BATAAN HEROES

Balanga City, B

CHARACTER FORMAT
LEADERSHIP, DECIS
MAKING, MANAGEME
ADMINISTRATIO

MODULE 3
LESSON 4

4.1 DECISION - MAKING CONCEPTS

Decision-making can be seen as a problem-solving process that generates a

solution that is considered to be ideal, or at least acceptable. Consequently, is a
mechanism that can be more or less logical or irrational and based on overt or implicit
knowledge and beliefs. In dynamic decision-making processes, implicit information is
often used to fill holes (Brockmann, 2016). Typically, all, implicit and explicit, of these
forms of information are used together in the decision-making process.

A significant part of decision-making involves evaluating a finite range of

alternatives that are defined in terms of evaluative criteria. So the challenge would be to
rate these alternatives in terms of how appealing they are to the decision-maker while
considering all the criteria at the same time. Another objective may be to find the best
alternative or to assess the relative overall value of each alternative when all the
parameters are simultaneously considered.

The Multiple-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) focuses on solving these

problems. While very old, this field of decision-making has drawn attention from many
researchers and practitioners, and is still widely debated as there are many MCDA
approaches that can produce very different results when applied to exactly the same
data (Triantaphyllou, 2000).

4.2 ENVIRONMENTAL MAKING INFLUENCE IN DECISION

The environment of decision makers will play a role in the decision-making

process. A factor affecting cognitive performance, for example, is environmental
uncertainty (Davidson, 2006).

A complex environment is an environment with a great number of potentially

different states that come and go over time (Godfrey-Smith, 2001). Studies conducted
at the University of Colorado have shown that more complex environments associate
with higher cognitive performance, suggesting the setting can affect a decision. One
experiment assessed complexity in a space by the amount of small objects and devices
present; less of those items were in a simple environment. The higher measure of
environmental uncertainty has positively improved executive performance, making it
harder to think about the situation and make a rational decision.
4.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF DECISION-MAKING (Monahan, 2000).

● Objectives have to be set first.

● Requirements must be graded and placed in order of importance.
● We need to build alternate acts.
● The alternatives must be measured against all targets.
● Tentative decision is the option which can accomplish all the objectives.
● The tentative decision is evaluated for more possible consequences.
● The preliminary decision is reviewed for more potential implications.
● Decisive action is taken and further action is taken to avoid any negative effects
from being issues and to continue all processes all over again.
● There are usually followed steps leading to a decision model that could be used
to assess an optimal production schedule.

4.4 THE NINE (9) CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DECISION

If you don't know how to handle tension or if the results are less than optimal,
decision-making can be the single-greatest weight on your shoulders. So, how do you
know what makes a strong decision? Here are the nine attributes of a positive decision:

1. Decisions positively impact others.

2. Decisions are replicable.
3. Decisions foster opportunity. (Empowers others to act)
4. Decisions include others.
5. Decisions are executable.
6. Decision is systematic.
7. Decisions are accountable.
8. Decisions are pragmatic.
9. Decisions involve self-awareness.

4.5 DECISION-MAKING TECHNIQUES

Decision-making techniques can be separated into two broad categories:

1. Group Decision-Making Techniques
2. Individual Decision-Making Techniques
Individual decision-making techniques can also often be applied by a group.

GROUP DECISION-MAKING
Also known as "Collaborative Decision-Making", is a situation faced when
individuals collectively make is choice from the alternatives before them. The decision is
then no longer attributable to any single individual who is a member of the group. This is
because the result applies to certain systems of individuals and social classes such as
social power. Community decisions often vary from those taken by individuals.

Collaborative decision taking in workplace environments is one of the most

effective models for creating buy-in from other stakeholders, building trust and
promoting innovation. In keeping with the concept of cooperation, collective decisions
often appear to be more successful than decisions made by a single person. In this
way, such collective agreements have the ability to deliver better net output results than
individuals working alone (Larson, 2010).

Collaborative or collective decision-making would often be preferred under

normal daily circumstances and will produce more benefits than individual decision-
making when there is room for proper deliberation, negotiation and dialogue. This can
be achieved using committee, teams, organizations, alliances or other social
collaboration processes.

For certain cases, however, this approach may also have disadvantages. Certain
methods of decision- making may be better in serious emergencies or crisis situations
because emergency actions can need to be taken quicker, with less time for
deliberation.

On the other hand, additional considerations must also be taken into account
when evaluating the appropriateness of a decision-making framework. For instance, the
likelihood of group fragmentation may often also occur, causing certain groups to make
more drastic decisions in the direction of individual inclinations than those of their
individual members (Moscovici, 1969).

INDIVIDUAL DECISION-MAKING
In general, an person takes prompt decisions. When in a group, keeping any one
person responsible for a wrong decision is not easy. Human decision taking usually
saves time, resources, and energy as individuals make timely and rational choices.
Although taking group decision takes a lot of time, money and energy.

4.6 DECISION MAKING APPROACHES

We make the majority of the decisions, as individuals. It is important to look at

the approaches that we follow in our individual decision-making in the effort to take
more successful decisions.
 As the outcomes of the decisions are not clear, it is necessary to concentrate on
how a decision is made to increase the consistency of the decision. By looking at the
approaches to decision-making, we aim to highlight certain potential for change that can
be accomplished regardless of a particular decision strategy.

There are a variety of ways to describe decision- making methods but we will find
three broad groupings for our purposes. For certain cases, we all prefer to take actions
at one time or another using all of the methods. Think about which approach will better
describe how you make most of your choices, or prefer making your choices.

1. RATIONAL OR ANALYTICAL APPROACH

● Exemplified by systematic decision-making.

● Defines upfront success factors
● Looks for details and objectively explores how each solution meets each success
factor.
● Decision-making is organized and decisions can be taken under the assumption
of the desired solutions except for major unforeseeable or unpredictable
incidents.
● Consideration of the implications of the final decision.

2. INTUITIVE DECISION MAKING APPROACH

● Relying on emotions and feelings.

● Careful planning is not possible or not desired.
● People will point to a "gut feeling" or "hunch" as the cause for a choice, reflecting
that explanation is not accessible through conscious thought.

3. RANDOM OR CHANCE APPROACH

● In this approach a decision is made on impulse, without thought.

● Flipping a coin or using a "decision wheel" would be representative of employing
this approach.
● It is sometimes considered a dependent style because this approach can
promote denial of responsibility.

DECISION MAKING APPROACHES A CONSEQUENCE OF PERSONALITY

 Any of our emotional and thought processes can be defined by personality, so it's
natural to assume that our preferred approach to decision making is a feature of our
personality. The example proof that our personality develops over time and evolves.
This may also imply changes in personality result from our approach to decision taking
that contribute to improvements in our thought processes.

SUGGESTIONS FOR IMPROVEMENT

Rational or Analytic Decision Makers

a. Have ready a decision-making process that you know works. This helps you to jump
directly through a decision-making phase without having to postpone deciding the steps
you will be taking.
b. Gain knowledge of pitfalls and prejudices in decision taking so they can be avoided
when making a decision.

Intuitive Decision Maker

a. Ask or accept broad questions well in advance of a decision. It helps the unconscious
mind to work behind the scenes to provide ideas and suggestions for a decision.
b. Know where and where your intuition is working, and not. Intuition works best in
places we have a great deal of expertise in.
c. Increasing reflection. This makes insight more credible, as experiences are
interpreted and applied with thought to the subconscious that helps to categorize the
experience more accurately.
d. Play games which involve decision-making. Games that simulate life choices provide
a low- risk environment where patterns can be formed to improve intuition.

Random or Chance Decision Maker

a. Improve awareness and appreciation. Recognizing positive results as they arise
increases the probability of successful outcomes.
b. Apply know-how. It will increase the basis for understanding good opportunities
versus bad ones.
c. Know the risks and the uncertainties. Choosing where the chances are in your favor,
is a smart way to maximize positive results.

SIMILAR DECISION-MAKING

1. GOFER (Mann, L., 1980)

FIVE DECISION-MAKING Steps:

1. Goals clarification: Survey values and objectives.
2. Options generation: Consider a wide range of alternative actions.
3. Facts-finding: Search for information.
4. Consideration of Effects: Weigh the positive and negative consequences of the
options.
5. Review and implementation: Plan how to review the options and implement them.

2. DECIDE (Guo, K., 2008)

1. Define the problem

2. Establish or (constraints) Enumerate all the criteria
3. Consider or Collect all the alternatives
4. Identify the best alternative
5. Develop and implement a plan of action
6. Evaluate and monitor the solution and examine feedback when necessary

3. OTHER

1. SEVEN DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES (Brown, P., 2001)

a. Outline the goal and outcome.
b. Gather data.
c. Develop alternatives (i.e., brainstorming).
d. List pros and cons of each alternative.
e. Make the decision.
f. Immediately take action to implement it.
g. Learn from and reflect on the decision.

2. EIGHT STAGES OF MORAL DECISION-MAKING (Pijanowski, J., 2009)

a. Create and nurture the relationships, norms, and procedures that will influence how
problems are understood and communicated. This stage takes place prior to and o and
during a moral dilemma.
b. Recognize that a problem exists.
c. Identify competing explanations for the problem, and evaluate the drivers behind
those interpretations.
d. Sift through various possible actions ог responses and determine which is more
justifiable.
e. Examine the competing commitments which may distract from a more moral course
of action and then prioritize and commit to moral values over other personal, institutional
or social values.
f. Follow through with action that supports the more justified decision.
g. Reflection in action.
h. Reflection on action.

4.7 DECISION MAKING MODELS IN CRIMINAL JUSTICE

For criminal justice, decision-making requires more than studying the rules and
applying them to individual cases. Decisions are based on discretion, that is, the
exercise of human judgment in order to make decisions about alternative courses of
action.
Professionals in criminal justice have little time to make important decisions
which may be the difference between life and death. While there is no difference making
process that is foolproof, training, conditioning, and practice among criminal justice help
these professionals react more rationally and strategically in the heat of the moment.

4.8 DECISION MAKING CHALLENGES FOR CRIMINAL JUSTICE PROFESSIONALS

Events of over-exposure, which are characterized as unpredictable, erratic, volatile and

under conditions of high stress, impair the capacity of a criminal justice professional to
make a reasonable, rational decision. Criminal justice practitioners will experience a lag
period in their decision-making skills during these events. Many obstacles called
psychological prisons may also have a negative impact on the willingness of a police
officer to take decisions.

The Consequences of Making the Wrong Decision

● Loss of life.
● Departmental or jurisdictional administrative costs.
● Negative media attention and public opinion.
● Demotion in position and/or loss of job.
● Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), family problems and other psychological
concerns.

Due to the aforementioned consequences, it is important that criminal justice

leadership provide the training needed to make reliable, ethical decisions in all
circumstances.

4.9 DECISION MAKING STYLES IN MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

Many people believe that decision-making is not a rational option but a product of
personality. With that, leaders must understand that personality cannot stand in the way
of critical decision making. Good leaders will adapt their decision-making strategy to
match the demands of various circumstances.

The most influential leaders learn how to tailor their decision-making style to suit
specific circumstances. Different contexts and situations call for individual management
responses, and sometimes multiple decision-making approaches. Leaders can learn
how to make informed choices in a variety of diverse situations by understanding the
different ways of decision-making and being mindful of warning signs.

FOUR STYLES OF DECISION-MAKING

1. DIRECTIVE DECISION-MAKING

Usually a Policy decision-maker sorts out the pros and cons of a situation based
on what they already know. Decision-makers in the directive are very rational and have
little tolerance for uncertainty. Instead of going to others for more detail, their decisions
are rooted in their own intelligence, experience and reasoning. The upside to this style
is that decision-making is fast, ownership is transparent, and no extra communication is
needed. Often, however, directive decisions can be taken impulsively, without all the
necessary details.

● When to use Directive Decision-Making

In situations characterized by continuity, repeated patterns, and predictable events,
this style of decision-making is fine. For situations where there is a straightforward and
unchallenged cause-and-effect relationship, reserve guideline decisions; in a correct
response exists and is other words, collectively understood.

● A leader's role in Directive Decision-Making

A leader has to sense the situation, categorize it as a scenario that calls for a clear
decision and an appropriate response. Ensure best practices are in place for ongoing
procedures. Remember to ask yourself when classifying the situation: Is this my
decision to make, and do I have all the details necessary to make this decision? Where
appropriate, delegate but remember to communicate in a simple, direct language. It's
the role of a leader to realize when there's no need for intensive interpersonal contact
and to make clear decisions based on the knowledge they already have.

● Signs you need to use a different approach

Once operations run smoothly it is easy for leaders to become victims of
complacency. Leaders must be mindful of the changing complexity of specific situations.
When you start making complicated jobs simply by using simple decisions, you need to
change your approach. Understand that changing circumstances demand changing
styles of decision making.

2. ANALYTIC DECISION-MAKING

Before taking action, strategic decision-makers analyze a lot of details. Analytic

leaders, for example, rely on direct observation, data, and facts to back their decisions.
Like decision-makers in the guideline, however, an analytic decision maker may seek
information and advice from others to affirm or refute their own expertise. These
decision-makers have a high degree of uncertainty tolerance and are extremely
adaptable but they prefer to monitor certain aspects of the decision process. This style
is a well-rounded decision-making strategy that can be time-consuming.

● When to use Analytic Decision-Making

In situations where there may be more than one right answer, analytical decisions
are helpful. Use this decision-making style to solve issues where the relationship
between cause and effect is discoverable but not immediately apparent. You use this
approach mainly to evaluate multiple options or approaches, and to use fact-based
management to direct effective action.

● A leader's role in Analytic Decision-Making

Unlike decision-making directives, before agreeing on a course of action, leaders
must evaluate all the details they have available. Assembling a team of experts to assist
with analytical decisions is advantageous; Leaders must therefore freely consider
contradictory advice and ideas. At the same time, to make the most of the analytic
decision-making process, leaders need to consider non-expert perspectives.

● Signs you need to use a different approach

Decision paralysis is the most important warning sign of overuse of the logical
decision form. When you find yourself living in a state of over-analysis or over- thinking
without taking action or making a decision, this strategy must be removed.

3. CONCEPTUAL DECISION-MAKING

Compared with the guideline or empirical approaches, the relational decision-

making process takes a more collaborative approach. Conceptual decision-makers
promote innovative thinking and teamwork and take a wide variety of viewpoints into
consideration. These decision-makers are based on success and want to look well into
the future when it comes to making critical decisions.
 ● When to use Conceptual Decision-Making
Apply logical decision taking to issues involving several conflicting ideas. This
decision style is ideally suited to circumstances that are marked by unpredictability and
tailored to creative and inventive approaches. You see no immediate solution in these
situations but trends emerge over time. The use of a conceptual decision-making style
accounts for long- term planning and the unknown variables.

● A leader's role in Conceptual Decision-Making

To be successful in analytical decision taking, leaders need to create an atmosphere
that fosters experiments designed to uncover instructive trends over time. Leaders will
need to make a point of growing coordination and interaction. Build groups of people
who can share new ideas and assist with difficult decision taking and execution.
Patience is the key and leaders need to take the time to reflect.

● Signs you need to use a different approach

If the decision you need to make includes a situation that needs structure and
established outcomes, a conceptual approach should not be employed. Often, decisions
that need to determine immediate consequences and situations in which there is no
space for error are not subject to logical decision taking.

4. BEHAVIORAL DECISION-MAKING

Behavioral decision-seek to make sure that everyone is working together well.

Like the conceptual method, behavioral decision-is group-oriented; however, the
community is given the choices available to them, rather than brainstorming alternative
solutions. From there the community will dis discuss each choice's pros and cons. This
decision-making method takes into account several different viewpoints and views in the
process.

When to use behavioral decision-making

The behavioral style requires proactive communication, as with conceptual

decision-making. This style takes a more introspective approach by discussing solutions
that have worked in the past, rather than attempting to disclose new patterns.

A leader's role in behavioral decision-making

Leaders in this style of decision-making need to open lines of communication.

Again, build groups of people who can contribute their opinions and promote democratic
debate. Don't only impose a course of action when using the behavioral decision-
making method. Consider what decision generates rates the most unity within the
company, instead.

Signs you need to use a different approach

If group discussion sessions cannot reach a resolution, a new strategy will need
to be considered. Conversely, if new ideas never come up or no one questions views,
then behavioral decision-making might not be the best choice. Although this style of
decision works for the good of the community as a whole, a clear and definitive leader is
required to get things done. Look for ways and experiments where possible to push
people to think outside of what's familiar.

4.10 TRAITS AND VALUES IN DECISION-MAKING

Decision-Making and Personality Traits

Personality characteristics have a much greater role to play in decision taking

than you would expect. Some people are indecisive because their very existence. They
find most decisions quite difficult to make. These people I also find very committed to
the decision when they do. I am sure you know this kind of people. Others make
choices way too easily without taking into account all the consequences. Those are
more impulsive people.

What you respond specifically to the environment will influence your decision-
making process, making your decision-making process special as well. There are many
ways in which we can explain how we respond to the environment, but one easy way is
to suggest we respond from the brain, heart or gut. Your personality will determine
whether you approach decisions in a rational or emotional manner.

A successful decision is made with the alignment of the three eyes, heart and gut
or, as defined in the holistic decision-making strategy, when the three are finally in
harmony.

It's all tough decisions. There is no way this gets out. However, by getting an
approach and knowing how our attitude influences our decision we can make them a
little easier.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES IN DECISION MAKING

 Decision-making is a mental process that is an important part of preparing and
taking action in a variety of ways and at a wide range of levels, including, though not
limited to, budget preparation, educational preparing, policy making, and career
building. Such events include people all over the world. The underlying cross-cultural
disparities in decision-making can be a major contributing factor in cross-cultural
communication, negotiation, and conflict resolution performance.

4.11 DECISION-MAKING MODELS

Based on the perspective the researcher takes on the role that culture plays in decision-
making, one of the following models is used to think about and forecast behavioral
trends in decision-making in a given community:

1. The Universal Model. Typically, the scientists who use this model believe there is
only a small difference in how people from different cultures make their choices. The
findings obtained from one party are usually related to humans.

2. The Dispositional Model. The adherents of the dispositional view recognize that
decision-making differences are cross-cultural and support the cause of cross-cultural
study. They assume that the variations found in the studies reflect the omnipresence of
cultural inclinations in individual’s minds, and are expected to appear in all situations
and situational contexts.

3. The Dynamic Model. Adherents of this view often consider cross-cultural variations.
They view cultural knowledge not as a monolithic construct that is continuously present,
but as a collection of discrete knowledge that but operational as a function of the
situation. We also promote the development and testing of complex models reflecting
the processes by which culture influences decision-makers.

4.12 THE EFFECT OF CULTURE ON DECISION MAKING

Cross Cultural Variances

Western theories are known for the systematic use of logical analysis, a
methodical approach to solving complex problems by splitting them into their constituent
parts and defining the patterns of cause and effect of the constituent parts; While
oriental philosophies are well known for their focus on holism-the notion that the
properties of a given system cannot be defined or clarified solely by the parts of its
components, but the system as a whole decides how the components behave.
 The individuals from high and low-context cultures also differ in their
communication styles. The former prefers the less direct style, and thereby they are less
explicit in stating their feelings, desires, and intentions when communicating verbally.
The latter, on the contrary, are less likely to camouflage their message and conceal
their intentions.

The culturally normative communication style also enhances people's

responsiveness to the transmitted message and influences the perception of the
communicator. It influences hiring decisions. HR agents are more likely to recruit direct,
assertive, and even aggressive applicants in cultures of low background, whereas the
reverse trend is found in cultures of high background.

THE CONDITIONS ACCELERATING OR HINDERING THE SALIENCE OF CROSS-

CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN DECISION MAKING

1. Priming
The automatic cognition literature indicates behavior is influenced by exposure to
elements of the social environment in a manner that occurs below consciousness or
purpose. We know from the common schematic representations of a certain society, the
stereotyped behaviors that later affect our decisions. When a person is prepared with a
definition, often through an implied order to think about it, it stimulates all forms of
relevant knowledge and affects decision taking.

2. Time pressure
Cultural and personal information is accessible to all through cultures. Cultural
knowledge appears to represent a broad sampling of the events in life, whereas
personal knowledge is more based on individual or atypical experiences. The other
difference between their accessibility is the cultural and personal awareness. Cultural
community participants are prepared day after day with a collection of values,
behaviors, and behavioral habits that contribute to building up and storing cultural
awareness. Cultural awareness is therefore very available even under a heavy cognitive
load of work. Personal awareness is a record of a particular event and is not replicated
in too many ways. That is why a concerted attempt is required to access it, which takes
more time and effort.
Independent individuals are expected to react better to information based on
promotion, whereas individuals with interdependent self-construction are assumed to
respond better to information based on prevention.

3. Peer Pressure
 Individuals in collectivist societies are less likely to behave when they do not
encounter social pressure according to their cultural values. According to what
collectivist culture dictates, Japanese and Chinese students are more likely to decide,
compared to American and Italian students, whether they will eat in fast-subject to the
norms adopted in their societies, and less likely to make choices dependent on their
personal attitudes. This peculiarity, however, is much more salient when they make
plans for eating with their friends, and less salient when they decide to eat alone in a
fast food restaurant. The probability that they will behave based on their attitudes
increases dramatically according to the above situation.

The Pressure to Provide Reasons for the Decision

When individuals need to offer reasons for their decision, cultural awareness is
recruited. The need to include explanations evokes an information-processing approach
focused on top-down application of rules and standards, rather than bottom-up
processing based on personal experience. This can be clarified with the aid of the
supposition that when asked to offer reasons, individuals feel the need to adapt
because they do not want to be the outsiders. They feel more able to rely on their own
experience when they are not asked to justify their choices.
Chinese have been shown to have a slightly lower propensity to compromise,
which was previously considered to be one of their signature characteristics when they
were not asked to give reasons for their purchase decisions. On the contrary,
Americans are more likely to compromise when it is not their duty to provide reasons for
their decision.

The Individual Tolerance for Cognitive Ambiguity

Widespread common cultural awareness offers a validated context for individuals
to view potentially ambiguous interactions, providing their followers with a sense of
epistemic protection and protecting against ambiguity and unpredictability. The degree
to which persons of all cultures need firm answers varies. It is found that the people with
high tolerance for ambiguity are less likely to act with the consent of their society.

The universal effects of situational demands on decision mode selection across

cultures
Culture shapes the prevalence of cultural factors- nature of decisions,
motivations for decisions, and situational demands and affordances-and shapes how
functional factors are converted into decision-making modes-modes of measurement,
acknowledgement, law, position, and impact-based decision making. Nevertheless,
societies do have a variety of common tendencies.
For example, when action is called for, members of both independent and
interdependent social orientations prefer to employ position-, rule-or case- based
decision-making, as they are far more open and require less cognitive load, whereas
calculation-based mode would be less frequent in both orientations for relationship
decisions.

LESSON 5 UNDERSTANDING ADMINISTRATION

5.1 What is Administration?

Administration refers to actions which are concerned with coordinating word

managing an organization or organizations work. There is also administration of
government, charities, and many other forms of organizations.

"Administration" is the performance of tasks needed to operate an agency for,

general purposes. It can have a function of course, or of policy. For example, as
companies change their plan, it is the duty of administrative personnel to make the
appropriate communication adjustments to end the previous policy and begin enforcing
the new direction.

Typically, the administration is defined by the person representing the

organization appointed or elected to a position and is responsible for the administrative
functions and policy decisions of the organization they are appointed or elected to
manage.

Administration is essential to ensure that all departments within the organization

work effectively. It is the link between the managers and the workers. This provides the
workforce with inspiration and helps them understand the organization's goals.

The Basic Functions of Administration

a. Planning
b. Organizing
c. Directing
d. Controlling
Principles of Administration (Henri Fayol)
1. Planning
2. Organizing
3. Unity of Command
4. Hierarchical transmission of orders
5. Separation of powers, authority, subordination, responsibility and control
6. Centralization
7. Discipline and Order
8. Meetings and reports
9. Accounting

5.2 Difference between Administration and Management

ADMININSTRATION

Is an act of administering the whole organization by a group of people.

Administration is a high-level activity.
Policy formulation is performed by the administration.
Functions include legislation and determination.
Administration takes all the important decisions of the organization.
Administration role is decisive in nature.
Administration is concerned with framing policies and setting objectives.
Administrator is responsible for the administration of the organization.
Administration focuses on making the best possible utilization of the organization's
resources.

MANAGEMENT
Is a systematic way of managing people and things within the organization.
Is an activity of business and functional level.
Focuses on policy implementation.
Functions of management are executive and governing.
Management makes decisions under the boundaries set by the administration.
Management plays an executive role in the organization.
Management is all about plans and actions.
The manager looks after the management of the organization.
Management focuses on managing people and their work.

5.3 WHAT IS AN ADMINISTRATOR?

An administrator is a person who makes sure organization is running at full

capacity. Their particular roles depend on the form of company organization operate in.
An administrator may or someone assigned to oversee an organization for its affairs.

An Administrator as an Organizer
 Administrators formulate short-and long-term strategies that set specific priorities
and objectives. To put it another way, they strive to get the organization where it needs
to go. The planner must to ensure that these plans work, above all understand how,
where, and who of the program as a whole. The functions of the administrators are
essential to the organization they operate. Their roles usually involve a wide variety of
duties including filing and administration.

Clerical Level Administrator

An administrator may be someone in charge of the smooth and effective

operation of a single office. Their responsibilities include handling all the paperwork and
response will typically report inside the office to all individuals. Their role is likely to
depend upon what the duties of the other colleagues are.

It is the responsibility of most office administrators to manage or distribute all

posts within an office. Mail duties can include opening all letters that come in, and
ensuring that they meet the people concerned. In addition, they are responsible for all of
the outgoing post. They are also going to plan and arrange filing for the court. Filing
requires not only fetching the correct documents but also returning them after they have
been used by citizens.

For some organizations the administrator is the first port-of-call for office
communications. They then send the emails to the appropriate people in the same way
they do with the message.

WHAT MAKES A GOOD ADMINISTRATOR?

To be a good administrator, a person must be:
a. deadline-driven and possess a high level of organization.
b. capable of balancing multiple tasks simultaneously and delegate when appropriate.
c. capable of planning and have the ability to think strategically.
d. an excellent communicator, both in person and in writing.
e. always looking for opportunities to improve productivity in the organization.

SKILLS OF AN EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATOR

Ability implies a capacity that can be created, not inherently inborn, and that is
expressed in output, not mere potential. Therefore, the main ability requirement must be
successful action under various circumstances.
 Although good administrators are widely recognized for their selection and
training, there is surprisingly little agreement among executives or educators on what
makes a good administrator. This subject indicates what could be a more useful
approach to manager selection and growth. This is not based on what good executives
are but on what they do.

Three Basic Developable Skills of Administrators

It is assumed here that an administrator is one who:

a. directs the activities of other persons and
b. undertakes the responsibility for achieving certain objectives through these efforts.

Within this definition, successful administration appears to rest on three basic

skills, which we will call:
1. Technical
2. Human and
3. Conceptual
Asserting that these skills are not interrelated be impractical, but there may be
real value in evaluating each person separately and improving them independently.

Technical Skill
Technical skills require an understanding and expertise of a particular form of
operation, particularly one involving methods, processes, procedures, or techniques. It
requires advanced expertise, analytical skill within that field, and facility in the use of the
particular discipline's methods and techniques.

Technical skills are perhaps the most common of the three skills mentioned in
this topic because they are the most practical and because they are the skills needed by
the largest number of people in our age of specialization. Most of our on the-job and
vocational training programs focus largely on developing this specialized technical skill.

Human Skill
The person with highly developed human ability is aware of his own emotions,
opinions and perceptions about other individuals and groups; he can see the
importance and weaknesses of those feelings. Through acknowledging the presence of
various perspectives, opinions, and values than his own, he is able to consider what
other people actually mean through their language and actions. He is similarly skillful at
expressing what he means by his actions to others in their own ways.
 Human skill is the ability of the executive to function efficiently as a member of
the community and create cooperative effort within the team which he leads. Since
technical ability is primarily about working with things, processes or physical objects,
human ability is primarily about working with people. This ability is reflected in the
manner in which the person perceives and understands the views of his superiors,
equals and subordinates, and the manner in which he subsequently acts.

The administrator works to build an environment of acceptance and protection in

which subordinates feel free to express them without fear of censorship or criticism, by
enabling them to engage in the preparation and implementation of the issues that affect
them directly. He is sufficiently responsive to other people's needs and motives in his
organization to be able to judge the likely reactions and consequences of different
courses of action that he may pursue. Knowing this awareness, he is able and eager to
behave in a manner that takes into account the views of others.

Human performance can't be a "sometime thing." Strategies can't be

implemented randomly, nor can personality characteristics be placed on or removed as
overcoats. As all that an executive says and does has an impact on his colleagues, he
must demonstrate in his true self, in time. Therefore, to be successful, this ability must
be established naturally and demonstrated unconsciously, as well as consistently, in
every action of the person. This needs to become an important part of his whole being.

Conceptual skill
This competence is the unifying, organizing component of the administrative
process, and of overwhelming ultimate significance because the overall performance of
an organization depends on the strategic capacity of its executives to formulate and
execute policy decisions.

Conceptual competence requires the ability to see the organization as a whole; it

includes understanding how the organization's different functions depend on one
another, and how all the others are influenced by changes in any component. The
administrator will then be able to behave in a way that promotes the general interest of
the entire organization, understanding these relationships and perceiving the significant
elements of each case. Consequently, the effectiveness of any decision depends on the
analytical ability of the decision- makers and those who bring it into effect.

Not only does the successful coordination of the various parts of the operation
depend on the analytical abilities of the concerned managers, but the entire future
course and tone of the organization also depends. The attitudes of a top executive color
the entire character of the response of the organization, and decide the "personality"
that distinguishes the ways one organization does its services from the ways of another.
Those attitudes reflect the analytical capacity of the administrator.

5.4 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF TECHNICAL, HUMAN AND CONCEPTUAL

SKILLS

We may recognize that analytical ability represents understanding of the

organization's technological as well as human aspects in a very real sense. However,
the definition of skill as the ability to turn information into practice will allow one to
differentiate between the three skills of conducting the technical tasks (technical skills),
knowing and motivating individuals and groups (human skills), and organizing and
combining all of the organization's tasks and objectives towards a common purpose
(conceptual skills).

The separation of effective administration into three core competencies is mainly

useful for theoretical purposes. Both skills are so closely interrelated in practice that it is
hard to decide where one ends and where another starts. Nevertheless, just because
the skills are interrelated does not mean that looking at them separately or varying their
importance does not give us any benefit.

At Lower Levels

Technical expertise is responsible for many of modern organizations and

enterprise's great advances. Effective activity is indispensable. Even at the lower levels
of government it is of utmost importance. When the administrator ventures farther away
from the actual physical activity, this need for technological expertise is ess important,
given that he has professional subordinates and can help them solve their own
problems.

At the top, technological abilities may be almost non-existent, and if his

interpersonal and analytical abilities are highly established the executive will still be able
to work effectively.

Example:
The subordinate officer was called on in one large police organization to replace the
Chief of Police, who had been unexpectedly struck with a serious illness. The
subordinate officer did not have any prior managerial experience but he had been with
the department for more than 20 years and had intimate knowledge of many of the main
police personnel. He was able to devote himself to managing the various functions by
setting up an advisory committee, and by delegating an unprecedented amount of
authority to his department heads. Through this he built a highly productive team. The
result was greater efficiency, and morale higher than the organization had ever
experienced before. Management had worked out that the willingness of this man to
deal with people was more important than his lack of experience in management, and
the risk paid off.

At Every Level

Human skill, the skill to collaborate with others, is important for successful
management at all levels. A current research study has shown that human capacity at
the supervisory level is of greatest importance, finding out that the supervisor's chief
role as an administrator is to attain the cooperation of people in the working group.

Another study supports this finding and applies to the middle-management

community, adding that the main concern of the administrator is to promote cooperation
within the organization. And yet another report, specifically dealing with top
management, highlights the need for executives at that stage to be self-aware and
sensitive to human relationships. These results may appear to suggest that human
ability at any stage is of great importance, but note the difference in focus.

Human ability appears to be the most important at lower levels, where there is
the largest number of direct communications between administrators and subordinates.
When we go higher and higher in the administrative echelons, the number and duration
of such personal encounters decreases, and the need for human skills decreases in
comparison, but not necessarily absolute. Around the same time, conceptual skill
becomes even more relevant with the need for strategic decisions and wide-ranging
action. The human capacity to interact with individuals then is inferior to the mental
ability to incorporate group desires and behaviors into an overall perspective.

At the Top Level

As demonstrated in the preceding article, analytical capacity is increasingly

important in more accountable executive roles where its effects are maximized and
easiest to observe. Nevertheless, recent research results lead to the conclusion that this
analytical capacity is the most essential attribute of all at the highest level of
administration. As the president of Bridgeport Brass Company Herman W. Steinkraus
said:
"One of the most important lessons which I learned on Lis this job (the presidency) is
the importance of coordinating the various departments into an effective team, and,
secondly, to recognize the shifting emphasis from time to time of the relative importance
of various departments to the business."

It would seem, then, that the greatest need for technological and human skills is
at the lower levels of administrative responsibility. Technical skills at higher levels are
becoming increasingly less important as the need for analytical skills is rapidly growing.
Conceptual skills are the most essential skill for effective management at the highest
level of an organization. A chief executive can lack technological or human skills, and
be successful if he has subordinates with strong skills in those areas. But if its
conceptual skill is poor, it may jeopardize the performance of the entire organization.
This three-skill approach makes it possible to test trait gun and replaces it with
procedures that evaluate the capacity of a man to deal with the real problems and
circumstances that he will face on his job. These procedures are the same for selection
and for measuring growth, indicating what a man can do in specific situations.

Developing the Skills

This approach indicates that executives should not be recruited on the basis of
their apparent possession of a variety of habits, attributes or personalities, but on the
basis of possessing the necessary skills for the particular degree of responsibility
involved.

Many people have argued for years that the capacity to lead is innate in those
individuals chosen. We're thinking about "born leaders," and "born administrators." It's
definitely true that certain men, inherently or innately, have greater aptitude or ability in
certain skills. But studies in in psychology and physiology will also suggest, first, that
those with good skills and abilities can enhance their ability through practice and
preparation, and second, that even those without natural talent can boost their
performance and overall quality.

Administrative competence conception suggests we will expect to boost our

administrative efficiency and build better administrators for the future. This definition of
ability means learning by doing. Different people learn in various ways, but skills are
built by practice and through linked learning to the personal experience and context of
their own. If done well, training in these basic executive skills more administrative skills
will improve executive safely and faster than through unorganized practice.

Technical Skill
 Creation of technical skills has been attracting tremendous attention from
industry and educational institutions for many years, and much progress has been
made. Strong grounding in the individual specialty's values, systems, and procedures,
combined with real practice and experience through which an person is supervised and
encouraged by a superior, appears to be most successful.

Human Skill

Nevertheless, human ability was much less known and systematic progress has
only recently been made in improving it. Today through organizations and experts are
following several different approaches to the development of human skills.

Many of these methods find their application in "applied psychology," "human

engineering," and a host of other forms that involve professional technicians to support
the businessman with his human problems. However, as a practical matter, the
executive must develop his own interpersonal skills, instead of relying on others' advice.
To be effective, he must develop his own personal point of view toward human activity,
so that he will:
a. recognize the feelings and sentiments which he brings to a situation;
b. have an attitude about his own experiences which will enable him to re-evaluate and
learn from them;
c. develop ability in understanding what others by their actions and words are trying to
communicate to him; and
d. develop ability in successfully communicating his ideas and attitudes to others.

Some individuals may build the human capacity without formalized training.
Others can be supported individually by their immediate supervisors as an integral part
of the later mentioned "coaching" method. This assist obviously depends on the degree
to which the superior possesses human capacity for performance.

The use of case issues combined with impromptu role-playing can be very useful
for larger groups. This training can be formally or informally defined, but requires a
professional instructor and a sequence of activities coordinated. It provides an
approximation to fact as well as can be given on an ongoing basis in the classroom and
creates an opportunity for critical reflection not always encountered in actual practice. A
significant part of the process is self-examining the trainee's own principles and values
which that enable him to develop more useful attitudes about himself and others.
Hopefully with the shift in mindset, some successful abilities can also come in solving
human problems.
 A series of analyzes of detailed accounts of real scenarios requiring
administrative action were also evaluated in the classroom, within acceptable limits,
along with a variety of role-playing opportunities where the participant is expected to
execute the specifics of the action he has suggested. In this way an offender can be
tested for understanding the overall situation and his own personal capacity to do
something about it.
On the job a superior should be given regular opportunities to evaluate the ability
of an individual to work efficiently with others. They can seem extremely subjective
judgments and rely on the rater's human skills for validity.

Conceptual Skill

Conceptual ability was not generally understood, as was human abilities. A

variety of methods have been attempted, with varying results, to help improve this skill.
Some of the best outcomes were often obtained by superior "coaching" of subordinates.
One way a superior can support his subordinate "coach" is by assigning a specific task,
and then by asking for feedback or thoughts instead of providing answers if the
subordinate needs assistance.

Benjamin F. Fairless, chairman of the board of the United States Steel Corporation,
described his coaching activities:
"When one of my vice presidents or the head of one of our operating companies
comes to me for instructions, I generally counter by asking him questions. First thing I
know, he has told me how to solve the problem himself."

It is, of course, an ideal and completely normal administrative training technique

and relate to the growth of technological and human skills as well as analytical skills.
His success, however, will ultimately be dependent on the superior's skill and
willingness to support the subordinate.

Another excellent way of improving analytical ability is through swapping jobs, i.e.
through shifting promising young men through different work functions but at the same
level of responsibility. It practically gives the man the ability to "be in the other fellow's
shoes."

Conceptual skills were also tested with reasonable effectiveness in the

classroom by providing a set of comprehensive explanations of real, complex situations.
In these, the person being examined is asked to formulate a course of action that reacts
to the fundamental forces operating in each situation and that considers the effects of
this action on the various roles and parts of the company and its overall environment.

On the job, the alert supervisor should consider regular opportunities to observe
the degree to which the employee is able to respond to the other organization or
organization's roles and operations.

Unlike physical intelligence, intellectual capacity must also become a normal part of
executive make-up. Individuals Different approaches for cultivating various individuals
can be suggested by reason of their experiences, behaviors, and experience. For each
case, however, the approach should be chosen which will allow the executive to
develop his own personal ability to envision the organization as a whole and to organize
and incorporative its various parts.

5.6 ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES

Administrative professionals are the organization leaders who keep operations

running smoothly. Therefore, losing a member of the administrative staff or witnessing
unexpected changes in workload will pose tough administrative challenges.

HOW TO HANDLE TYPICAL ADMINISTRATIVE CHALLENGES

1. Vacations

Once people get a chance to relax and refresh, productivity and work satisfaction
increase. Yet worker absences may create vacancies that can spread out too far to
cover other workers. Bringing temporary workers to bridge those gaps helps maintain
smooth running of things. While the idea of getting temporary a professional up to
speed might seem like an additional administrative challenge alongside the vacancy
staffing. Many experienced workers want to make a career out of temporary work
because they might not be able to take time off when they need a full-time job.

2. Leaves of Absence

As Chief Executive, when an individual needs to take time off for maternity or
paternity leave, extended illness or other personal matters, you are compassionate and
supportive. Even, it can leave you scratching without a star player in your line-up.

Covering an absence leave can seem overwhelming, but specialized staffing agencies
may help you solve those administrative challenges. Organizations should pre-evaluate
applicants who are willing to fill in before the full-time employee returns for a few weeks
or several months. In fact, working with a temporary long-term candidate provides you
with a fantastic opportunity to evaluate his or her on the-job success in the event that
the incumbent will not return, or you choose to fill a similar role in the future.

3. Busy Seasons and Special Projects

When you encounter seasonal peaks or land a special project at your company
or organization, bringing in part-time e employees will help alleviate core working people
at these instances. Specialized recruiting firms will recommend applicants who
completed similar tasks and have the skill set you need to fill out the team on a project-
based basis.

4. The Unexpected Loss of an Employee or Personnel

If an employee quits suddenly, you will be saddled to get a handle on in-progress

work concurrently and find a replacement- perhaps with as little as two weeks' notice. In
addition to recruiting skilled applicants looking for temporary-to-full-time jobs, a
professional staffing agency will even have applicants ready to meet you the very next
day. This quick turnover can also give your outgoing employee time to help with your
new hire onboard. A company or organization may decide to revamp the job, restructure
the department or merge positions upon the leave of an employee or staff.

Administrative Theory (Henri Fayol)

Henri Fayol's developed the administrative philosophy is also known as 14 management

principles. Henri Fayol was born into a French family in the year 1841. He was a prolific
writer on technological, science, and management matters. The' Financial and General
Management' was his most excellent writing. He named to a Mining firm as an engineer.
By 1888 he had risen to the company's position of Managing Director. He retired from
the Executive position in 1918. He was the company's managing director until his death.
Henri Fayol was an accomplished management practitioner.

The Fourteen Managerial Concepts are:

1. Division of Work: This principle the same as Adam Smith's 'Division of labor.
2. Authority: Manager must be able to give the order. Authority gives this right.
3. Discipline: Employees must obey and respect the rules and regulations which
governs the organization.
4. Unity of Command: Every employee should receive order or direction from only one
immediate superior.
5. Unity of Direction: Each group of the organization should be direction by one
manager using one plan.

6. Subordination of Individual Interests to the General Interest: The management

must see that the aims of the businesses are always supreme.
7. Remuneration of Personnel: The labors must be paid a reasonable salary for their
work.
8. Centralization: The process of transforming assigning decision making authority to a
higher level of an organizational hierarchy, it is centralization that should follow this.
9. Scalar Chain: Line of authority from top management to the lower ranks represents
the hierarchy or scalar chain.
10. Order: people and materials should be in the right place at the right time.
11. Equity: In running a business, a combination of kindness and justice is need.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel: Staffs work is well if job safety and career
improvement are guarantees to the team.
13. Initiative: Allowing all personnel to show their initiative in some way is a source of
stretch for the organization.
14. Esprit de Corps: Promoting team spirit will build unity and harmony within the
organization.