Carbon steels are classified as follows:

( ) Low carbon steels or mild steels.

(ii) Medium carbon steels.
(ii) High carbon steels.
Table 3.2. Composition, Properties and Uses of Carbon Steels
Types of Steel Carbon (%age) |Tensile strength(MN/m") Uses
Below 0. 320 to 400 Galvanished plates, tin
Wires.
plates and

Mild Steels 0.1 to 0.18 400 to 450 Boile plates/ships plates, case
(good for welding)
hardening for gear wheels, cams.
0.15 to 0.25 400 to 500 General engineering purposes, crank
axles, shafting.
0.25 to 0.35 500 to 600 Hydraulic cylinders, rams, turbine
motor shafts, spindles.
Medium carbon 0.35 to 0.45 550 to 700 Rails, turbine discs,
steels
connecting rods,y
railway and tram axles.
0.45 to 0.55 700 to 850 Rifle barrels, gun parts, shells, gear
wheels.
High carbon 0.55 to 0.65 800 to 950 Die blocks, gears, wheels tyres and
steels mandrels.
0.65 to 0.75 950 to 1100 Hammers, crusher rolls, general tools.
0.75 to 085 950 to 110 Hand chisels, scissors and ball mill
. parts.
0.85 to 1.5 950 to 1100 Drills, taps, ball races, dies and wood
tools.
1.0 to 1.3 850 to 1050 Razors, drills, tools and wire dies.

3.12. CoMPARISON OF CAST IRON, WROUGHT IRON, MILD STEEL AND

HARD STEEL
Table 3.3. Comparison of Cast Iron, Wrought Iron, Mild Steel and Hard Steel.
S.No. Cast Iron Wrought Iron Mild Steel Hard Steel
(Low carbon steel) (High carbon steel)
A. It contains 2 to 5% Pufrest form of iron Contains 0.08 to
carbon. 0.35%| Contains0.55 to 1.3%
containing 0 to 0.25% | carbon. carbon.
carbon.
2. It has a
crystalline Fibrous structure of Bright fibrous struc- Fine granular structure.
coarse granular bluish colour. ture.
structure.
3. Hard and brittle Tough and more Tought and more Tough and more
elastic than cast iron. elastic than wrought iron elastic than mild steel.
4
Can be hardened Can neither be
by Can be hardened and Can be hardened and
heating and sudden hardened nor tempered but not tempered readily.
cooling but cannot tempered.
be tempered. easily.
112 Engineering Materials and Metallurou

5. Can neither be Can be easily forged Can be readily forged Cannot be casily
forged nor welded. and welded. and welded. forged and welded,

6. Cannot be magnetised.| Can be temporarily Can be permanently Can be permanently

magnetised. magnetised. magnetised.
Melting point = Melting point =
7. Melting point= Melting point 1300°C.
1200°C. 1530°C 1400°C.
and Malleable and ductile. Brittle and less ductile
8. Neither malleable nor Very malleable than mild steel.
ductile. ductile

Does Rusts more rapidly Rusts readily. Rusts rapidly.

not rust
easily
than cast iron.
Absorbs shocks. Absorbs shocks.
10.1 Cannot absorb shocks. Can stand sudden and
excessive shocks.

11. Tensile strength fair Tensile strength better Tensile strength is Both tensile and
and compressive and compressive better than cast iron compressive strength
strength good. strength less than cast and wrought iron while better than cast iron,
1on. compressive strength wrought iron and mild
better than wrought steel.
iron but less than cast
iron.

12. Becomes soft in salty Stands salty water Not much affected by Not much affected by
water. better than cast iron. salty water. salty water.

Uses: (i) It is used for| () It is used for (Used for all kinds () Used for dies,
making bed plates, making rolled iron of structural work in cutlery and edge tools.
columns, rail chairs, joints, angle iron etc. bridges and buildings,
brackets and machine for making channels,
parts not subjected to griders, rails, angle
heavy shocks or iron etc.
tension.
(ii) As it does not rust| (ii) Since it can (ii) Also used for (ii) Also used in
easily so it is used for | withstand shock it may rivets, bolts, wire, prestresS concrete.
making sewers, drain be used for crane tapes and for making
pipes, water pipes etc.| hooks, chains,railway sheets.
couplings etc.
(ii) As it is poor in (ii) Also used for small
tension, therefore least| size water pipes fitings
suitable for structural| corrugated sheets, cores
purposes. of electromagnets etc.

3.13 ALLOY STEELS

When certain special properties are desired some elements such as nickel, chromium,
manganese, vanadium, tungsten etc. are added to the carbon steels. The steels thus obtained are
called alloy steels.
The first investigation on the effect of alloying elements in steel was made from 1875 to
1890. But the use of alloyed steels found little
made their use practicable.
application until 1901, when reduced cost of alloys
THe alloying elements are added to accomplish one or more
of the following:
T o impart a fine grain size to steel.
To improve
casehardening properties.
To improve elasticity.
 Ferrous and Non-ferrous Metals

113
To improve corrosion and
fatigue resistance.
To improve hardness, toughness
and tensile strength.
.To improve machinability etc.
The Effects Alloying Elements :
of

Metal Remarks
Nickel creases toughness.
Improves response to heat
treatment especially in large sections.
.In large amounts, provides special electrical and
Improves forming properties of stainless steel.
magnetic properties.
Chromium Provides stainless property in steel.
Used widely in tool steels and in electric plates.
Manganese Improves properties and response to heat treatment.
Provides control of structure.
Used in high speed tool steels.

hngsten Retention of hardness and toughness at high temperature.

Used in tools, dies, valves, magnets etc.
Silicon Provides high electrical resistance and magnetic permeability used in
otasa

electrical machinery.
Copper I n small amounts improves atmospheric corrosion resistance.
Some of the important alloys are discussed below:
Silicon Steel:
Silicon improves considerably the electrical properties ofsteel
Silicon imparts fatigue strength and resistance to steel.
Steel containing silicon is more ductile than a plain carbon steel.
Steel containing 3.5 per cent silicon has very low magnetic hysteresis.
Uses: 1. Steel with Mn =
1%, Si =
2%, C= 0.4 to 0.6% has very high elastic limit and is used
for springs.
and
2. With Cr = 2 to 4%, C
5 to 7%, Si = 0,4 to 0.5%, steel retains its hardness
=

for internal combustion

resistance to oxidation even at red heat. Such steel is used
engines. and
of carbon
3. Silicon steel containing 2.5 to 49% silicon and low percentage
for making laminations electrical machines.
of
manganese is employed
so is used in
high corrosion resistance and
4 13% silicon content steel has a very

chemical industries.
I% silicon and 0.75 to 0.95% manganese
is
used tor
.Steel containing 0.6 to

structural purposes.
High Speed Tool Steels: hardness must be
i g h speed tool steels are widely used for cutting of metals where
retained at elevated emperatures)
vanadium, cobalt and
These steels are obtained by alloying tungsten, chromium,
remain hard at
molybdenum with steel. This alloying produces metals which is l8%
emperatures at which normal steels become quite soft.
A cojnmon analysis
 Engineering Materlals and Metalur
114 rgy
vanadium with a carbon conlent of 0.6 1o
0.7%, Thi,
tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% to 0.2% produces 18:4.
an increasc of vanadium
alloy is termed as 18: 4:I while 4 l and 18: 4:2 stecl
as it improves the red
steels. Cobalt is often added to 18:
to 10% is used.
hardness and cutting ability; from 5
of tungsten, this bein.
steel contains a lower percentage
Another class of high speed
this type is being increasingly use
Sed
of molybdenum; stecl of
compensated by the addition
oday. high speed steels have the desirable properties of hio
ln addition to heat resistance, resistance. They areclo.
and outstanding wear
Osc
hardness, high compressive strength material such drills, reamers, milin
competitors to carbides for metal cutting-tool
as
ling
cutters etc.

Heat Resistance Steels

high at temperatures musi
contain molybdenum
Steels which must be resistant to creep
resistance to oxidation and scaling.
Silicon and chrominum impart
temperature are:C=0.15%
Steels which are satisfactory upto about 700°C operating
Cr I.0 to 6%, Mo 0.5%* =

20%, Mn 0.5% max., Ni =none,

=
max.. Si = 0.5 to =

Uses: These are used in the as-rolled or as-forged

condition, particularly for the valves of
intermal combustion engines. For higher temperatures upto 1000°C, steels containing

used.
upto 22% nickel and 26% chromium are

Spring Steels:
1. Carbon-manganese spring steels:
C 0.45 to 0.65%
Si = 0.1 to 0.359%

Mn 0.5 to 1.0%
These steels are quenched and tempered to give a Brinell, hardness of about 350.
Uses: They are widely used are for laminated springs for railway and general purposes.
2. Hyper-eutectoid spring steels:
C 0.9 to 1.2%; Si =0.30% max.; Mn = 0.45 to 0.70%.

. These steels are oil quenched and tempered at a low temperature

Uses: They are used for volute and helical springs.

3. Silicon-manganese spring steels:

C =0.33 to 0.6% Si = 1.5 to 2%; Mn 0.6 to 1.0%
These steels are hardened and tempered to give a Brinell hardness of about 450.
Uses: Employed for the manufacture of railway and road springs generally.
Stainless Stee:
The stainless steels are
classified in two groups
1.Plain chromium and high chromium low nickel steel.
2. Chromium nickel steel.
1. Plain chromium and high chromium low nickel steel:
Out of the group the former has C 0.8% and Cr 12 to
0.1 to 0.2%; Cr = 12 to 20% and Ni = 2%.
= =
20%, whilst the latter has C
These steels can be heat-treated.
Used for dies, valves and cutlery
 and Non-ferrous Metals
Ferrouk

115
nickel steel:
Chromium
.
Thesesteels are non-magnetic and cannot be hardened.
They have varieties due to the varying contents of
chromium and nickel
12:2 and 18 :9 (called stay bride). Small respectivelv e o

molybdenum is added to these steels. quantity of copper, tungsten and

hov have high resistance to corrosion and may be cold or hot
brazed or soldered. worked, pressed welded.
The percentage of carbon in these steels is kept upto 0.5.
These steels are poor conductor of heat and electricity.
Chrome Vanadium Steels:

These steels usually contain 0.8 to 1.1%o Cr, 0.25 to 0.33 C and less than 0,25%
V. ven
cuch a small amount of v has marked effect on the properties of steel. It
in
nroducing cleaner steel because of the deoxidising action. Vanadium is distributed both
helps
between the ferrite and the carbide involving both. Cr intensifies the effect of V more
than that of Ni.
Chrome-vanadium steels are used where great strength, toughness and resistance to
fatigue are required, such as axles and shafts of aeroplanes, automobiles and
locomotives.

Nickel Steel:
The percentage of nickel varies from 2 to 40.
Nickel from 3 to 5% raises elastic limit and improves toughness.
Steel containing 20% nickel has very high tensile strength.
I f nickel is present upto 27% it makes the steel non-magnetic and non-corrodible.
Nickel containing 3.5% nickel and 0.15% to 0.45% carbon has good ductility. high
elastic ratio and resistance to fatigue. It is used for long span bridges.
Invar (Ni = 36%) and super-invar (Ni = 31%) are the popular materials for lea
efficient of expansion and are used for measuring instruments, surveyor tapes and clock
pendulums.
Nickel tends to retard the grain growth in steel, resulting in a wide range ofheating
Without damage to the steel, or it may be maintained above the critical range for long

periods of time without great damage.

The addition of nickel to annealed carbon steel apparently strengthens the ferrite, with
the result that the endurance ratio is raised. The full effect of nickel on the endurance

ratio, however, is obtained only by quenching and tempering.

Vanadium Steel:
Addition of vanadium even in small proportion to an ordinary low carbon S e

Considerably raises its elastic limit and improves the fatigue resistance property.
raised by SU0,
when vanadium is added upto 0,25%; the elastic limit of the steel is
and severe snoCKS.
Comes exceedingly tough and can resist high aternating stresses
Vanadium makes the steel strong and more ductile
tensle
withC 0.15% to 1.1%, Cr 0.5 to t.5% and V = 0.15 to 0.3% has high
eel = =

Strength, elastic limit, endurance limit and ductility.

Improves response to heat treatment.
Provides control of structure.