2021-final

1.
a. A given IP address space is 147.38.0.0/16. The required number of subnets is 400.
Now perform a subnetting operation where you must find the number of subnets,
subnet, usable range, address, and broadcast address.
Answer: MID-2022

b. What is Fragmentation? Differentiate between Hub and Bridge with the

necessary example.
Answer:
Fragmentation is the process of dividing large data packets into smaller
fragments for transmission over networks with different size constraints, ensuring
successful delivery and reassembly at the receiving end.

Differentiate between Hub and Bridge:

c. What is a physical address? Describe different types of HDLC frames.

Answer:
A physical address, also known as a MAC (Media Access Control) address, is a
unique identifier assigned to network interfaces for communication within a
network. It is a hardware address embedded in the network interface card (NIC) of
a device and is used to uniquely identify devices on a network at the data link
layer of the OSI model.

HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) is a synchronous data link layer protocol
used for communication between network devices. HDLC frames are structured
units of data used for transmitting information over a network. There are different
types of HDLC frames, including:

Information Frames (I-Frames): These frames carry user data and control
information for error detection and flow control.

Supervisory Frames (S-Frames): These frames are used for flow and error control,
such as acknowledging received frames or requesting retransmission.

Unnumbered Frames (U-Frames): These frames are used for control purposes,
such as link establishment and disconnection.

Each type of HDLC frame serves a specific purpose in managing the flow of data
and ensuring reliable communication between network devices.

2.
a. What is Authentication? Describe the frame format of IEEE 802.3 along with
frame size.
Answer:
Authentication is the process of verifying the identity of a user or system
attempting to access a network or system. It ensures that only authorized users
or devices are granted access to resources and services, protecting the network
from unauthorized access and potential security threats.

IEEE 802.3, also known as Ethernet, is a widely used standard for wired Ethernet
networks. The frame format of IEEE 802.3 includes the following components:

Preamble: A sequence of alternating 1s and 0s that indicates the start of the

frame and helps synchronize the receiving device.

Start Frame Delimiter (SFD): A specific bit sequence that indicates the end of the
preamble and the start of the frame's data.

Destination MAC Address: The MAC address of the intended recipient of the
frame.

Source MAC Address: The MAC address of the sender of the frame.

Length/Type: Indicates the length of the data field or specifies the type of
protocol data contained in the frame.
Data: The actual payload or data being transmitted.

Frame Check Sequence (FCS): A checksum value used for error detection to
ensure the integrity of the frame during transmission.

The frame size of IEEE 802.3 Ethernet frames can vary between 64 bytes (minimum)
and 1518 bytes (maximum), excluding the preamble and SFD. If the frame size is
less than 64 bytes, it is padded to meet the minimum frame size requirement. The
maximum frame size includes the data, FCS, and other headers.

b. Define Mobile IP. Briefly explain the working principle of DNS resolver.
Answer:
Mobile IP (Internet Protocol) is a protocol that enables mobile devices to maintain
continuous network connectivity while moving between different network
domains. It allows mobile devices, such as smartphones or laptops, to change
their network attachment point without losing ongoing communications, making
it ideal for users who frequently switch between different networks or locations.

The working principle of a DNS resolver involves the following steps:

1. Domain Name Resolution Request: When a user enters a domain name (e.g.,
www.example.com) in a web browser, the DNS resolver on the user's device initiates
a request to resolve the domain name to its corresponding IP address.

2. Query to DNS Server: The DNS resolver sends a query to a DNS server, either a
recursive resolver or authoritative server, to obtain the IP address associated with
the domain name.

3. Recursive Resolution: If the DNS resolver is a recursive resolver, it recursively

queries multiple DNS servers until it obtains the IP address of the requested
domain name.

4. Caching: The resolved IP address is cached by the DNS resolver to improve

future lookup performance and reduce the need for repeated queries.

5. Response to User: Once the IP address is obtained, the DNS resolver returns
the result to the user's device, allowing the device to establish a connection to the
desired website or service.

In summary, a DNS resolver is responsible for translating domain names into IP

addresses, enabling users to access websites and services on the internet using
user-friendly domain names rather than numerical IP addresses.
c. Mention the importance of IP. Distinguish between a substitution cipher and a
transposition cipher.
c. Mention the importance of IP. Distinguish between a substitution cipher and a
transposition cipher.
Answer:
The importance of IP (Internet Protocol) lies in its role of providing unique
addressing, enabling routing and data transmission, supporting interoperability
and scalability, facilitating internet connectivity, and contributing to network
security.

3.
a. What is the Transmission Control Protocol? If user A wants to send an email to
user B, explain the full operation of how user A sends the email, how the email
travels through the channel, and how user B reads the mail.
Answer:
The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a core protocol in the Internet Protocol
suite that provides reliable, connection-oriented communication between devices
on a network. TCP ensures that data packets are delivered in order, without errors,
and with congestion control.

Here is an explanation of how user A sends an email to user B using TCP:

Establishing a Connection:
● User A's email client initiates a TCP connection to the email server hosting
user A's email account.
● The TCP connection is established through a three-way handshake process
where user A's client and the server exchange SYN and ACK packets to
synchronize and establish a connection.
Sending the Email:
● User A's email client composes the email and sends it to the email server
over the established TCP connection.
● The email server receives the email data in packets and acknowledges the
receipt of each packet to ensure data integrity.

Routing and Delivery:

● The email server processes the email, performs routing based on user B's
email address, and forwards the email to the email server hosting user B's
email account.
● The email data packets travel through the network infrastructure, passing
through routers and switches to reach user B's email server.

Receiving and Reading the Email:

● User B's email server receives the email data packets and reassembles
them in the correct order.
● User B's email client retrieves the email from the email server using a TCP
connection and displays it for user B to read.

Closing the Connection:

● Once the email transfer is complete, the TCP connections between user A's
client and the email server, as well as between user B's client and the email
server, are closed.

In summary, TCP ensures the reliable transmission of email data between user A
and user B by establishing a connection, sending the email data in packets,
routing the email through the network, and enabling user B to read the email
upon receipt.

b. What is Flooding? Describe the working principle of the link-state routing

algorithm.
Answer:
Flooding is a simple but inefficient routing technique where a router broadcasts
a received data packet to all its outgoing links except the one it arrived on. This
means the packet is potentially sent to multiple destinations, even if only one is
the intended recipient.

The link-state routing algorithm operates on the principle that each router has
complete information about the network topology. Here’s a concise description of
its working principle:

1. Topology Discovery: Each router discovers its immediate neighbors and the
cost of reaching them. This information is collected through "Hello" packets
exchanged between directly connected routers.
2. Link-State Advertisement (LSA): Routers generate Link-State Advertisements,
which contain information about their neighbors and the associated link costs.
These LSAs are flooded throughout the network to ensure all routers have a
consistent view of the topology.

3. Topology Database: Each router maintains a topology database, which is a

complete map of the network based on the received LSAs. This database is
identical for all routers in the network.

4. Shortest Path Calculation: Using the Dijkstra algorithm, each router calculates
the shortest path to every other router in the network. The shortest path tree is
derived from the topology database.

5. Routing Table Update: The results of the shortest path calculation are used to
update the routing table, which determines the best next hop for each
destination.

By maintaining an accurate and up-to-date map of the network and calculating

the most efficient routes, the link-state routing algorithm ensures optimal data
forwarding.

c. Define Reserved and Restricted Addresses. Differentiate between IPV4 and

IPV6.
Answer: 2022 - [quiz + mid]

4.
a. Classify Gigabit Ethernet. Does an SNMP manager run a client SNMP program
or a server SNMP program?
Answer:
Gigabit Ethernet (GbE) can be classified as follows:

Based on Medium:

● Copper:
○ 1000BASE-T: Cat 5e or higher, up to 100 meters.
○ 1000BASE-CX: Special copper cabling, up to 25 meters.
● Fiber:
○ 1000BASE-SX: Multi-mode fiber, up to 550 meters.
○ 1000BASE-LX: Single-mode fiber, up to 5 kilometers.
○ 1000BASE-LH: Single-mode fiber, up to 10 kilometers or more.
○ 1000BASE-ZX: Single-mode fiber, up to 70 kilometers.

Based on Standards:

● IEEE 802.3ab: Standard for 1000BASE-T.

● IEEE 802.3z: Standard for fiber-based GbE (1000BASE-X, including SX, LX).
b. A company is granted the site address 201.70.64.0. The company needs 6
subnets. Design the subnet with the necessary diagram.
Answer: To design subnets for the given site address 201.70.64.0 with a requirement
of 6 subnets, we'll follow these steps:
c. What is Fast Ethernet? Explain the working principle of the Application
Adaptation Layer (AAL) of ATM.
Answer:
Fast Ethernet physical layers carry traffic at the nominal rate of 100 Mbit/s. The
prior Ethernet speed was 10 Mbit/s.

The Application Adaptation Layer (AAL) in ATM adapts higher-layer protocols for
ATM transmission. Here's its working principle in short:

Segmentation and Reassembly (SAR):

● Segmentation: Breaks higher-layer data into 48-byte chunks for ATM cells.
● Reassembly: Combines 48-byte chunks back into original data at the
destination.

Data Classification: Different AAL types handle different traffic:

● AAL1: For constant bit rate (CBR) services (e.g., voice, video).
● AAL2: For variable bit rate (VBR) services (e.g., compressed voice/video).
● AAL5: For connection-oriented data services (e.g., IP over ATM).

Error Handling: Uses mechanisms like CRC for error detection and ensuring data
integrity.

AAL ensures efficient and reliable transport of various types of traffic over ATM
networks.