Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493

https://doi.org/10.1007/s40964-022-00276-9

FULL RESEARCH ARTICLE

Individual process development of single and multi‑material laser

melting in novel modular laser powder bed fusion system
Jochen Schanz1,2,3 · Nabirul Islam1 · David Kolb1 · David K. Harrison2 · Anjali K. M. De Silva2 · Dagmar Goll3 ·
Gerhard Schneider3 · Harald Riegel1

Received: 22 August 2021 / Accepted: 2 February 2022 / Published online: 7 April 2022
© The Author(s) 2022

Abstract
Additive manufacturing and especially the laser-based powder bed fusion (LPBF) with full melting of the powder offers tre-
mendous potential and versatility for manufacturing high quality, complex, precision metal parts. However, for novel powder
compositions the LPBF process development is very time consuming and cost intensive due to the layer wise melting and the
powder prices. This research work investigates the manufacturing of single and layered multi-material structures in a novel
modular lab-scaled LPBF machining system through individual process and material development. The developed system
allows the use of different laser sources, optical arrangements, individual sensor and actuator integration. In addition, the
modular LPBF system enables the manufacturing of specimens with a minimum amount of powder, individual mixed powder
compositions or layered multi-material parts. In an application example, a multi-material specimen made out of stainless
steel 316L and Bronze 90/10 was manufactured in alternating layers. For this approach, a parameter study was performed
for each material to investigate the influence of the volumetric energy density (VED) on the specimen density, surface flat-
ness and reduced mixing zone formation. Afterwards, optimized parameters were used to demonstrate the feasibility of the
system to produce a multi-material layered 316L-Bronze part.

Keywords Additive manufacturing · Selective laser melting · Multi-material · Layered structure · 316L stainless steel ·
90/10 Bronze

1 Introduction properties [2]. In principle, all meltable and weldable mate-

rials can be processed [3]. In addition, LPBF makes it pos-
Laser powder bed fusion (LPBF), also known as selective sible to manufacture parts made of different material com-
laser melting (SLM), with a full melting of powder, belongs binations as well as geometries and functionalities that are
to the most widely used Additive Manufacturing (AM) pro- not possible by conventional manufacturing processes [4]. In
cesses for building complex 3D metal parts with high level recent times, a large number of investigations have been car-
of detail [1]. The advantages of LPBF are the great freedom ried out for multi-material components with different system
of design, relative low material waste compared to subtrac- concepts [5, 6]. Thereby, the function and performance of
tive manufacturing e.g. milling or turning, time efficiency AM components can be significantly increased through the
and the specific adaptability of component and material specific integration of several different chemical and physi-
cal materials in one component (multi-material component).
Possible applications for multi-material components are soft
* Jochen Schanz
[email protected] magnets with a layered structure, components with layers
of particularly conductive materials (heat exchangers) or
1
Laser Application Center, Aalen University, Beethovenstr. 1, the increase of the component strength at points subject to
73430 Aalen, Germany higher loads without having to compromise on lightweight
2
School of Computing, Engineering and Built Environment, construction. These could be used in aerospace, electronics,
Glasgow Caledonian University, Cowcaddens Rd, sensor technology and medical technology, among others.
Glasgow G4 0BA, UK
As all laser-based processes have complex physi-
3
Materials Research Institute Aalen, Aalen University, cal, chemical and materials interactions, the material
Beethovenstr. 1, 73430 Aalen, Germany

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482 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493

characteristics and process parameters greatly influence the mixing two different materials together [20]. Chivel intro-
microstructural and mechanical properties of LPBF parts duced a concept of a SLM machine for multi-material parts
[7–10]. Table 1 summarizes the important process param- production where a recoating system with a roller or a blade
eters of LPBF. can be used. The main idea includes a building platform with
Due to the multitude of process parameters involved, a cleaning system to separate the various material powders
industrial LPBF machines are not very suitable for R&D for reuse [21]. So far, Regenfuß et al. developed a vacuum
needs when investigating novel material compositions. Gen- chamber to deposit two different materials independently to
erally, the industrial machines are designed for specific mate- fabricate micro multi-material parts by laser sintering [22].
rials, e.g. stainless steel, and limited in process parameters When building up layers of different materials, the even-
adjustments. Both, the laser source and the optical compo- ness of the built-up layers is of particular importance to
nents are fixed and the LPBF machines have relatively large apply a consistently thick powder layer and to minimize the
building chambers to contain the greater powder volumes mixing zones between the two materials [23]. Depending on
required for industrial production. Furthermore, industrial the material composition, material mixtures lead to undesir-
LPBF machines have only one powder reservoir, hindering able, particularly brittle material compositions, which may
the development of multi-material components. In addition, result in cracks. Furthermore, the mechanical and physical
most LPBF machines also do not allow the processing of properties of the built specimens change. One method is
materials with highly oxidation-sensitive contents i.e. neo- the optimization of the parameters of the LPBF melting
dymium for hard magnets [12] or the simple installation of process, to generate even layers. The volumetric energy
additional sensors and actuators for process monitoring. density (VED) effect the density, roughness and evenness
Due to these numerous disadvantages of industrial LPBF [24, 25]. It has been shown that a higher VED improves the
machines and the required flexibility for R&D, several wetting of the molten material on the surface and increases
research groups have started to develop different types of the flowability, which fills defects [26]. Gu et al. showed that
LBPF systems for novel applications and material research. a larger melt pool has a surface smoothing effect due to an
Wei et al. developed a system to manufacture layered and 3D increased energy input [27]. However, Wang et al. showed
printed functionally graded specimens with a recoater and that an excessive VED leads to a higher surface roughness
several powder dispenser systems. The system allows manu- and to an increase of the specimen porosity [24]. In another
facturing components with autonomous selection of several work it was found that the laser power, the feed rate and the
materials [13]. Researchers from the University of Man- combination of both have a significant influence on porosity
chester have demonstrated manufacturing multilayer and and cracking [28]. Another method of reducing the rough-
functionally graded components using ultrasonic dispenser ness of the individual layers is based on remelting the sur-
nozzles to deposit powder locally [14] or by a system with faces of the previously built-up layer before a new layer of
an integrated powder mixer [15–17]. But these processes powder is applied [29, 30].
are time consuming and require sophisticated integration to One aspect that also needs to be addressed when using
ensure the process accuracy. Stichel et al. have introduced different powder materials within a process is powder recy-
an electrographic powder deposition process for AM which cling. Basically, three methods are possible: (I) by size (siev-
seems to be a promising technique for multi-material depo- ing), (II) density (sedimentation) and (III) magnetic differ-
sition [18, 19]. However, this technique is still under devel- ence [31, 32].
opment process. Furthermore, Demir et al. demonstrated a In this research work, a modular LPBF system is devel-
double powder feeder system for the LPBF process. The oped and demonstrated which gives the flexibility to be
system is composed of two upper hoppers housing the pow- adapted to different materials, laser sources and laser pro-
der materials and a lower mixing hopper. The hoppers can cessing optics. Since the production of novel material com-
be operated separately for single material processing or for positions is time and cost consuming, the concept allows

Table 1  Important LPBF LPBF process parameters

process parameters according
to [11] Laser-related Scan head-related Powder-related Temperature-related

Wavelength Scanning speed Particle size and distribution Powder bed temperature
Laser power Scanning spacing Particle shape Temperature uniformity
Pulse duration Scanning pattern Powder bed density Powder feed temperature
Spot size Layer thickness
Pulse frequency Material properties
Powder bed homogeneity

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493 483

flexible selection of multiple powder types in one machining 3 Experimental setup and evaluation
process to produce layered multi-material parts. To demon- methods
strate the flexibility of the developed modular LPBF system,
two materials with different properties and visual appear- To demonstrate the capabilities of the modular LBPF
ance, stainless steel 316L and Bronze 90/10, were selected to concept, two different powder materials, a stainless steel
fabricate. At initial stage, 316L and Bronze specimens were TRUMPF 316L-A LMF (called 316L) and a Bronze alloy
fabricated separately. Later, optimized sets of parameter for TRUMPF Bronze 90/10-A LMF (called Bronze) were used.
each material regarding to surface flatness and specimen Table 2 contains information about the powder materials
density were chosen to manufacture a layered multi-material used.
structure of 316L and Bronze to demonstrate the usability These materials were chosen due to the distinct differ-
and possibility of the developed modular LPBF system. ences in their mechanical and physical properties. The laser
parameter study was carried out in a laser robot cell using
a TRUMPF TruFiber 1000 fiber laser with a maximum
2 Key features of the LPBF concept laser output power of 1000 W in near-infrared wavelength
(1075 nm ± 7 nm) and a 2D scan head intelliSCAN 30 from
Laser beam sources and processing optics are the fundamen- SCANLAB, which was mounted on a KUKA KR30 HA
tal components for a precision laser melting process. The robot. The focused laser beam had a diameter of 46 µm. The
conversion of industrial LPBF machines especially to other material of the building platform was carbon steel 1.0503
laser wavelengths or optical setups is complicated and costly. (C45). The parameter studies as well as the layered built-up
To solve this, a modular LPBF system has been designed were carried out on the C45 substrate material, since in an
(dimensions of 240 mm × 200 mm × 300 mm) for high alternating layered structure the stainless steel 316L with its
mobility to use it in different laser cells with various laser thermal conductivity of approx. 14.3 W/(m·K) [33], which
sources and processing optics. It is also possible to monitor is only about one third of the Bronze (approx. 43.6 W/(m·K)
the quality and volume of different gases. The system allows [34]), always results as a barrier for the heat flow in the
the use of different sensors and actuators for process moni- layered component. Therefore, no parameter studies were
toring and controlling. The comparable big process window carried out on a Bronze substrate. Prior and during the LPBF
enables a monitoring of the LPBF process with thermogra- processing, the process chamber was flooded with shielding
phy and high speed cameras. The developed LPBF system gas, argon (ultra high purity 5.0 grade), at a flow rate of 20 l/
can be easily operated with up to four different powder types min. The gas was initiated with a cross jet, which is mounted
within one build job. The accessibility to the powder reser- directly under the chamber window. Figure 2 shows the com-
voirs allows quick refilling or replacement of material within plete experimental setup.
3 min without residual of the replaced powders. The coating To achieve an alternating layered multi-material part of
time of a new powder layer is approximately 5 s. Regarding two different materials, expedient laser process parameters
thermal effects, a waiting time between the exposures of two of each material were developed. The 316L and the Bronze
layers can be set. Also, the laser setup change is possible specimens were fabricated individually in the process cham-
within a short time. The concept is usable for material and ber to observe influences of the process parameter on these
process development based on small amount of powders, the two dissimilar materials. For this approach, a powder layer
rotating powder reservoirs is powder-saving. For instance, thickness t of 50 µm and a laser beam hatch distance h of
in this study, 16 cubes consisting of 316L with the size of 46 µm (corresponds to the focused laser beam diameter)
5 mm × 5 mm and a build height of 0.5 mm lead to a volume was defined. The laser power P and the velocity of the laser
of 200 ­mm3. The substrate plate has a diameter of 40 mm. beam v was variated in a 4 × 4 matrix. The footprint of each
With a build height of 0.5 mm, a volume of approx. 628 ­mm3 specimen was 5 mm × 5 mm. For both materials, the hatch
of powder is necessary to fill up the complete build chamber strategy was kept constant in one direction and the relative
with powder. For the balancing of the difference between the hatch angle of each layer was remained unchanged (0°). For
density of the powder (4.4 g/cm3) and the built part (7.98 g/ 316L, the laser power was variated within 150 W and 300 W
cm3) bulk density, the volume of approx. 163 ­mm3 is added and the laser beam velocity between 300 and 600 mm/s. For
to the 628 ­mm3 which lead to an overall necessary pow- Bronze, the ranges were variated within 120 W and 270 W
der volume of 791 ­mm3 to conduct the parameter study. In and between 500 and 800 mm/s in four steps, respectively.
Fig. 1, an overview of the modular LBPF concept and its After the pre-investigations, suitable parameter combina-
main features are given. tions for each material were used to build-up an alternating
layered multi-material structure consisting of both materi-
als. The specimen’s surfaces of the pre-investigations and

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Fig. 1  Overview of the modular LBPF concept and its main features

the layered multi-material specimen were optically ana- Among the four selected specimens, the first specimen is
lyzed using an Axio Zoom.V16 optical microscope from fabricated at minimum VED, the second and third specimens
Carl Zeiss. The topography of the 316L and the Bronze are built at higher VED. The forth specimen is fabricated at
specimens were measured by a KEYENCE VR–3100 pro- maximum VED.
filometer. Afterwards, cross sections of the specimens were
made to investigate the single and the layered multi-material
specimen microstructures with a Carl Zeiss Axio Imager.Z2 4 Results and discussion
Vario optical microscope.
In this research work, the fabricated specimens are 4.1 Parameter study with 316L
analyzed and discussed according to their corresponding
volumetric energy density (VED). Here, VED is the ratio In a first step, suitable parameters which enable a dense
between the laser power P and the product of the laser beam specimen, the flatness of the surface and minimized mixing
velocity v, the laser beam hatch distance h and the powder zone to the underlying layer are searched. The parameters
layer thickness t (Eq. 1) [11]. laser power and laser beam velocity significant effect the
specimen density and crack formation [28] as well as the
P
VED = . (1) surface homogeneity and flatness. In Fig. 3, the surfaces of
v×h×t
the final manufactured 316L specimens after ten layers are
Both for 316L and Bronze, four specimens each are given.
shown to illustrate the influence of the volumetric energy In Figs. 4, 5, the surfaces of the four selected 316L speci-
density on the surface homogeneity and specimen density. mens S1–S4, marked in Fig. 3, are given in more detail.

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493 485

Table 2  Information about the used TRUMPF 316L-A LMF and TRUMPF Bronze 90/10-A LMF powder materials given in the batch test
reports
TRUMPF 316L-A LMF Particle distribution

Particle size d­ istributiona 15–45 µm

D10 22.4 µm
D50 33.6 µm
D90 45.1 µm
Apparent ­densityb 4.4 g/cm3
Flow ­ratec 14.9 s/50 g

Chemical analysis Cr: 16.79%; Ni: 12.76%; Mo: 2.22%; Mn: 0.68%; Si: 0.52%; Fe: Rest
TRUMPF Bronze 90/10-A LMF Particle distribution

Particle size d­ istributiona 10–45 µm

D10 13.4 µm
D50 29.4 µm
D90 42.6 µm
Apparent ­densityb 4.8 g/cm3
Flow ­ratec 15.5 s/50 g

Chemical analysis Sn: 10.3%; P: 0.37%; Pb: < 0.01%; Cu: Rest
a
Measured according ISO 13322-2, bMeasured by Hall Flowmeter according DIN EN ISO 3923-1, cMeasured by Hall Flowmeter according DIN
EN ISO 4490

The approximated VED of specimen S1 and S2 is 109 J/ From a comparison of all four specimens S1–S4 (Figs. 4,
mm3 (minimum) and 290 J/mm3. In case of specimen S3 5), a relative low VED leads to an uneven surface with an
and S4, the approximate VED is 326 J/mm3 and 435 J/mm3 average height between 500 and 550 µm (S1) showing
(maximum), respectively. sharp changes of surface peaks. Higher impose of the VED
The surface of the 316L specimen S1 (VED = 109 J/mm3) reduces the roughness to an average height between 515 and
shows an uneven and inhomogeneous surface topography 525 µm (S2). Further increase in VED also leads to a flatter
­S1b relative to the second specimen S2 (VED = 290 J/mm3) surface (S3 and S4) and minimizes the standard deviation
where a rather wavy surface is visible. The reduction of of the surface peaks. At a maximum VED of 435 J/mm3
the waviness is important for an alternating layered multi- (S4), an accumulation of material occurs at the edges of the
material structure to reduce the mixing zones. The average exposed surface.
height of the surface S
­ 1a changes between 500 and 550 µm at The cross sectional views in Fig. 6 provide a further indi-
different positions with sharp fluctuations of 85 µm standard cation on the density and the surface flatness of the corre-
deviation ­S1b at measurement position three. Meanwhile, sponding 316L specimens S1-S4.
the surface of the second specimen S2 shows more even As mentioned in Figs. 4, 5, the surface topography is
surface ­(S2a) with less fluctuation of surface peaks. Here, influenced by VED where low energy input leads to a sig-
the recorded standard deviation of surface height changes nificantly reduced density in the specimen (Fig. 6, S1). In
approximately between 55 and 60 µm ­(S2a). Further increase contrast, a higher VED enables denser specimens without
of VED (326 J/mm3 and 435 J/mm3) demonstrates the vari- visible porosity (Fig. 6, S2–S4). However, the increased
ation of surface profile which is given in Fig. 5. VED leads to a mixing zone between the substrate plate and
The recorded average height (at position three) of the sur- the 316L specimens.
face of the third specimen S3 is 525 µm (­ S3a) with stand- The detailed pictures of the marked mixing zones (a–d)
ard deviation of 50 µm. In contrast, the fourth specimen S4 in Fig. 6 are illustrated in Fig. 7.
shows deepening towards to the center of the surface ­(S4a). The enlarged cross sectional view of the 316L specimens
The standard deviation surface flatness of the corresponding shown in Fig. 7 verifies the influence of VED on material
specimen S4 changes approximately between 50 and 60 µm. intermixing. The diffusion zone between the substrate plate

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486 Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493

Fig. 2  a Experimental setup for the modular LBPF system in the laser
robot cell. b Image of a molten layer of 316L powder

Fig. 4  S1 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer

topography of 316L specimen S1 surface after ten layers for process
parameters of P = 150 W, v = 600 mm/s (VED = 109 J/mm3). S1a
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen S1.
S1b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in S
­ 1a for speci-
men S1. S2 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer
topography of 316L specimen S2 surface after ten layers for process
parameters of P = 200 W, v = 300 mm/s (VED = 290 J/mm3). S2a
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen S2.
S2b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in S
­ 2a for speci-
Fig. 3  Optical microscope overview image of the fabricated 316L men S2
specimens surfaces after ten layers varying laser power and laser
beam velocity. The marked specimens S1–S4 are used for subsequent
investigations

mixed zone with intermetallic and brittle phases would be

and the 316L layers extends with an increase of VED. At a generated.
low VED, the boundary between the 316L layers and the
substrate plate is clearly visible, however the specimen in 4.2 Parameter study with Bronze
Fig. 6 S1 has lack of fusion pores and a rough surface. As
the VED increases, the intermixing zone increases (Fig. 7b In Fig. 8, the surfaces of the final manufactured Bronze
and c), resulting in the boundary between the 316L layers specimens during the pre-investigations after ten layers are
and the substrate is no longer being clearly visible (Fig. 7d). given. In Figs. 9, 10, the surfaces of the four selected Bronze
However, a clear material delineation with a minimized but specimens B1-B4 marked in Fig. 8 are given in more detail.
present mixing zone is a fundamental prerequisite for manu- The approximate VED of specimen B1 and B2 is 65 J/mm3
facturing a multi-material layered structure consisting of dis- (minimum) and 105 J/mm3. In case of specimen B3 and
similar materials. Otherwise, the built-up would only stick B4, the approximate VED is 146 J/mm3 and 235 J/mm3
on the surface or, in case of a too high VED, an increased (maximum).

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493 487

The surface topography of the specimens B3

(VED = 146 J/mm3) and B4 (VED = 235 J/mm3) illustrates
a stronger melt compared to the specimens B1 and B2. The
average height of the third specimen B3 is recorded between
320 and 330 µm ­(B3a). The minimum of the standard devia-
tion is 30 µm, measured at position three. The fourth speci-
men B4 shows sharp changes in the surface flatness (­ B4a
and ­B4b). The resultant height at different positions changes
between 350 and 380 µm and at position three, a maximum
standard deviation of approximately 75 µm is recorded
­(B4a).
Compared to 316L, the variation in VED strongly effects
the height and the surface flatness of the fabricated Bronze
specimens. Specimen B3 shows a smooth and even surface
and the average height of the surface remains similar at dif-
ferent positions. At a specific energy input, a further increase
in VED does not provide improved surface flatness as expe-
rienced in the case of 316L. It is observed from specimen
B4 that an increase of VED imposes material accumulations
at certain points which reduces the flatness of the specimen
surface. At a maximum VED, the average height at differ-
ent points of the specimen B4 changes up to approximately
30 µm. However, a lower VED leads to an irregular surface
and porous structures which results in an increased surface
height (Fig. 9). A correlation between the shiny areas of
the specimen surfaces (i.e. see Fig. 8 parameter P = 270 W,
v = 800 mm/s) and the surface roughness could not be found.
The cross sectional views in Fig. 11 signify the density
Fig. 5  S3 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer and also the surface flatness of the corresponding Bronze
topography of 316L specimen S3 surface after ten layers for process
specimens B1–B4.
parameters of P = 300 W, v = 400 mm/s (VED = 326 J/mm3). S3a
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen S3. As discussed above, the cross sectional view of the
S3b) Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in ­S3a for speci- Bronze specimen B1 shows an inhomogeneous and a porous
men S3. S4 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer structure at low VED of 65 J/mm3. Further increase in VED
topography of 316L specimen S4 surface after ten layers for process
reduces the porosity and surface roughness (Fig. 11 B2 and
parameters of P = 300 W, v = 300 mm/s (VED = 435 J/mm3). S4a
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen S4. B3). Whereby higher VED results in an increased mixing
S4b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in S­ 4a for speci- zone between the Bronze layers and the substrate plate
men S4 (Fig. 11 B4).

5 Fabrication of 316L‑Bronze multi‑material

The surfaces of the Bronze specimens B1 (VED = 65 J/ structure
mm3) and B2 (VED = 105 J/mm3) show uneven melted areas
(B1, ­B1b and B2, ­B2b). In case of the second specimen B2, Based on the preliminary investigations of chapter 4.1 and
the surface seems more homogenously melted than the sur- 4.2, suitable laser power and laser beam velocity param-
face of the first specimen B1. The first specimen B1 has eters for the 316L and the Bronze powder material were
an average height of 380 µm (at position three ­B1a) with a determined to fabricate an alternating layered multi-material
standard deviation of 38 µm. The average height of the sec- structure. The selected parameters for the alternating lay-
ond specimen B2 (at position three ­B2a) is recorded 425 µm ers are presented in Table 3. The parameters were selected
with a standard deviation of 50 µm. Further changes of VED regarding to the evenness of the surface, the lowest possi-
shows a variation on the surface profile of the Bronze speci- ble porosity in the built-up material and a low mixing zone
mens as mentioned in Fig. 10. with the underlying (substrate) material. As a result, e.g. the

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Fig. 8  Optical microscope overview image of the fabricated Bronze

specimens surfaces after ten layers varying laser power and laser
beam velocity. The marked specimens B1–B4 are used for subsequent
investigations

Bronze parameter P = 270 W with v = 800 mm/s was used

as this allows a dense build-up and causes little mixing with
the underlying material (Fig. 11) although the parameter
Fig. 6  Optical microscope images of cross sections of the 316L spec- P = 270 W and v = 700 mm/s generates a more even surface
imens S1–S4 shown in Figs. 3, 4, 5. Cross section is performed per- (Fig. 8).
pendicular to the hatching lines. The marked areas (a–d) are used for According to Table 3, initial ten layers of 316L (A) were
subsequent investigations
built on the substrate plate at P = 300 W and v = 400 mm/s
to achieve a fine and smooth 316L surface. For the second

Fig. 7  Optical microscope

images of higher resolution
of the marked areas (a–d) in
Fig. 6 focusing on the mixing
zone between substrate plate
and molten 316L layers of the
cross sectional view of 316L
specimens S1–S4. The dotted
lines indicates the zero level of
substrate plate

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493 489

Fig. 10  B3 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer

Fig. 9  B1 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer
topography of Bronze specimen B3 surface after ten layers for pro-
topography of Bronze specimen B1 surface after ten layers for pro-
cess parameters of P = 270 W, v = 800 mm/s (VED = 146 J/mm3). B3a
cess parameters of P = 120 W, v = 800 mm/s (VED = 65 J/mm3). B1a
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen B3.
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen B1.
B3b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in ­B3a for speci-
B1b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in ­B1a for speci-
men B3. B4 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer
men B1. B2 Optical microscope image with associated profilometer
topography of Bronze specimen B4 surface after 10 layers for pro-
topography of Bronze specimen B2 surface after ten layers for pro-
cess parameters of P = 270 W, v = 500 mm/s (VED = 235 J/mm3). B4a
cess parameters of P = 170 W, v = 700 mm/s (VED = 105 J/mm3). B2a
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen B4.
Average height of the surface at selected positions of specimen B2.
B4b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in ­B4a for speci-
B2b Peaks of the surface at certain position marked in ­B2a for speci-
men B4
men B2

mixing between the materials is minimal due to the adapted

ten layers of 316L (B), P = 250 W and v = 400 mm/s was laser parameters. The dashed section marked area in Fig. 12
selected to avoid a mixing zone between the 316L and the is given in a more detailed image (Fig. 13).
Bronze layer at the interface area and to reduce the energy From Fig. 13, the bottom interaction zone (a) between the
input into the specimen. In case of the Bronze layers, the 316L and the Bronze is even and the amount of the inter-
process parameters were fixed for both layers A and B at mixing areas are minimized. In the second transition zone
P = 270 W and v = 800 mm/s to five layers each. (b), both materials are mixed within approximately 50 µm.
In Fig. 12, the cross section of the layered 316L-Bronze In this 316L layer, micro cracks in the vertical direction are
multi-material structure is given. visible. The reason for the appearance only on the Bronze to
The cross sectional view of the layered 316L-Bronze 316L side may be attributed to following arguments: Bronze
multi-material structure shows that both types of material has a melting point range of approx. 762–930 °C where the
layers have a relatively low porosity. The interfacial bounda- 316L has approx. 1371–1399 °C [13]. If the VED is just
ries of the different material layers are clearly visible and enough to melt up the Bronze slightly over its melting point,

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the 316L is not in the molten state. Vice versa, the tempera- Table 3  Laser parameters and the number of layers for 316L and
ture of the molten 316L leads to a melting process of the Bronze for building the alternating layered structure
Bronze. Due to the mixing of both materials, intermetallic Parameters for alternating layered structure
phases occur. Liu et al. observed cracks at the intermetallic
Material Laser power Laser beam velocity Number
mixing zone in a layered structure of 316L/C18400 (copper (W) (mm/s) of layers
alloy) [35]. Several investigations addressed the formation
of the cracks due to the physical property mismatch (thermal 316L (A) 300 400 10
expansion, heat conduction, etc.) and the infiltration of the 316L (B) 250 400 10
copper into the austenitic grain boundaries in steel. Compa- Bronze (A) 270 800 5
rable vertical cracks in the boundary of the 316L layer as in Bronze (B) 270 800 5
Fig. 13 were found in the work of Chen et al. and Bai et al.
where the cracks were attributed to the thermal expansions
To avoid these crack formations, the following methods
of the used copper alloys which are higher than the 316L
have been successfully demonstrated or proposed in the liter-
[36, 37]. In addition, dendritic cracks which went perpendic-
ature: (I) increasing the heat input to reduce stress by adjust-
ular to the boundary of the interface were generated by the
ing the laser and build-up process [38], optimized process
higher thermal conductivity of the Cu10Sn which concen-
parameter [40] or using a process chamber heating, and (II)
trate the heat in the interface and cause thermal stress [36].
interlayer with a compatible material [39]. An improvement
In investigation on laser metal deposition, it was recognized
should be also achieved by (III) reducing the mixed material
by Makarenko et al. that the different coefficients of thermal
zone and an even transition zone. The minimized roughness
expansion lead to stresses in deformations in the transition
and thus mixing zone may lead to reduced brittle phases,
zone at the grain boundaries of the intermetallic phase [38].
minimized liquid metal embrittlement. However, this theory
Further cooling result in cracks that run vertically into the
still needs to be proven in further studies.
material [39], which also occur in our investigations, Fig. 13.

6 Conclusions

The presented novel modular LPBF system allows the pro-

cessing of different materials and material combinations
with a small amount of powders within one additive manu-
facturing step. The highly flexible LPBF system is usable for
different laser sources and wavelengths, processing optics
and laser cells with high accessibility for process monitoring
devices i.e. sensors, thermography and high speed cameras.
In this research work, an alternating layered multi-
material 316L-Bronze specimen has been manufactured to
demonstrate the purposes of the modular LPBF system. The
parameter studies of the 316L and the Bronze specimens
illustrated the influence of process parameters (especially
the VED) on the surface profile, density and intermetallic
mixing which helps to identify suitable parameters for build-
ing alternating layered multi-material structures. During the
parameter study with 316L, it was found that a higher VED
leads to a flatter surface and a higher specimen density. At
the same time, a too high energy density leads to a strong
mixing with the substrate plate. For Bronze it was found that
increasing the VED also leads to improved specimen den-
sity and flatness. However, if the VED is too high, material
accumulations built-up on the surface and the mixing zone
with the substrate plate increases significantly.
The manufactured layered 316L-Bronze specimen dem-
Fig. 11  Optical microscope images of cross sections of the Bronze onstrate the feasibility of the system to produce multi-
specimens B1–B4 shown in Figs. 8, 9, 10. Cross section is performed material component parts. A material mixing zone at the
perpendicular to the hatching lines

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Progress in Additive Manufacturing (2022) 7:481–493 491

Fig. 12  Optical microscope

image of the cross section of
alternating layered multi-mate-
rial 316L-Bronze specimen.
Cross section is performed
perpendicular to the hatching
lines. The marked area is used
for subsequent investigation

Declarations

Conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest associated with this

publication.

Data availability The raw/processed data required to reproduce these

findings cannot be shared at this time as the data also forms part of an
ongoing study.

Code availability Not applicable.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri-

bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta-
Fig. 13  Optical microscope image of higher resolution of the marked tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
area in Fig. 12. The marked areas (a) and (b) are used for subsequent as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
investigations provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
interface area and some micro cracks in the 316L layer have
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
been investigated in the fabricated layered multi-material permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
structure. The reason why the cracks result exclusively in need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
the 316L layer is (I) the significantly higher melting point copy of this licence, visit http://​creat​iveco​mmons.​org/​licen​ses/​by/4.​0/.
of 316L compared to bronze, which results in mixing when
316L is built-up on a bronze layer, (II) different thermal
expansions, which causes cracks to build-up during solid- References
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