cases of illness ƒ Negligent operations and inadequate treatment:
1993 ƒ Over 100 deaths One of the two city water purification plants
Milwaukee, Wisconsin ƒ 880,000 affected (served by the contaminated with sewage, and the plant operated
affected treatment plant) under abnormal turbidity levels for a little over two
weeks (Blair, 1995)
E. coli and ƒ 633 cases of illness ƒ Negligent operations and inadequate treatment:
Campylobacter outbreak, ƒ 711 reported gastrointestinal Water supply contaminated with sewage discharge
March 1995 symptoms (Jones et al, 1996)
Fife, Scotland
Outbreak of Cryptosporidium ƒ 3 million affected ƒ Negligent operations and inadequate treatment:
and Giardia, 1998 ƒ Tens of millions of dollars spent Cryptosporidium and Giardia pathogens were found
Sydney, Australia on public inquiry and liability in the water supply system (Leiss, 2007)
settlements
E. coli and ƒ 921 persons reported diarrhea ƒ Negligent operations and inadequate treatment:
Campylobacter outbreak, after attending the Washington Residents consumed water from an unchlorinated
1999 County Fair well (Bopp, 2003)
New York State (Washington ƒ 116 cases of illness
County Fair)
United States, 1976-1998 ƒ 534,000 cases ƒ Divers Cases: waterborne diseases due to drinking
water system contamination (data compiled by
Schneider, 2007)

270
 Table A.6 The World’s deadliest rail accidents (CBS, 2007), (Francis, 2007)

Date Location Description Fatalities

22 May 1915 Gretna, Passenger train collides with troop train 227
Scotland
12 December Modane, Troop train derailment 543
1917 France
16 January 1944 Leon, Spain Train wreck in tunnel 500
2 March 1944 Salerno, Italy Train stalls in tunnel, suffocating 521
passengers
22 October 1949 Dwar, Poland Express train derailment 200
3 April 1955 Guadaljara, Train plunges into canyon 300
Mexico
29 September Montgomery, Express train collides with oil train 250
1957 West Pakistan
1 February 1970 Buenos Aires, Express train collides with commuter train 236
Argentina
2 October 1972 Saltillo, Derailment causing conflagration 208
Mexico
6 June 1981 Bihar, India Flash floods and a cyclone cause a railway 800
bridge collapse and train derailment
3 June 1989 Ufa, USSR Explosion of liquefied gas pipeline 575
engulfs two trains
4 January 1990 Sindh Overcrowded passenger train collides 210
Province, with freight train
Pakistan
22 September Tolunda, Faulty brakes cause a train to plunge into 300
1994 Angola a ravine
20 August 1995 Firozabad, Passenger train collides with a train 358
India stalled by a cow
2 August 1999 Gauhati, India Head-on collision of express trains 285
20 February Cairo, Egypt Train burst into flames and traveled 2.5 360
2002 miles before stopping
18 February Neyshabur, Runaway cars carrying fuel and industrial 200
2004 Iran chemicals derail and explode
25 April 2005 Amagasaki, Passenger train derails and collides with 440
Japan apartment building

271
Table A.7 Summary of rail accidents in Canada since 1991 (Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 2007),
(Public Safety Canada, 2005), (Fancis, 2007)

Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental

Injuries Impacts
31 January 1991 Ottawa, ON VIA Axle failure due to in-service stresses 0/0 Locomotive, one None
from shelled wheels coach, 1000 ft
(304.8m) of
track
13 August 1993 Sudbury, ON CN Wheel climb derailment due to lack of 0/0 Two cars, 1000 Leaked
side bearing clearance and worn truck ft (304.8m) of hydrogen
components. Hydrogen sulfide leak track, one switch sulfide
from incorrectly applied and
deteriorated mainway nozzle gasket
3 December 1993 Calgary, AB CN, CP Inadequate crew vigilance in the yard 0/3 Two None
locomotives, 200
ft (61m) of track
18 January 1994 Latornell, AB CN Runaway Train due to inoperative 0/0 None None
dynamic braking system and build-up
of snow and ice on brake shoes
23 January 1994 Longlac, ON CN Derailment due to closure rail fracture 0/0 26 cars None
initiated by vertical split head defect
24 January 1994 Calgary, AB CN Poorly operating hand brake, crew 0/2 Warehouse None
ignored operating procedure
27 January 1994 Montreal, QC CN Tank shell fractured from impact 0/0 Tank car Leaked 1,125
forces litres of
gasoline
30 January 1994 Westree, ON CN Derailment due to rail head fracture 0/0 23 cars, 1000 ft Spilled 79,000
initiated by vertical head split defect (304.8m) of kg of vinyl
track acetate, leaked
methanol

272
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
26 February 1994 Stavert, ON Algoma Derailment due to rail joint splice bar 0/0 20 cars, 300 ft None
Central fracture (91.4m) of track,
Railway electrical power
pole
6 March 1994 Markham, ON CN Derailment due to rail head fracture 0/0 21 cars, 1700 ft None
resulting from vertical split head (518.2m)of
defect track, railway
bridge

30 March 1994 Lethbridge, AB CP Dump truck hit the train at a level 1/2 One car, dump Diesel fuel
crossing truck, concrete leaked from
block building dump truck
25 April 1994 Orient Bay, ON CN Derailment due to roadbed washout 0/3 15 cars, 2 Leaked 1,500
locomotives, 500 gallons of diesel
ft (152.4m) of fuel
track
7 June 1994 Saint-Georges, QC CN Collision due to overly high operating 0/3 2 trains None
speeds in a yard
22 September 1994 Fort Langley, BC CN Collision with a garbage truck due to 2/0 Garbage truck None
inadequate warning/barrier systems
23 September 1994 Louiseville, QC CP Collision of the train with a motor 2/1 Motor home, None
home locomotive
17 October 1994 Lethbridge, AB CP Derailment due to rail fracture 0/0 Five cars, 300 ft Leaked 230,700
resulting from fatigue cracks (91.4m) of track litres of
methanol
18 October 1994 Regina, SK CP Unsafe operating practices 0/0 Four cars, 150 ft Leaked 4000
(45.7m) of track litres of diesel
fuel

273
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
19 October 1994 Lac Edouard, QC CN Derailment due to low operating 0/0 12 cars None
speed
28 October 1994 Etobicoke, ON CN Collision due to overly high operating 0/0 3 cars None
speed
4 November 1994 Riviere-Beaudette, VIA Collision with a tractor-trailer that 0/4 5 cars, tractor- None
QC was abandoned on the tracks by the trailer
driver as he saw warning devices
activate as he entered the railway
crossing
20 November 1994 Brighton, ON VIA Train hit a piece of rail intentionally 0/46 8 cars None
placed on the tracks
14 December 1994 Causapscal, QC CN Failure of computer-assisted train 0/0 9 cars, 2 None
control system to deactivate track locomotives, 800
blocked by a tractor-trailer ft (243.8m) of
track, bridge,
tractor-trailer
20 January 1995 Procter, BC CP Derailment after striking fallen rock 3/1 3 locomotives, 2 Lead sulphide,
cars 28,000 litres of
diesel fuel

21 January 1995 Gouin, QC CN Derailment due to deteriorated ties 0/0 26 cars, 2500 ft Leaked 230,000
(762m) of track, litres of
railway bridge sulphuric acid
29 January 1995 Netherby, ON CN Collision due to excessive speed 0/2 7 cars None
16 February 1995 London, ON CN Collision with a stationary freight 0/2 8 cars, 2 None
train due to operator falling asleep locomotives, 400
and missing important restrictive ft (122m) of
signals track
23 February 1995 Saint-Francois, QC VIA Car derailment due to broken switch 0/0 2 cars, 5460 ft None
(1664m) of track

274
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
31 March 1995 Toronto, ON CN Leak caused by fatigue crack 0/0 None Leaked 23 litres
of toluene
20 April 1995 Brockville, ON CN Two pedestrian fatalities at a level 2/0 None None
crossing
22 April 1995 Blue River, BC VIA Locomotive wheel fracture due to 0/12 5 cars, 5700 ft None
internal overstress cracking (1737.4m) of
track
18 May 1995 Toronto, ON CP Collision due to unsafe speed and 0/2 2 cars, 1 None
alcohol-related impairment locomotive, 100
ft (30.5m) of
track, 100 ft
(30.5m) of
fencing
6 June 1995 Saint-Leonard, QC CN Collision with a tractor-trailer 1/0 Tractor-trailer None
21 June 1995 La Doré, QC CN Derailment due to washout of 0/0 8 cars, 4 Leaked 31,800
subgrade from breached beaver dam locomotives, 700 litres of diesel
ft (213.4m) of fuel
track
24 June 1995 Lennoxville, QC Canadian Wheel climb derailment due to track 0/0 7 cars, 750 ft None
American irregularities (228.6m) of
Railroad track
Company
20 August 1995 Savona, BC CP Collision due to a missed signal 0/2 10 cars, 3 None
locomotives
1 October 1995 Greely, BC CP Collision due to a missed signal and 0/4 2 locomotives None
operator fatigue
10 March 1996 Dix, QC CN Derailment due to missing track 0/0 27 cars, railway None
components bridge

275
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
11 March 1996 River Glade, NB CN Derailment due to rail head and web 0/0 22 cars, 1400 ft Leaked 455
fracture (426.7m) of litres of
track gasoline, butane
21 March 1996 Oshawa, ON VIA Derailment due to frozen disc brakes 0/0 1 car, 1500 ft None
(457.2m) of
track
31 March 1996 North Bay, ON CN Derailment due to damaged switch 0/10 3 cars, 350 ft None
caused by a highway vehicle collision (106.7m) of
track
14 June 1996 Nicholson, BC CP Derailment due to a track buckling 0/0 11 cars, 950 ft Spilled 1,100
and incomplete tie renewal work (289.6m) of tons of coal
track
12 July 1996 Tecumseh, ON VIA Fatal striking of a pedestrian due to 1/0 None None
inadequate horn warning
14 July 1996 Mai, QC Quebec Collision due to an ignored signal 0/1 3 cars, 1 None
North locomotive
Shore and
Labrador
Railway
12 August 1996 Edson, AB CN Collision of a freight train and 3/0 23 cars, 3 None
runaway cars due to insufficient brake locomotives
shoe force
29 August 1996 Dalhousie Mills, St Wheel climb derailment due to car 0/0 3 cars Leaked 1,900
QC Lawrence body roll and truck hunting litres of
& Hudson hydrogen
Railway peroxide
30 January 1997 Brockville, ON CN Track side frame failure due to a 0/0 None None
casting defect, non-standard weld and
substandard fracture toughness

276
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
26 March 1997 Conrad, BC CN Derailment due to a depression caused 2/0 14 cars, 2 Spilled sulphur
by unsustainably high pore pressure in locomotives, pellets
the track subgrade 1200 ft (365.8m)
of track
7 April 1997 Pointe au Baril, CP Derailment due to subgrade failure 0/3 14 cars, 4 Leaked 45,000
ON caused by high pore pressure in loose locomotives litres of diesel
sand fuel, 30 tonnes
of lead sulphide
6 May 1997 Coteau-du-Lac, QC CN Derailment due to depressed subgrade 0/2 12 cars, 2 Leaked, 12,000
locomotives, 270 litres of diesel
ft (219.5m) of fuel
track
3 September 1997 Biggar, SK VIA Derailment due to fracture of lead 1/79 13 cars, 2 None
axle and inadequate employee training locomotives, 600
ft (182.9m) of
track

19 November 1997 Toronto, ON GO Collision and derailment due to train 0/56 12 cars, 1 None
Transit reversal without critical information locomotive, 500
ft (152.4m) of
track
24 November 1997 Carrier, QC CN Splitting of a tank car due to 0/0 1 car Spilled 51,326
fabrication with a gap and missing but litres of
weld sulphuric acid
2 December 1997 Field, BC CP Derailment of 66 cars due to 0/0 64 cars, 2500 ft None
inappropriate train handling decisions (762m) of track
1 March 1998 Lyn, ON CN Derailment due to inadequate 0/0 None None
maintenance and inspection of a
defective switch point

277
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
31 May 1998 Creston, BC CP Derailment due to saturation and 0/0 8 cars, 3 Leaked 21,000
failure of subgrade fill locomotives, 150 litres of diesel
ft (45.7m) of fuel and 90
track cubic metres of
silver/lead
concentrate
17 June 1998 Campbellville, ON St Collision due to operating errors 0/0 None Leaked 2,000
Lawrence gallons of diesel
& Hudson fuel oil
Railway
31 July 1998 Mont-Joli, QC VIA Collision with a runaway five- 0/3 1 car, 1 None
platform container car due to locomotive
employee noncompliance with
procedures
26 November 1998 Concord, ON CN Yard derailment due to rail breaks and 0/0 1 car Minor
under-inspected tracks anhydrous
ammonia leak
31 January 1999 Jasper, AB CN Collision due to extreme blowing 0/1 3 cars, 5 None
snow conditions rendering air brakes locomotives, 520
ineffective ft (158.5m) of
track
6 February 1999 Neswabin, ON CN Derailment due to burnt-off axle 0/0 20 cars, 500 ft Leaked
journal (152.4m) of benzene,
track, hot box dicyclopentadien
detector eand liquefied
petroleum gas
13 April 1999 Begin, QC CN Derailment due to soft subgrade 0/0 11 cars, 750 ft Leaked 230
(228.6m) of litres of
track gasoline

278
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
23 April 1999 Thamesville, ON VIA Derailment due to a reversed switch 2/77 7 cars, 1 Ammonium
locomotive, nitrate
150m of track
5 June 1999 Bellamy, ON VIA Collision with a motor vehicle 2/0 Motor vehicle None
26 June 1999 Keewatin, ON CP Derailment due to subgrade failure 0/0 None None
14 July 1999 Hornepayne, ON VIA Collision with tractor-trailer 0/8 8 cars, 3 Leaked 11,000
locomotives litres of diesel
fuel
6 August 1999 Windsor, ON VIA Collision with two wheelchair-bound 0/2 Wheelchair None
pedestrians due to poor condition of
the crossing
15 August 1999 Messiter, BC CN Derailment due to wheel fracture 0/0 None Spilled 5000
caused by shelling tons of mixed
grains
27 August 1999 Cornwall, ON CN Derailment in a yard due to 0/0 1 car Leaked 5000
insufficient hand brake application, gallons of Class
ignorance of company procedures 3 combustible
liquid
23 September 1999 Britt, ON CN Derailment due to deficient track 0/4 18 cars 127,000 lbs
conditions (57,606 kg) of
liquefied
petroleum gas
and 158,000 lbs
(71,667.6 kg)of
anhydrous
ammonia
consumed by
fire

279
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
9 October 1999 Bedford, NS CN Derailment due to damaged rail 0/0 2 cars, 800 ft None
caused by shelly damage (243.8m) of
track
1 November 1999 Poplar Point, MB CP Derailment of double-stacked cars due 0/0 3 cars, 3 None
to high cross-winds locomotives
9 November 1999 Limehouse, ON VIA Collision with a dump truck 1/17 3 cars, 1 Spilled fuel oil
locomotive,
dump truck

23 November 1999 Bowmanville, ON CN, VIA Collision with an abandoned tractor- 0/11 12 cars, 3 Leaked 11,350
trailer locomotives, litres of diesel
tractor-trailer, fuel
700 ft (213.4m)
of track
30 December 1999 Mont-Saint-Hilaire, CN Derailment due to rail head separation 2/0 61 cars, 2 Spilled 2.7
QC causing collision of two freight trains locomotives million litres of
hydrocarbons
that caught fire
30 January 2000 Miramichi, NB VIA Collision due to diversion from the 0/43 21 cars, 2 None
main track caused by a reversed locomotives
crossover switch
10 March 2000 Brossard, QC CN Derailment – the weight of the train 0/0 5 cars, 170 ft None
caused the track gauges to exceed (51.8m) of track
standards. The wheels of one of the
cars dropped between the rails
14 March 2000 Temagami, ON Ontario Derailment due to deteriorated track 0/0 23 cars Spilled 386,000
Northland conditions litres of
Railway sulphuric acid

280
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
22 May 2000 Cressman, QC CN Derailment due to vertical split head 0/0 3 cars, 400 ft None
(121.9m) of
track, railway
bridge
20 June 2000 Chalk River, ON Ottawa Derailment due to defective ties 0/0 13 cars, 600 ft None
Valley unable to withstand lateral loading (182.9m) of
Railway track
9 July 2000 Rockwood, ON VIA Collision with track machines due to 0/14 2 cars, 1 Released 200
diversion onto a siding caused by a locomotive, 400 litres of
reversed switch ft (121.9m) of petroleum
track, 4 track products
machines
30 August 2000 La Tuque, QC VIA Collision with a dump truck at a 1/1 3 cars, 1 Spilled and
crossing in non-compliance with locomotive, 515 combusted
safety standards m of track, dump diesel fuel
truck
28 September 2000 Limehouse, ON VIA Collision with a motor vehicle at a 3/0 Motor vehicle None
construction site
30 November 2000 Winnipeg, MB CP Derailment due to subsurface fatigue 0/0 Cars, track None
cracking of a wheel
9 December 2000 Blue Bell, NB CN Derailment due to failure of a thermite 0/0 7 cars, 660 m of Released white
weld track asbestos
11 December 2000 Shabaqua, ON CN Derailment due to rail failure 0/0 17 cars Spilled 100,000
following emergency brake litres of
application methanol
12 December 2000 Lone Rock, SK CP Derailment due to brittle rail fracture 0/0 12 cars, 600 ft Spilled 84,000
(182.9m) of litres of liquid
track kerosene and
150,000 litres
of liquid asphalt

281
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
19 December 2000 Imperial Mills, AB Athabasca Collision with two trucks due to 1/0 2 cars, 2 trucks None
Northern driver expectation of unoccupied
Railway crossing
8 January 2001 Bowker, ON CP Derailment due to exceedance of the 0/0 59 cars, 3500 ft None
lateral restraining capacity of the track (1066.8m) of
track
16 January 2001 Mallorytown, ON CN Wheel lift derailment due to high buff 0/0 5 cars, 2600 ft None
forces (792.5m) of
track

2 February 2001 Red Deer, AB CP Derailment due to wide gauge 1/34 2 cars Leaked 71.74
tonnes of
anhydrous
ammonia
15 February 2001 Trudel, QC CN Derailment due to an axle fatigue 0/0 25 cars, 800 m of None
fracture track
12 March 2001 Bonfield, ON Ottawa Derailment due to a vertical split head 0/0 13 cars, 500 ft None
Valley fracture (152.4 m) of
Railway track
12 April 2001 Stewiacke, NS VIA Derailment due to a vandalized switch 0/22 9 cars, farm None
supply building
9 May 2001 Burlington, ON CN Collision with a pedestrian 1/0 None None
1 October 2001 Kemnay, MB CP Derailment due to track cross-level 0/0 9 cars None
and alignment deviations
6 October 2001 Drummond, NB CN Derailment due to collision with an 0/0 9 cars, 1000 ft Released butane
automobile that stalled on the rail (304.8 m) of
crossing (the occupants ran for safety) track
15 February 2002 Dartmouth, NS CN Derailment due to deteriorated ties 0/0 5 cars, 300 ft None
(91.4 m) of track

282
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
22 February 2002 Port Hope, ON CP Collision due to inattention to signals 0/0 2 cars None
3 March 2002 Carmangay, AB CP Derailment due to surface defects that 0/0 8 cars, 500 ft Spilled 90
developed into transverse defects (152.4 m) of tonnes of
track ammonium
nitrate and 10
tonnes of potash
18 March 2002 Eric, QC Quebec Derailment due to sudden rail break 0/0 40 cars, 300 m of None
North track
Shore and
Labrador
Railway

26 April 2002 Winnipeg, MB CN Derailment due to wheel lift, train’s 0/0 8 cars, 300 ft None
high speed did not meet requirements (91.4 m) of
at crossover track, underpass
(type of damage
not specified)
2 May 2002 Firdale, MB CN Derailment resulting from collision 0/0 17 cars, 2 Spilled and
with a tractor-trailer locomotives, 700 combusted
ft (213.4 m) of 548,000 pounds
track, tractor- (248,569 kg) of
trailer a benzene-
dicyclopentadie
ne mixture and
162,000 pounds
(73,482 kg) of
hexene
13 May 2002 Kingston, ON VIA Collision with a low-clearance, 0/1 Tractor-trailer None
immobilized tractor-trailer

283
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
3 July 2002 L’Assomption, QC CN Derailment due to a track buckle 0/0 14 cars, 1830 ft None
caused by heat stresses (557.8 m) of
track
8 July 2002 Camrose, AB CN Derailment due to ejection of a 0/0 13 cars, 2 None
lightweight hopper car caused by locomotives, 860
transformed lateral forces ft of track
23 July 2002 Carstairs, AB CP Derailment due to track buckling 0/0 14 cars, 440 ft Leaked 200
caused by high compressive stresses (262 m) of track litres of
ethylene glycol
13 August 2002 Milford, NS CN Derailment due to track buckling 0/0 7 cars, 2.85 None
caused by an excessive ballast miles (4.6 km) of
condition from frequent surfacing and track
thermal stresses
24 October 2002 Hibbard, QC CN Derailment due to a longitudinal rail 0/0 6 cars, 275 m of None
fracture track
4 December 2002 Bullshead, AB CP Derailment due to sudden break 0/0 10 cars, 440 ft Spilled molten
(134.1 m) of sulfur that
track caught fire
21 February 2003 Melrose, ON CP Derailment due to a burnt-off axle 0/2 21 cars, 1 Spilled and
journal and subsequent collision with locomotive, 635 burned 407,000
another train ft (193.5 m) of kilograms of
track liquefied
petroleum gas
and 3000
gallons of diesel
fuel
27 March 2003 Sherbrooke, QC St Derailment due to rail failure under 0/0 11 cars, 150 m of None
Lawrence heavy axles track
& Atlantic
Railroad

284
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
12 May 2003 Manseau, QC CN Derailment due to fatigue failure of 0/0 1300 ft (396.2 None
the platform of a container car and m) of track
subsequent falling on, and fracture of,
the track
14 May 2003 McBride, BC CN Derailment due to guard rail 2/0 5 cars, 2 None
installation not meeting standards locomotives, the
entire bridge due
to resulting fire
21 May 2003 Gamebridge, ON CN Derailment due to track surface 0/3 49 cars, 1700 ft Spilled 250 tons
defects (518.2 m) of (250,000 kg) of
track sulphuric acid
30 July 2003 Villeroy, QC CN Derailment due to track buckle where 0/0 32 intermodal None
maintenance was underway platforms, 2200
ft (670.6 m) of
track

19 October 2003 Carlstadt, ON CP Derailment due to burnt-off roller 0/0 2 cars, 10 miles None
bearing and axle journal of track
14 January 2004 Whitby, ON CP Derailment due to brittle downward 2/0 200 ft (61 m) of None
fracture of the rail track,
automobile,
bridge
7 February 2004 Montmagny, QC CN Derailment due to car body 0/0 27 cars, 1500 ft None
oscillation, which may result with a (457.2 m) of
combination of high speeds and an track, bridge, 2
empty car weight, for cars of certain crossings
lengths
17 February 2004 Winnipeg, MB CN Derailment due to reversed switch 0/0 17 cars, 1600 ft None
caused by frost buildup (487.7 m) of
track

285
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
17 March 2004 Linton, QC CN Derailment due to vertical split head 0/0 22 cars, 140 m None
caused by fatigue failure (42.7 m) of track
18 April 2004 Linacy, NS Cape Derailment due to track irregularities 0/0 13 cars, 1100 ft None
Breton (335.3 m) of
and track
Central
Nova
Scotia
Railway
28 June 2004 Munster, ON VIA Collision with a dump truck 1/0 Dump truck None

8 August 2004 Estevan, SK CP Derailment due to a rail roll-over 0/0 1 car, 450 ft Released
(137.2 m) of anhydrous
track ammonia

17 August 2004 Saint-Henri-de- CN Derailment possibly due to 0/0 18 cars, 250 m of Spilled 200,000
Levis, QC differential settlement track litres of
gasoline and
diesel fuel
6 October 2004 Castleford, ON CP Collision with a private vehicle 1/0 Private vehicle None
12 November 2004 Levis, QC CN Derailment due to wheel failure 0/0 10 cars, 500 m of None
caused by crack propagation track, 2 switches
31 January 2005 MacKay, AB VIA Collision with a logging truck 0/3 9 cars, 1 Spilled 6500
locomotive, 245 litres of diesel
m of track fuel
17 February 2005 Brockville, ON CN Collision with two pedestrians 1/1 None None

286
Table A.7 (Continued)
Date Nearest Location Operator Probable Cause Fatalities/ Damage Environmental
Injuries Impacts
23 February 2005 Saint-Cyrille, QC CN Derailment due to wheel failure 0/0 29 cars, 4600 ft Combusted
caused by crack propagation (1,402.1 m) of propane tank
track, mill car
2 May 2005 Maxville, ON Ottawa Collision due to undesired release of 0/0 2 cars Spilled 98,000
Central air brakes litres of
Railway denatured
alcohol
3 August 2005 Wabamun, AB CN Derailment 0/0 43 cars Leaked 700,000
litres of bunker
C fuel and pole-
treating oil
5 August 2005 Garibaldi, BC CN Derailment due to incorrect train 0/0 9 cars Leaked 40,000
setup and operation litres of caustic
soda

287
Appendix B

Table B.1 Canadian infrastructure surveys – 1985 - 2007

Organization Group Details about Respondents and Main Objectives Year

Response Rate
Federation of Canadian ƒ 71 municipalities responded ƒ To establish an inventory of the state of infrastructure 1985
Municipalities (FCM) ƒ Approximately 300 were sent the survey in Canada
ƒ 100% response rate from 8 cities with ƒ Evaluate the trends in government spending on
populations greater than 400,000 infrastructure in the past 15 years
ƒ 50% of population represented for ƒ Determine the sources of funds for infrastructure across
municipalities in the 100,000 to 400,000 Canada
population demographic ƒ Determine the needs - financial and changes in
ƒ 20% represented for the 10,000 to 100,000 common practices – to bring the infrastructure to
group acceptable levels
ƒ Only 24 of 104 smaller-rural communities (FCM, 1985)
responded (survey findings were not
representative of these smaller communities)
FCM ƒ A “green card” questionnaire was distributed ƒ To update the findings of the 1985 survey 1992
to delegates at the 1992 Annual Conference in
Montreal

FCM and McGill ƒ 36% response rate: 167 responded of the ƒ Update existing information on the state of 1996
589 municipalities that were sent the survey infrastructure in Canada
ƒ 55% of national population represented ƒ Draw comparisons with the state of infrastructure in
(Al-Haroun and Siddiqui, 1995) 1985, as established from the previous FCM survey
ƒ Evaluate the impact of the Federal $6 billion dollar
infrastructure program

288
Table B.1 (Continued)
Organization Group Details about Respondents and Main Objectives Year
Response Rate
Technology Roadmap (The study did not constitute and new ƒ To update the deficit estimate, based on data from 2003
(TRM) survey) past surveys

FCM and McGill ƒ 51% response rate: 85 of 166 full and ƒ Evaluate the total municipal infrastructure deficit and 2007
partial responses were received the deficits for the main infrastructure categories and
ƒ 46% of national population represented sub-categories
ƒ Evaluate the influence of constraints such as population
growth and environmental regulations on the growth of
the deficit
ƒ Determine financial, managerial, technical and other
future needs of the municipalities in dealing with
infrastructure
ƒ Evaluate the impact of past surveys

289
Table B.2 Other Canadian infrastructure surveys – 2004 – 2006
Organization Group Details about Respondents and Main Objectives Year
Response Rate
Survey
National Research ƒ 13% response rate: 67 out of 545 ƒ Obtain information on actual and needed investments 2004
Council (NRC) – Institute municipalities/towns/districts in Canada with for infrastructure maintenance and determine how
for Research in population greater than 5,000 maintenance priorities are established
Construction (IRC) ƒ Determine which asset management practices are in use
ƒ Determine the state of Canada’s municipal
infrastructure
Survey on Municipal (Vanier and Rahman, 2004)
Infrastructure Assets
IPSOS REID marketing ƒ The general public: 1,173 respondents from ƒ To examine how Canadians rate the quality of various 2006
research and Municipal different provinces elements of public infrastructure
World municipal ƒ To determine how public views infrastructure-related
magazine issues and infrastructure among government priorities
(Gunther et al, 2007)

IPSOS REID/Municipal
World Survey

290
 Population Growth Aging of Infrastructure

2% Strongly Disagree

2% Disagree
3% 5%
7% 2% Somew hat Disagree
28%
24%
19% Unsure

Somew hat Agree

Agree
68%
Strongly Agree
40%

Climate Change Urbanization

0%

4%
10% 14%
18% 4%
14% 3% 12%

31%
28% 32% 30%

Figure B.1 Factors influencing the municipal infrastructure deficit.

291
 New Environmental Regulations Environmental Regulations
0% 0%
Strongly Disagree
2% 2%
Disagree
3% 7%
13% 25% 8% Somew hat Disagree
28%

13% 16% Unsure

Somew hat Agree

Agree

41% 42% Strongly Agree

Red Tape
Managerial Regulations

15% 2% 10%
10% 2% 7%
10%
12%
18% 17%

21%
24% 20% 32%

Figure B.1 (Continued)

292
 Lack of Technical and Managerial Expertise Lack of Training Opportunities

Strongly Disagree

Disagree
5% 3% 2%
10% 17% 0% 10% 23% Somew hat Disagree

Unsure

Somew hat Agree

10% 30%
27% 10% Agree

28% 25% Strongly Agree

Figure B.1 (Continued)

293
Appendix C

2008 Municipal Infrastructure Public Questionnaire

1) What is your occupation (if you are a student please specify in what field):

The occupations of respondents include:

Administrative Facilities Specialist,
Assistant – Corporate Facilities Nurse Student - Biology
Pharmaceuticals Department

Assistant Vice
Graduate Student – Student - Building
President Client Nurse - Manager
Civil Engineer Engineering
Services

Career Counselor Homemaker Painter Student - Business

Student - Civil
Chartered Accountant Human Resources Photographer
Engineering

Civil Engineer Information

Process Engineer Student - Finance
Technology

Civil Engineering IT Specification

Program Coordinator Student - Law
Technologist Analyst

Communication –
Advertising Intervenant Retired Student - Management

Regional Rep. for a

documentation
Day Care Educator Jr. Civil Engineer Student-Marketing
application –
Pharmaceuticals

Document specialist
Manager Financial RBC Branch Student - Sociology
Results – Bell Operations

Marketing and Scientist (Jr. Eng.) –

Educator Teacher
Research Associate Pharmaceuticals

Electrician Marketing Researcher Social Worker Technician

Electrician Marketing Structural Engineer Theology

Student - Accountant Writer

294
2) Age Group: (please mark an “x” beside the applicable group)

a) <20
b) 20 – 25
c) 26 – 30
d) 31 – 40
e) 41 – 50
f) 51 – 60
g) >60

Responses:

No. of
Age Group
Responses
<20 0
20 – 25 25
26 – 30 10
31 – 40 7
41 – 50 10
51 – 60 9
>60 3
Total 64

3) Municipality and Borough of Residence (e.g. Montreal, Rosemont):

Respondents are from the following municipalities:

Ahunsic, Mtl Lachine, Mtl Kirkland Rosemont, Mtl

Notre-Dame-de-
Beaconsfield Lasalle, Mtl St. Leonard, Mtl
Grâce, Mtl
Nouveau Rosemont, Montreal, Town-of-
Boisbriand St. Francois, Laval
Mtl Mount-Royal
Point St. Charles,
Chambly Duvernay, Laval Parc-Extension, Mtl
Sud-Ouest, Mtl

Dollard-Des-Ormeaux Longueil Pierrefonds, Mtl Rosemère

Plateau Mont-Royal,
Dorval Ahunsic, Montreal Longueil, South Shore
Mtl

Brossard, South
Gatineau Montreal Ouest Pointe-Claire
Shore

Greenfield Park, Rivière-des-Prairies,

Montreal North
Longueil Mtl

295
Figure C.1 Island of Montreal boroughs (Ville de Montréal, 2008).

296
Figure C.2 Laval municipal structure (2002) (Service Canada, 2008).

Figure C.3 Map of the Island of Montreal, Laval and surrounding Quebec
municipalities (Yahoo Travel, 2008).

297
4) Do you believe that in regards to the infrastructure in Quebec, Quebecers
are facing:

a) A small problem that can be overcome with increased government

spending
b) An infrastructure crisis: more changes than just increased spending are
needed to improve the state of our infrastructure!
c) An issue that is lately drawing too much media attention - the
infrastructure in my community is in an acceptable state
d) We’re facing problems with our infrastructure?

Responses:

No. of
Response
Responses
a 6
b 52
c 1
d 5
Total 64

5) Would you say that events such as the 2006 De La Concorde and 2007
Minnesota Bridge Collapses, the 2002 pipe burst on Pie-IX boulevard and
other tragic events have made you more concerned and aware of the
importance of infrastructure systems for the functioning and safety of a
community?

a) Definitely
b) Somewhat
c) Not at all

Responses:

No. of
Response
Responses
a 51
b 11
c 2
Total 64

298
 6) Which of the following main infrastructure categories would you consider
are in the most deteriorated state and are in the greatest need for repair?
Rank these from 1 to 6 (beside the given categories), where 1 is the
infrastructure category with the greatest need for repair and 6 is the
infrastructure category with the least need for repair. This means that every
infrastructure category should be numbered differently from 1 to 6.

Water supply systems

Wastewater and stormwater systems
Transportation systems
Transit systems
Social, cultural, community and recreational facilities
Waste management systems

Responses:
Total
Ranking
1 2 3 4 5 6 Responses
Water supply
systems 17 22 7 7 7 4 64
Number of Responses

Wastewater and
stormwater systems 3 15 23 11 11 1 64
Transportation
systems 35 11 8 9 1 0 64
Transit systems
4 11 9 12 22 6 64
Social, cultural,
community and
recreational facilities 2 0 3 5 11 43 64
Waste management
systems 3 5 14 20 13 9 64

7) Which of the following main infrastructure categories do you feel are

negatively affecting Canada’s international competitiveness, economic
growth and the quality of life of Canadians due to their present state? Again,
rank these from 1 to 6, where 1 is the infrastructure category with the
greatest negative impact and 6 is the infrastructure category with the least
impact. Again, this means that every infrastructure category should be
numbered differently from 1 to 6.

Water supply systems

Wastewater and stormwater systems
Transportation systems
Transit systems
Social, cultural, community and recreational facilities
Waste management systems

299
 Responses:
Total
Ranking
1 2 3 4 5 6 Responses
Water supply
systems 7 14 17 14 5 7 64
Number of Responses

Wastewater and
stormwater systems 2 12 17 16 12 5 64
Transportation
systems 36 11 7 7 2 1 64
Transit systems
11 18 6 7 13 9 64
Social, cultural,
community and
recreational facilities 3 5 7 7 9 33 64
Waste management
systems 5 3 11 14 21 10 64

8) Are there specific types of infrastructure (i.e. roads, sidewalks, water

distribution pipes, bridges, metro cars, treatment plants, etc.) that concern
you? Please list these and in a few words list what concerns you the most.

In many cases responses to this question were repetitive, the majority of

respondents felt that potholes, bridges and the overall state of our
transportation systems are in an unacceptable state. Deteriorated water
distribution pipes and transit systems were also primary concerns. For this
reason, only partial responses are listed here forth (A complete list is
available upon request):

x “Roads and sidewalks are of a major concern to me. They seem to be getting in
worse condition year after year”
x “I would say that their proper management concerns me more than their state.
Fixing things is not the solution. A sound maintenance plan is expected by all
residents. Isn't that one of the main mandates of government? If Government isn't'
taking care of the infrastructure they are providing, what are they doing? Also I feel
that government management lacks vision. Instead of creating new roads, and
tearing down old train lines we should be creating a better transit system. Taking
more than an hour to get to work is not more acceptable than taking your car to get
there. I suggest that a better transit system would bet a more appealing incentive
to get off the roads than toll booths. That waste water still goes into the river is
utterly unacceptable.I can go on and on here! “
x “Roads: where to begin? Cities basically apply a band-aid approach to road
maintenance and repair.”
x “Bridges are getting old, and it is not common practice to plan for future
maintenance. The same problem exists in the area of water distribution. This is
particularly worrisome in Montreal’s extreme weather conditions – which would
typically require more maintenance.”
x “Water distribution pipes- VERY OLD; Transportation Routes- NOT BUILT FOR
THIS AMOUNT OF TRAFFIC; Bridges – OLD!”

300
x “Water distribution pipes and treatment plants because they can have great health
risks both in the short and long term. Buses, metro cars and all transit systems
because people are very dependent on them”
x “The bridges are what concerns me the most in today's society after all that has
happened of late”
x “WASTE MANAGEMENT - encouraging reusing and recycling; minimizing waste,
odors and toxicity in landfills; keeping the community clean and appealing are
much needed.”
x “Given recent tragedies such as the De La Concorde overpass and Minneapolis
Bridge collapses, there is growing concern for the overall state in which our
infrastructure finds itself. I am pleased though by Montreal's investment to
implement an ozonation facility to disinfect wastewater before it flows into the
St.Lawrence!! An outcry to assess and improve the state of our infrastructure is
becoming an increasingly important topic of discussion. Better late than never
right?”
x “Transit - Costing more money but yet we are getting less service”
x “I feel that segments of roads are sometimes in such bad shape (generally pot-
holes) that it becomes dangerous to drive. For example, you would try to avoid the
pot-holes in order to not damage your car, but in doing so, you end up changing
lanes quickly, almost causing an accident. Even if you stay in your lane, some pot-
holes are just big enough to make you lose control of you car as you drive through
it.”
x “The roads are in horrible shape because cheap substitute material is used to
repair the roads (not even top grade asphalt is used let alone cement or other more
durable materials). The Metro is stopped at least twice a week during rush hour,
snow removal is also horrible (lack of storage space as well as long waiting periods
makes snow removal a problem leading to increased transit, transport, and road
problems).”
x “Environmental concerns are always an issue: are companies doing their part to
build infrastructures that are environmentally friendly?”
x “What concerns me the most is the under-funding and the absence of a long-term
plan that allowed our road transportation system to deteriorate, creating
an economic and serious safety issue for Canadians.”
x “Snow removal!!!”
x “Metro system: breakdowns, staff/maintenance strikes, constantly increasing
costs/fares”
x “Lack of compost pick-up (as they have in Toronto)”
x “Water distribution pipes: the City of Montreal repairs these in an ad-hoc manner
(i.e. only when something breaks, which has been often in recent years). Granted
the budget is not unlimited, but they only repair certain broken sections. In most
cases, only half of a pipe is replaced while the old half remains. Furthermore, the
City's reluctance to make water meters mandatory, especially for companies,
contributes to the perception that nothing is really wrong with our pipes.”
x “Ask any truck driver where they like to drive their trucks/van the most. Not one of
them will say the highways in Quebec are in good shape. I drive regularly between
Montreal and Ottawa and take highway 417 (on the Ontario side). I've been taking
this highway for more than 7 years now. It's always a pleasant drive and when you
get on the Quebec side, watch out!; Watermains”
x “I question security measures in place especially when I am reminded of the E-Coli
tragedy in Ontario. Roads - The obvious pothole situation seems to be getting
worse. How about looking at long-term solutions instead of the band-aid approach;
Water distribution pipes, in most places they are very old and water is leaking
away!”

301
9) Would you be willing to pay a toll when driving over major Canadian
bridges and highways, if it meant that the money would be used to implement
routine maintenance programs of our major bridges and highways?

a) Definitely
b) Maybe
c) No Chance

Responses:

No. of
Response
Responses
A 29
B 22
c 13
Total 64

Would you have had the same opinion if you were asked this question 10
years ago?

a) Yes
b) No
c) Unsure or not applicable

Responses:

No. of
Response
Responses
a 28
b 19
c 17
Total 64

No. of
Willing to pay a toll Same opinion 10 years ago
Respondents
Definitely Yes 15
Definitely No 8
Definitely Unsure or Not Applicable 6

Maybe Yes 7
Maybe No 10
Maybe Unsure or Not Applicable 5

No Chance Yes 6
No Chance No 1
No Chance Unsure or Not applicable 6

302
If you answered Maybe or No Chance, why? (Optional)

Most respondents felt that the Government would not use the collected funds
appropriately to improve the infrastructure. They also claimed that they are
already paying high taxes and gas prices. Partial responses follow:

ƒ “It would depend on how expensive the tolls will be, and I'm somewhat unsure if
the government would actually put the money to good use.”
ƒ “I pay enough in taxes! Perhaps better management of funds is in order!”
ƒ “The money is already there, the Government should use it appropriately”
ƒ “I'm much more informed today about the benefits of privatization infrastructure”
ƒ “I don't feel that the government has shown responsible spending in infrastructure
so far. If the government can prove that it has done its maximum to optimize its
spending and optimize infrastructure conditions, then I may be willing to contribute
an additional amount, on condition that there remains toll-free alternatives.”
ƒ “I believed that we Québécois are paying way enough taxed as is. The question
should rather be how could our Governments better manage our actual tax money
to permit the gradual improvement of the infrastructures. (This should have started
years ago and improvements done gradually, then we would not face the actual
crisis).”
ƒ “It is so hard to trust where the money will go.”
ƒ “Our current budgets should include routine maintenance programs as to protect
the safety and lives of individuals. I don’t see the problem as being a budget
problem, but rather a problem that extends to the policies, procedures, and
capabilities of government to implement the right programs that provide timely and
accurate results.”
ƒ “I feel like a larger part of the taxes on gasoline should go to road repair...driving is
already so costly that the thought of having tolls is worrisome”
ƒ “We are already paying more than enough to maintain the roads through gas tax,
licence plate fees, driver’s permits and so on. It's just that the money is used to
finance other programs or partisan issues (e.g. from what we heard the De La
Concorde bridge cost 4 million to rebuild and 6 million for the inquiry). Also when a
contract, whether for maintenance or new construction, is given it's always to the
lowest bidder and no supervision of the work. No one wants to be held responsible
for decisions or actions they take but that we have to live with. This results in the
present state of our infrastructures and more expensive in the long term for the
taxpayers.”

10) Would you accept the installation of watermeters (A water meter is a

small box outside your home that measures the amount of water used in your
home. The user then pays according to the amount of water consumed) in
your community if it meant that the money would be used to implement
routine maintenance of the water distribution systems, sewage disposal
systems and water treatment facilities in your community?

a) Definitely
b) Maybe
c) No Chance

303
Responses:
No. of
Response
Responses
A 28
B 26
C 10
Total 64

Would you have had the same opinion if you were asked this question 10
years ago?

d) Yes
e) No
f) Unsure or not applicable

Responses:

No. of
Response
Responses
A 36
B 11
C 17
Total 64

Accept the installation No. of

Same opinion 10 years ago
of watermeters Respondents
Definitely Yes 18
Definitely No 7
Definitely Unsure or Not Applicable 3

Maybe Yes 10
Maybe No 4
Maybe Unsure or Not Applicable 12

No Chance Yes 8
No Chance No 0
No Chance Unsure or Not applicable 2

If you answered Maybe or No Chance, why? (Optional)

Again, as with the tolls, respondents repetitively stated that they are
concerned that collected funds will not be used appropriately. Partial
responses follow:

ƒ “Before we pay more money our existing taxes should be used appropriately”

304
 ƒ “Before instating the tax though, I would continue programs in order to try to
educate people. If this would succeed we would all gain from it in the long term by
having more waste conscious people in our society.”
ƒ “I would only accept this if companies and corporations pay the same tax. If it’s a
citizen tax, they can kiss it goodbye.”
ƒ “This may imply that those communities who are "water conscious" will be
neglected when it comes to routine maintenance since their consumption (and thus
their contribution in dollars) will be less than high-consuming communities.”
ƒ “I believe that water should be controlled and monitored but I have a hard time
believing that all collected money would go towards water facilities and related
maintenance.”
ƒ “Again I believe that we pay way enough taxes as is, but regarding water usage I
would be more open to pay a certain extra amount or by usage due to the fact that
many families are still not water conscientious at all and waste way to much water.”
ƒ “After working in municipal waterworks, I realize how much potable water is
wasted by people. A lot of it is also wasted in watermain leaks in the water
distribution network. I was not really aware of this several years ago.”
ƒ “This must not be additional. If part of our current tax is removed and we get to pay
for what we use, then it appears more likely.“

11) How would you rank the following impediments to successful

rehabilitation and maintenance of our infrastructure? (1 = greatest
impediment, 6 = least impediment)

Funding shortage;
Political inaction;
Red Tape;
Lack of qualified personnel;
Lack of knowledge about the problems associated to inadequate upkeep and
management of infrastructure by politicians;
Lack of knowledge about the problems associated to inadequate upkeep and
management of infrastructure by the community

Responses:
Total
Ranking
1 2 3 4 5 6 Responses
Funding shortage;
7 14 17 14 5 7 64
Political inaction;
2 12 17 16 12 5 64
Number of Responses

Red Tape;
36 11 7 7 2 1 64
Lack of qualified personnel;
11 18 6 7 13 9 64
Lack of knowledge about the problems
associated to inadequate upkeep and
management of infrastructure by politicians;
3 5 7 7 9 33 64
Lack of knowledge about the problems
associated to inadequate upkeep and
management of infrastructure by the
community 5 3 11 14 21 10 64

305
12) What are your primary concerns, if any, about the state of our
infrastructure? Please list these. (Optional)

Most respondents expressed their concern that another infrastructure-

related tragedy will occur. Educating the public and the politicians, enforcing
routine maintenance plans and looking towards innovative financing were
among the needs expressed. Political inaction and needed changes to the
current civil engineering/infrastructure management practices are also
specified. Partial responses follow (A complete list is available upon request):

ƒ “How long before the next unfortunate list of events?”

ƒ “How seriously are we looking into this situation?”
ƒ “Are any of the politicians willing to do what has to be done regardless of their
political future? Of course not!”
ƒ “My biggest concern is that nothing is going to get done before things get worse
(i.e. it will get worse before it gets better).”
ƒ “What bothers me most is knowing the money is there. But somehow action is not
taken. Instead we are having typical answers like ‘it’s the temperature in Quebec,
we don’t have enough resources, money…”
ƒ “I worry that the essential issue of enforcing a maintenance plan will not be
addressed soon enough“
ƒ “Lack of creative financing models, uninformed politicians making key decisions
about fund allocation and inadequate operation and maintenance during
infrastructure life-cycle.”
ƒ “Public safety, efficient and reliable systems, continuous monitoring, impact on the
environment”
ƒ “Public unawareness...we seem to be moving away from democracy (where's the
public say in all of this?)”
ƒ “Lack of knowledge about problems associated to the upkeep of infrastructure.”
ƒ “Taxes, tolls, and other charges expected to be for one thing, yet being used for
other things and we are still in debt! Money never seems to go where it's
supposed to. We get taxed so much, yet can never manage to improve anything!!!”
ƒ “That it will take a serious accident (foreseen or unforeseen) or severe negative
economic impact on the city to incite any action on the part of government.”
ƒ “Go private, that's probably the best solution. Contract private companies or firms
to build the roads, transit lines and so on and have the above person in charge
(government) who will have it organized, make sure if something does begin to
break or deteriorate.”
ƒ “Reluctance of the people in a position to do something to actually do something.”
ƒ “Conventional thinking with one's wallet. People (including politicians, executives,
academics) lack the creativity to seek alternative ways of spending a dollar.”
ƒ “The scapegoating of engineers. This involves the absolution of responsibility by
everybody involved. It is to cover one's reputation above anything else, including
admitting any negligence or wrongdoing.”
ƒ “Especially in Quebec, the low-bid approach and the lack of any responsibility for
contractors after a certain time period.”
ƒ “The lack of any technical knowledge by administrative people. These are the
people most often making important decisions.”
ƒ “Education in general. New techniques and technologies exist. That is the greatest
quality of our kind yet we somehow manage to live in the past. People are reluctant
whether by ignorance or fear to adopt new practices or materials. A greater effort
should be made by engineers, architects, scientists and academics to connect with
the people who are actually carrying out the work.”

306
 ƒ “Impacts not only on our future, but that of the generations to come; possible loss
of life due to un-safe structures or conditions; impact on sanitary conditions such
as clean drinking water; impact on the economy.”
ƒ “The deficit is compounding, we need to act fast and consistently in order to
stabilize this.”
ƒ “Not enough money/funding is being diverted into infrastructure asset management
in general. More awareness programs should be put in place to encourage people
not to waste potable water for instance.”
ƒ “Politicians spend funds on what they think will get them re-elected, not the proper
administration of the infrastructure they provide. If someone yells loudly enough
and conjures up enough fuss from citizens about the color of the paint in the public
pool, that is what will be taken care of, whether the predetermined budget had any
money set aside for that or not.”

13) The infrastructure deficit is the difference between the funding needed
for maintenance, repair, rehabilitation and replacement of existing
deteriorated infrastructure and the funding available from all sources,
including taxes, government subsidies and grants, private sector
contributions, etc. If you had to estimate where our municipal infrastructure
deficit stood today, which of the following groups would you select:

<$50 billion
$50 - $75 billion
$75 - $100 billion
$100 - $125 billion
$125 - $150 billion
$150 - $175 billion
$175 – $200 billion
>$200 billion
>$1trillion

Responses:

No. of
Deficit
Responses
<$50 billion 5
$50 - $75 billion 4
$75 - $100 billion 10
$100 - $125 billion 12
$125 - $150 billion 11
$150 - $175 billion 9
$175 – $200 billion 7
>$200 billion 6
>$1trillion 0
Total 64

307
Appendix D

Table D.1 Canadian Infrastructure Programs – 1919 to 2007

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

Canada Highways Act ƒ $20 million total ƒ “To stimulate construction, coordinate ƒ 40,000 km of highway (Encyclopedia
(1919-1928) ƒ $80,000/year/province provincial activity and achieve some Britannica, 2007)
ƒ Remainder allocated uniformity of road standards” ƒ Federal government rejected the
based on population of provinces’ request to extend the
provinces program (Turgeon and Vaillancourt,
ƒ Federal-provincial 2002)
(Facette, 1998) share: 40-60
Unemployment Relief Act ƒ $48.3 million ƒ To provide employment after the 1929 ƒ Increased employment in local
(1930-1937) Depression construction industries
ƒ Public works projects to increase
(Facette, 1998) employment
Municipal Improvements ƒ $30 million in loans ƒ To provide loans to municipalities at 2% ƒ Municipalities were able to carry out
Assistance Act maximum interest rates necessary self-liquidating projects to
(1938-1949) ƒ $7 million was improve public works
provided
(Preville, 2004)
Bill 212 - Trans-Canada ƒ $300 million total ƒ To authorize the cost-shared commitment ƒ The world’s longest national highway -
Highway (TCH) Act ƒ Expected federal- of the federal and provincial governments 7,821 km
(1949-1971) provincial share: 50-50 to build a national highway ƒ New branches added ever since -
ƒ Final total federal ƒ To provide a highway from the Atlantic to 12,950 km (in 1999)
share: 66.6% the Pacific, to link Canada’s provinces and ƒ Total construction costs over $1 billion
major cities ƒ TCH officially completed in 1970 - 14
years after expected completion
ƒ Today, major upgrades are needed: 26
deaths and more than 900 accidents
(1988-1998) on stretch between Gull
Lake and Alberta border due to needed
(CBC, June 5 2007) upgrading

308
Table D.1 (Continued)
Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes
Road to Resources Program: ƒ Over $200 million ƒ To establish road networks in remote areas ƒ The 736 km Dempster Highway from
The Northern Roads Program (both programs combined) of northern Canada Dawson City, Yukon to Inuvik, NWT
& The Northern Road Network ƒ To provide accessibility to areas rich in (McCready, 1979)
Program resources ƒ Construction delays due to changing
(1957-1975) ƒ To construct and improve existing road federal government priorities
networks in the Yukon and the Northwest (McCready, 1979)
/territories ƒ A boom in gas and oil exploration
ƒ The Northern Roads Program from
1958 was reinstated as the Northern
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, Road Network Program
2002)
Sewage Treatment Program ƒ $979 million in loans ƒ To finance the construction of sewage ƒ (Information not available)
(1961-1974) ƒ $131 million in grants treatment and collection systems ƒ Improved water quality in some
communities, yet many other areas still
lack adequate sewage

(Facette, 1998)
Municipal Development & ƒ $400 million in loans ƒ “To promote increased employment and ƒ 2,429 loans approved for 1,262
Loan Act production […] by offering loans and municipalities
(1963-1966) incentives to municipalities to accelerate ƒ Total loans: $396,952,194
and expand their capital works programs” ƒ One third of the fund used to finance
water and sewer projects
ƒ Equal amount used to upgrade schools,
roads and bridges, transit systems and
civic administration buildings
ƒ Other projects funded: park
developments, recreation facilities,
hospitals, and power distribution
projects
(Infrastructure Canada, June 7
2007)

309
Table D.1 (Continued)
Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes
Atlantic Development Board ƒ Over $60 million in ƒ To promote economic growth in the ƒ Construction of new roads, power
Trunk Program grants Atlantic provinces (Nova Scotia, P.E.I, plants, research facilities and industrial
(1964-1969) New Brunswick, Newfoundland) parks
ƒ To improve the region’s road network
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt,
2002)
National Transportation Act ƒ (N/A) ƒ To change the role of the federal ƒ Creation of the Canadian Transport
(NTA) government in the area of transportation Commission (CTC)
(1967) ƒ The part of the NTA stressing the
federal government’s constitutional
responsibilities for the motor-carrier
industry was not implemented
ƒ The industry was left in the hands of the
provincial government and therefore the
federal government’s incentives to
improve highway policies did not
change
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, ƒ (Numerous amendments since
2002) 1967)

Outaouais Road Agreement ƒ $207 million (1972- ƒ To improve the level of service of the road ƒ Projects include the improvement of 3
Contribution Program (ORA) 2004) system in Outaouais, Qc highway systems, 8 urban arteries, and
(1972 - ) ƒ Share: 50 (federal), 50 ƒ “To reduce the inequality between the road 5 other projects involving road
(provincial) networks in the Ontario and Quebec parts improvement and expropriation
(Transport Canada, 2005) of the [National Capital Region] NCR” (Transport Canada, June 17 2007)
Neighborhood Improvement ƒ $100 million in loans ƒ To provide funding for water and sewer ƒ Upgrading and preservation of older
Programs (1973-1983) ƒ $200 million in grants systems, parks, etc. neighborhoods – 270 neighborhoods
ƒ Rehabilitation of homes, under a housing improved
program by the Canada Mortgage and ƒ Participation by 125 towns and cities
Housing Corporation (CMHC) across Canada
ƒ Over 310,000 houses rehabilitated
(Preville, 2004) (Wolfe, 1994)

310
Table D.1 (Continued)

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

ƒ $100 million in loans ƒ To provide funding for water and sewer ƒ Upgrading and preservation of older
Neighborhood Improvement
ƒ $200 million in grants systems, parks, etc. neighborhoods – 270 neighborhoods
Programs (1973-1983)
ƒ Rehabilitation of homes, under a housing improved
program by the Canada Mortgage and Housing ƒ Participation by 125 towns and
Corporation (CMHC) cities across Canada
ƒ Over 310,000 houses rehabilitated
(Preville, 2004)
(Wolfe, 1994)
Western Northland Highway
Program
(1974-1981)
Prairies Provinces Primary (There has been mention of these programs in the literature, but no other information available)
Highways Strengthening
Program
(1974-1979)
Municipal Infrastructure ƒ $1 billion in loans ƒ “Pollution abatement, sewage treatment and
Program ƒ $395 million in grants land development”
(1975-1978)

(Facette, 1998)
ƒ $221 million in grants ƒ Phase I: To increase uniform truck load limits ƒ Approximately $1 million for
Atlantic Provinces Primary ƒ A 50-50 federal- in the Atlantic provinces – consistent with those program evaluation (provinces)
Highway provincial share (75- of other provinces ƒ Phase I: improved trucking and
Strengthening/Improvement 25 for Newfoundland ƒ Phase II: To promote economic development in lower truck rates as a result of
Program between 1982-1988) the Atlantic provinces by improving the improved highways
(1977-1988) highway system (i.e., maintain road safety, ƒ (Further information unavailable)
improve transport and traffic flow) (OAG, (OAG, 1986)
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, 1986)
2002)

311
Table D.1 (Continued)

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

Community Services ƒ $400 million in grants ƒ To provide funding for projects related to ƒ (Further information unavailable)
Contribution Program sewer and water distribution , social and
(1979-1980) recreational programs, etc.
(Preville, 2004)
Employment Creation Grants ƒ $205 million in grants ƒ To reduce unemployment ƒ Funded 2,146 projects
and Contributions Program or contributions ƒ “To fund labour intensive projects within the ƒ 96% funded by grants
(ECGC) existing government programs” ƒ ECGC continued in 1986-87 to
(1982-1986) complete 20 projects
ƒ Projects included: “the construction
or improvement of sewers, city
halls, bridges, roads, sidewalks,
parks, industrial parks, sports and
(OAG, 1986) recreation centers and churches.”
Special Recovery Capital ƒ $194 million in grants ƒ To provide assistance in the construction, ƒ Projects included the construction
Projects Program (SCRPP) ƒ Federal-provincial strengthening and improvement of provincial of the Salmon Beach Bypass in
share: 70-30 (N.B.), highways, secondary and access roads under N.B. (Transport Canada, June 17
50-50 (P.E.I.), 62.5- the special recovery capital projects program 2007)
37.5 (Newfoundland) ƒ To enlarge, strengthen and therefore improve ƒ (Further information unavailable)
(1984-1994) and 50-50 (QC) the provincial highway network
Yellowhead Highway ƒ $50 million in grants ƒ To enlarge, strengthen and therefore improve ƒ B.C.: 7 rehabilitation projects on 2
Improvement Program ƒ Federal-provincial the provincial highway network highways
(1987-1992) share: 50-50 ƒ To increase and standardize the vehicle mass ƒ Alberta: 6 projects on a highway
(Manitoba, limit to ensure safe and efficient movement of and a truck route (grading and
Saskatchewan, goods and people across the provinces paving)
Alberta, B.C.) ƒ Saskatchewan: 3 projects involving
twinning, 3 safety-related projects,
and 5 projects involving structural
rehabilitation and resurfacing
ƒ Manitoba: Interchange and
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, Intersection Improvements
2002) (capacity and safety-related)

312
Table D.1 (Continued)

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

Yellowhead Highway ƒ $50 million in grants ƒ To enlarge, strengthen and therefore improve ƒ B.C.: 7 rehabilitation projects on 2
Improvement Program ƒ Federal-provincial the provincial highway network highways
(1987-1992) share: 50-50 (Manitoba, ƒ To increase and standardize the vehicle mass ƒ Alberta: 6 projects on a highway
Saskatchewan, Alberta, limit to ensure safe and efficient movement and a truck route (grading and
B.C.) of goods and people across the provinces paving)
ƒ Saskatchewan: 3 projects involving
twinning, 3 safety-related projects,
and 5 projects involving structural
rehabilitation and resurfacing
ƒ Manitoba: Interchange and
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, Intersection Improvements (capacity
2002) and safety-related projects)
Highway Improvement Programs ƒ $307 million in grants ƒ To enlarge, strengthen and therefore improve ƒ Manitoba: 21 projects on 4
(1987-1998) ƒ Federal-provincial the provincial highway network highways (resurfacing, grading,
share: 70-30 (N.B., twinning) and 5 projects related to
Manitoba) improving planning, communication
and evaluation (i.e., geometric
design guide, a pavement condition
survey, etc.)
ƒ N.B.: 12 projects to improve the
national highway system and one
project related to planning,
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, evaluation and communication
2002) (Transport Canada, June 17, 2007)
Newfoundland Transportation ƒ $640 million ƒ To enlarge, strengthen and therefore improve ƒ (Further information unavailable)
Initiative ƒ Federal-provincial the provincial highway network
(1987-2003) share: 100-0
(Newfoundland)

(Turgeon and Vaillancourt,

2002)

313
Table D.1 (Continued)
Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes
Cooperation Agreement for ƒ $15 million (federal
Transportation Development allocation)
(1988-1994) (Further information unavailable)

(Padova, 2006)
Trans Canada Highway Program ƒ $389 million ƒ To improve the Trans Canada Highway post ƒ Construction of additional lanes
(TCH) closure of the Newfoundland railway ƒ Resurfacing and widening of certain
(1988-2003) (Transport Canada, June 17 2007) sections
(Padova, 2006) ƒ Other repairs and rehabilitation
Public Highways Act ƒ (N/A) ƒ Applies to highways within a province, not ƒ (Numerous amendments since
(1989) within borders of cities or towns or owned 1989)
by a municipality
Federal Infrastructure Works ƒ $6 billion (partnership ƒ To accelerate economic recovery by ƒ 12,000 projects
Program between the three levels providing short-and long-term jobs by ƒ 10,000 jobs created (Government of
(1993-1998) of government) investing in local communities Newfoundland and Labrador, 1997)
ƒ Allocation based equally ƒ To upgrade municipal infrastructure through ƒ Projects funded include: water
on population and job creation in the area of infrastructure treatment and distribution systems,
unemployment rate sewage and drainage facilities,
earthworks, road networks, public
facilities
ƒ Boost in the economy and improved
standard of living
ƒ 60% of funding towards new
(Siddiqui, 1997) construction
Strategic Capital Investment ƒ Total estimated cost: ƒ Improving the national transportation system ƒ Actual money spent = $6.6 million
Initiative-Highways $579 million in grants ƒ (Further information unavailable)
(1993-1999) ƒ Actual investment: $6.6
million
ƒ Federal-provincial
share: 50-50 (All
(Transport Canada, 2000) provinces except P.E.I.)

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Table D.1 (Continued)
Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes
Canada Infrastructure Works ƒ $2.43 billion ƒ To promote the development and ƒ Was to initially last 2 years but was
Program (CIWP) ƒ ($2 billion by federal maintenance of municipal infrastructure. extended
(1993-1998) government and $4 Namely the upgrading of water and sewer ƒ The final 3 years were without
billion by provinces and systems, roads, bridges and public buildings funding
territories in matching ƒ 81,000 person years of employment
funds) ƒ 61,000 direct jobs
ƒ 120,000 indirect jobs
(Preville, 2004) (Stefanson, 1998)
Fixed Link Highway ƒ $43 million in grants ƒ To provide funding to assist in dealing with ƒ The rehabilitation of 16 roads
Improvement Agreement ƒ Federal-provincial increased highway congestion – post ƒ Construction of McAuslands Bridge
(FLNK) share: 100-0 (N.B., construction of the Confederation Bridge ƒ Bridge repairs and rehabilitation
P.E.I.) (i.e., increase capacity and improve safety of projects
highway system) ƒ Lane expansion projects (Preville,
(1994-1998) 2004)
Atlantic Region Freight ƒ $326 million ƒ To assist the provinces with improving their ƒ Projects include improving the
Assistance Transition Program ƒ Federal-provincial highway system – post abolition of the geometry and drainage, as well as
(1995-2001) share: 100-0 (N.B., N.S., Atlantic Region Freight Assistance Act and performing rehabilitation and
P.E.I., QC) the Maritime Freight Rates Act reconstruction of 7 major highways
ƒ To increase the productivity of the ƒ The rehabilitation of other road
transportation system networks and bridges
ƒ Providing shipper assistance (100%
federal funding) (Transport Canada,
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, June 17 2007)
2002)
Canada Agri-Infrastructure ƒ $140 million in grants ƒ To improve agriculture-related infrastructure ƒ Large contributions to improving
Program (CAIP) ƒ Federal-provincial across Western Canada road and highway infrastructure
(1996-2001) share: 100-0 (B.C., required by new grain transportation
Alberta, SK, Manitoba) patterns
ƒ Both new construction and
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt, rehabilitation
2002) ƒ Closure of many rail branch lines

315
Table D.1 (Continued)

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

Canada Agri-Infrastructure ƒ $140 million in grants ƒ To improve agriculture-related infrastructure ƒ Large contributions to improving
Program (CAIP) ƒ Federal-provincial across Western Canada road and highway infrastructure
(1996-2001) share: 100-0 (B.C., required by new grain transportation
Alberta, SK, patterns
Manitoba) ƒ Both new construction and
rehabilitation
ƒ Closure of many rail branch lines
(Turgeon and Vaillancourt,
2002)
Infrastructure Canada Program ƒ $2.05 billion ƒ Improve municipal infrastructure ƒ Over 3,500 ICP projects have been
(ICP) ƒ ($1.975 billion to fund ƒ Focus on water and wastewater treatment announced
(2000-2007) program, remainder systems, roads and highways ƒ Replaced the CIWP in 2000 budget
for administrative ƒ A strong emphasis on “green” municipal
costs) infrastructure
ƒ Target small local projects
(Preville, 2004)

316
Table D.1 (Continued)

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

Federation of Canadian ƒ $550 million (FCM, ƒ To fund environmental infrastructure projects ƒ 600 studies, field test, plans and
Municipalities Green Municipal 1997) ƒ To help reduce pollution and greenhouse gas capital projects approved for
Funds (GMF) emissions funding so far (Ongoing)
(2000- ) ƒ To improve air, water and soil quality ƒ Generated over $1.9 billion in
ƒ To promote the use of renewable energy economic activity in over 300
(Preville, 2004) communities (FCM, June 25 2007)
Cultural Spaces Canada Program ƒ $80 million ƒ To “support the improvement, renovation, and ƒ 210 projects funded
(2001-2004) ƒ (An average creation of arts and heritage facilities, as well
$2.43/capita) as specialized equipment purchases and
feasibility studies”
ƒ Improved accessibility to museums, arts and
(Preville, 2004) heritage facilities, and other cultural spaces
Prairie Grain Road Programs ƒ $175 million (Federal) ƒ To improve the condition of roads used to ƒ $318.5 million in road construction
(PGRP) transport grain in the Prairie Provinces and in in Western Canada (through federal,
(2001-2006) the Peace River region of B.C. provincial and municipal
ƒ Roads include municipal, rural and secondary government contributions)
provincial roads/highways in Manitoba, (Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada,
(Preville, 2004) Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia 2007)
Strategic Highway Infrastructure ƒ $600 million ($500 ƒ To improve highway construction and the ƒ Numerous projects related to:
Program (SHIP) million - highway national highway system ƒ Intelligent Transportation
(2001-2005) construction, $100 ƒ To fund strategic initiatives (i.e., Intelligent Systems
million - improve Transportation Systems - ITS, improved ƒ Highways
national highway transportation planning, etc.) ƒ Borders
system, $15 million - ƒ “To support trade, tourism and investment in
administrative costs) Canada”
ƒ Extra $100 million for
strategic initiatives
ƒ Minimum of $4
million/jurisdiction
plus additional share
(Preville, 2004) based on population

317
Table D.1 (Continued)

Program/Act Investment Objectives Main Outcomes

Canada Strategic Infrastructure ƒ $2 billion ƒ To fund larger-scale national infrastructure ƒ Investments were established based
Fund ƒ Additional $2 billion projects on populations
(2001- ) in 2003 budget ƒ To encourage more partnerships in order to ƒ Investments in five categories 1)
meet national needs highway and railway, 2) local
ƒ To help meet climate change objectives and transportation, 3) tourism or urban
encourage sustainable development development, 4) water and sewage
and 5) broadband infrastructure
ƒ (Ongoing)

Border Infrastructure Fund (BIF) ƒ $600 million ƒ To help minimize congestion and increase ƒ (Ongoing)
(2002-2013) efficiency/capacity at the U.S.-Canada border
ƒ “Support Initiatives under the Smart Borders
Action Plan”
ƒ Ensure the secure flow of people and goods
(Preville, 2004)
Rural Municipal Infrastructure ƒ $1 billion ƒ To create a balance between the infrastructure ƒ 80% of funding to municipalities
Fund (RMIF) ƒ $15 million/province needs of rural and urban communities with populations less than 250,000
(2004- ) or territory ƒ Remainder of funding to
ƒ Remainder allocated municipalities with populations
based on population between 25,000 and 250,000
ƒ (Ongoing)
(Preville, 2004)
Building Canada Plan ƒ $33 billion ƒ To support infrastructure owned by the three ƒ (Ongoing)
(2007-2014) (Government of levels of government
Canada, 2007) ƒ Experiment with new financing alternatives
ƒ Expand new gateways and corridors
ƒ Support the Asia-Pacific Gateway and
Corridor Initiative

318